Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Imagine the world as if you are a krill in the Southern Ocean, where any moment a torpedo-shaped penguin could appear, devouring thousands of your fellow krill at lightning speed. Now, new research suggests that even the faintest hint of penguin droppings in the water is enough to prompt krill into escape behavior.



“Here we show for the first time that a small amount of penguin guano causes a sudden change in the feeding and swimming behaviors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-satellites-track-antarctic-krill-are-these-tiny-ocean-shrimp-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic krill</a>,” said Nicole Hellessey, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences</a> in Maine.



Antarctic krill play a vital role in the Southern Ocean. They serve as a major carbon sink and provide food for a large array of species, from penguins to whales. 



By some estimates, approximately 700 trillion adult Antarctic krill still swim these frigid waters, though their populations have drifted further south over time, likely due to climate change, diminishing sea ice, and acidifying ocean conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-penguin-poop-to-krill-behavior">Linking penguin poop to krill behavior</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-poop-can-be-used-to-store-carbon-in-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zooplankton</a> are highly sensitive to chemical cues - from signals guiding them to food or potential mates to indicators of pollution. Hellessey and her colleagues sought to determine whether krill also react to the scent of predators. 



Their study zeroed in on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adelie-penguins-use-sea-ice-to-migrate-thousands-of-miles-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adélie penguins</a>, the southernmost-breeding penguin species, which depend on Antarctic krill for 99.6% of their diet. An adult Adélie can consume as much as 1.6 kilograms of krill each day, and the global Adélie population collectively devours around 1.5 million tons per year.



Researchers aboard the vessels Laurence M Gould and Nathaniel B Palmer in the Bransfield Strait in late 2022 netted live Antarctic krill, which they then placed in aquaria at Palmer Station. 



Meanwhile, bird researchers had collected 78 grams of Adélie guano from a colony on Torgersen Island off the Antarctic Peninsula near Palmer Station. “Smells like rotten shellfish. Not pleasant to handle,” said Hellessey, describing the guano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abrupt-behavior-shifts-in-krill">Abrupt behavior shifts in krill</h2>



To test the krill’s reaction to the guano, the scientists ran trials using six to eight krill per five-minute session in a flume tank held at 1.5°C, with lights dimmed to simulate conditions at about 40 meters below the surface - the most productive layer in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Ocean</a>. 



Water flowed through the flume at either 3 centimeters or 5.9 centimeters per second, and it contained either algae alone, penguin guano alone, or both combined. Each setup was tested four times.



The researchers used two automated cameras to record the movements of four krill during each trial, capturing precise data on each animal’s 3D position as well as speed and swimming direction.



The data revealed that in control settings, krill generally practiced “rheotaxis,” swimming straight upstream against the current. 



But in the presence of Adélie guano, their behavior shifted abruptly: they began to vary their swimming speed more, reaching between 1.2 and 1.5 times their usual pace, and they performed three times as many turns - over an angle that was on average 1.4 times greater than before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-make-sacrifices-to-avoid-penguins">Krill make sacrifices to avoid penguins</h2>



A second experiment showed that guano in the water caused krill to reduce their algae consumption by 64%, plunging from 12.7 micrograms of carbon per hour per krill to 4.6 micrograms. 



This indicates that the frequent changes in swimming direction came at a cost, making them less efficient at feeding.



The researchers interpreted these dramatic differences in speed and direction as part of an avoidance response. 



“Such behavior to escape from nearby penguins would greatly increase the krill’s odds of survival. And these odds would increase exponentially in a swarm, if their neighbors could detect the same cues and communicate the danger to each other,” Hellessey said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-the-chemical-trigger">Investigating the chemical trigger</h2>



Though the team uncovered the behavioral shift, it is still unclear which specific compounds from penguin guano set off these alarms for krill.&nbsp;



“We hypothesize that Antarctic krill are avoiding the odor of ground-up krill and fish in the penguins’ guano. We thus expect krill to show similar swimming behaviors and suppressed feeding around seals, whales, and other types of krill predators in Antarctica,” Hellessey noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-signals-in-a-warming-ocean">Krill signals in a warming ocean</h2>



Given that these signals and their resulting behaviors occur in the often vast Southern Ocean, open-water conditions could dilute the cues and alter how krill respond. Moreover, warming oceans and acidification may alter how effectively these cues travel or how quickly the krill can respond.&nbsp;



“We don’t yet know how the ability of krill to sense these chemical cues and their escape behavior towards them might vary when diluted in open waters, or under global warming or ocean acidification conditions," said Hellessey. 



"Any changes to krill’s behavior could have major impacts on the future Southern Ocean, as Antarctic krill are a keystone species in this ecosystem."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-broader-ecological-shifts">Predicting broader ecological shifts</h2>



Ultimately, this study adds an important layer to our knowledge of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey interactions</a> in polar waters. As climate shifts reshape the Southern Ocean, understanding how krill perceive and react to predator signals may help predict broader ecological shifts.&nbsp;



If krill alter their movements and feeding drastically, it could influence entire marine food webs and carbon cycling processes - a reminder that even simple chemical cues can produce outsized effects on oceanic ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1508287" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Just a whiff of penguin poop can send krill into a frenzy

Imagine the world as if you are a krill in...

Trees and parks not only add open, pleasant spaces to cities but also boost human health in multiple ways, from filtering air pollution to providing shade and cooling down hot urban areas. 



Many governments worldwide have announced bold plans to plant more trees over the coming years, partly due to climate change and rising temperatures. However, in heavily built-up cities, finding room for additional green spaces remains a pressing challenge.&nbsp;



The question becomes: How can municipalities best arrange trees in existing green zones to achieve maximum benefit?



That question has drawn the attention of researchers and city planners alike, who must factor in specific local conditions such as geography and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-are-largely-unprepared-for-the-effects-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-trees-and-human-health">Linking trees and human health</h2>



Investigators at <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a> have turned their focus to this issue not just within Switzerland, but also across Asia.&nbsp;



Through the work of a team from the <a href="https://fcl.ethz.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Future Cities Lab</a>, a program run in Singapore by ETH Zurich and the <a href="https://www.nus.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National University of Singapore</a> (NUS), researchers uncovered surprising connections between the way cities manage their trees and the general health status of residents.



The researchers’ first step involved analyzing high-resolution data on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-cities-lack-sufficient-canopy-cover-despite-visible-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree canopy</a> coverage within a 500-meter radius of each person’s home.&nbsp;



Beyond calculating the total area of tree clusters, they assessed how near these clusters were to each other, how they connected, how complex their shapes were, and how fragmented they appeared.



They then linked these details to survival data - specifically, the time to natural-cause deaths (due to age or disease) - for more than six million adults.&nbsp;



The records were provided by the Swiss Federal Statistical Office, which covered a decade from 2010 to 2019. To maintain privacy, the Federal Statistical Office had rounded each individual’s home coordinates to the nearest 50 meters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-canopy-cover-and-mortality-rates-nbsp">Tree canopy cover and mortality rates&nbsp;</h2>



Through careful data analysis, the researchers discovered that the extent of a neighborhood’s tree canopy and its layout were associated with mortality rates.&nbsp;



The study showed a significantly lower risk of death among residents living in areas with larger, more cohesive, and better-connected tree coverage, compared to those where the coverage was more fragmented or exhibited complex shapes.&nbsp;



This link was particularly clear in densely populated peri-urban or urban zones marked by poor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-quality-in-europe-has-improved-over-the-past-two-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> and high temperatures. In such environments, efficiently structured forested spaces might deliver stronger health advantages than in more dispersed contexts.



Even though the findings offer an insightful initial glimpse, the researchers maintain that it is premature to pinpoint specific causes. They cannot yet say with certainty how tree canopy configuration positively affects people’s well-being.&nbsp;



Still, at the individual level, their outcomes broadly align with similar studies performed at the community level in Philadelphia, Tehran, and Taipei.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-isolated-green-spaces">Connecting isolated green spaces</h2>



Dengkai Chi is a postdoctoral researcher at the ETH Future Cities Lab and the study’s first author.



“Although we can’t yet define a direct causal link, when we have addressed factors such as age, gender and socio-economic status, the data shows clear correlations. Our results provide plausible indications that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-marine-protected-areas-boost-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human health</a> may be influenced not only by the quantity of trees but also by their spatial distribution,” said Chi.



These results demonstrate the value of considering carefully how trees are arranged. By deliberately planning a city’s green areas, officials can possibly extract greater health benefits for residents. 



“In order to fully exploit trees’ potential to support human health, cities should strive to not only increase the number of trees but also to connect isolated green spaces - including by creating tree-lined boulevards,” Chi said.



Interestingly, the study indicates that simpler, more compact patches of tree canopy - for instance, circular or rectangular shapes - might have a more beneficial health effect compared to complex, scattered forms.&nbsp;



One plausible reason is that simpler geometries yield bigger central zones, encourage ecological diversity, and possibly spur people to visit these green spaces more frequently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-standards-for-urban-greening-initiatives-nbsp">Standards for urban greening initiatives&nbsp;</h2>



Despite these early observations, the researchers acknowledge that significant work remains. "We’re still at the very outset of this research,” Chi said. 



Multiple important factors could not be included in the study, such as pre-existing illnesses, smoking status, or whether individuals actually use local parks. Furthermore, the results apply to neighborhood scales and might not hold uniformly for an entire city.



Initial clues suggest that across a broader city, the effect on health might correlate with how fairly green spaces are distributed, ensuring that a large share of the population can reach them easily.&nbsp;



The team hopes to explore these aspects in further research, aiming to clarify the relationships between green space organization and health.



Chi points out that in developing policy suggestions for officials and planners, the research team will need to produce more quantitative assessments and identify precise thresholds. Such work could help define actionable standards for urban greening initiatives.



Overall, the study provides further confirmation that green infrastructure does not solely beautify urban settings but may also be tied to tangible health benefits.&nbsp;



As climate change urges administrators to plant more trees and as cities become increasingly crowded, focusing on the strategic placement and design of tree canopies may become just as critical as planting them in the first place.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(25)00022-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



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Urban tree layout influences human health and mortality rates

Trees and parks not only add open, pleasant spaces to...

New research highlights how certain storms can briefly transform parts of the Sahara into watery landscapes. Scientists have long been curious about occasional lakes in this desert, which is usually considered too dry to sustain these features for long.



The study involved meticulous analysis of rare flooding patterns in northwestern Algeria.



The research was led by Dr. Moshe Armon from the Institute of Earth Sciences at <a href="https://www.studyinjerusalem.com/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=cpc&amp;utm_campaign=US+ALO+Google+Search&amp;utm_content=Brand&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjwnPS-BhBxEiwAZjMF0oGGYSkwUHMUnpDuPfeYKd8UHEwdldQR_xZB8s7sLLV6EnQ-UqrOsRoCz1gQAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University</a> and Dr. Franziska Aemisegger from <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a>, in collaboration with colleagues at University of Haifa and ETH Zurich.



The team investigated how strong rainfall events can temporarily fill a usually empty lake called <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/36093/sebkhat-el-melah-tunisia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sebkha el Melah</a>, challenging older ideas about how moisture used to reach the desert in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saudi-arabia-is-turning-degraded-desert-sand-into-blooming-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-causes-rare-desert-lakes">What causes rare desert lakes?</h2>



Rain rarely falls in this region. The researchers wanted to see why short-lived lakes still appear now and then. They collected satellite data on heavy-precipitation events (<a href="https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-heavy-precipitation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HPEs</a>) and mapped out when those storms coincided with significant increases in lake volume. 



“Results show that hundreds of HPEs occurred between 2000 and 2021, but only six LFEs (Lake-Filling Events) eventuated,” noted the study authors. 



These episodes involved exceptionally intense storms that bypassed the usual rain shadow of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlas-Mountains" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atlas Mountains</a> and carried oceanic moisture deep into the desert.



The scientists observed that <a href="https://www.undrr.org/understanding-disaster-risk/terminology/hips/mh0031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extratropical cyclones</a> along the Atlantic coast are an important driver. These weather patterns can pull in huge amounts of water vapor and direct it around the high terrain.



The moisture sometimes bounces through the Sahara, where it evaporates from falling raindrops that never reach the ground. The damp air then travels on, leading to a domino effect that amplifies water availability over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-storms-fill-the-desert-lake">Intense storms fill the desert lake</h2>



Most rain systems lose intensity over the Atlas Mountains. When these storms are powerful enough and last for several days, the wind can navigate around higher ground before dropping rainfall into the normally parched basin. 



Slower-moving cyclones can create heavier precipitation by allowing more moisture to flow into the desert.



Climate experts say such storms are more common during autumn and winter, though they occasionally happen in other seasons. The repeated appearance of these systems is crucial. A single day of light showers is not enough to fill a desert lake. 



Multiple days of downpours, mixed with local convection and large-scale air lifting, seem necessary to generate the runoff that finally pools into Sebkha el Melah.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-warming-scenarios">Future warming scenarios </h2>



The researchers also considered how rising temperatures might affect storm behavior. Some models predict an increase in moisture transport toward the Sahara under certain warming scenarios.



Any uptick in storm frequency or intensity could temporarily boost the region’s water resources. This does not promise permanent greenery, but it raises questions about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oases-grow-by-human-effort-but-face-threats-from-desertification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert habitats</a> and human activities might adapt if such precipitation patterns become more frequent.



Another surprise is that the rare flooding of Sebkha el Melah in September 2024 aligns with the same large-scale <a href="https://ugc.berkeley.edu/background-content/atmospheric-circulation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric patterns</a>. 



Landsat imagery from <a href="https://worldview.earthdata.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Worldview</a> confirmed that heavy rainfall again pushed Atlantic moisture far into the desert, mirroring what had been seen in previous lake-filling events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-long-term-climate-shifts">Implications for long-term climate shifts</h2>



The researchers note that rainfall alone does not explain historical wet periods. They think massive storms, along with more frequent short-term flood events, may have shaped past moisture levels in the Sahara.



These findings add depth to the debate over how certain parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-desert-moss-might-help-humans-live-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert</a> were once dotted with wetland habitats. The research also emphasizes the importance of understanding not just annual rainfall, but the specific kinds of storms likely to deliver enough water all at once.



The team calculated how each flood event translated into changes in the lake’s volume. Despite hundreds of storms over two decades, only the most powerful ones made a real difference.



This suggests that future projections about water availability should focus on both storm intensity and the pathways moisture takes, rather than looking solely at average rainfall statistics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grasping-changes-in-harsh-environments">Grasping changes in harsh environments</h2>



The team applied meteorological reanalysis, satellite data, and field expertise to confirm that mixing science disciplines is necessary to grasp changes in harsh environments. 



There is a sense of urgency when thinking about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-desert-plants-are-not-immune-to-crop-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert</a> communities and the fragile ecosystems relying on sporadic water sources. Shifts in storm patterns could mean more frequent floods in certain pockets of the Sahara, offering hints of how water cycles might respond to a warming planet.



There is still an open question of whether these insights apply to other deserts with similar climates. The authors see value in investigating the synergy between large-scale atmospheric flows and local geographical features in regions where storms appear elusive. 



The researchers also suggest that future climate models need higher resolution to capture these fleeting, powerful rainfall events to improve forecasts for <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/1-4020-4497-6_59" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert hydrology</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/29/1395/2025/#section14" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hydrology and Earth System Sciences</a>.



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Rare storms create temporary lakes in the Sahara desert

New research highlights how certain storms can briefly transform parts...

Earth’s modern biosphere teems with plants, animals, and many other organisms that breathe oxygen to break down sugars into carbon dioxide and water. This process yields ATP - the universal “energy currency” essential for life’s biochemical reactions.&nbsp;



But early in our planet’s history, oxygen was absent from the atmosphere, raising the question of how organisms generated ATP in those conditions.



New research now provides an answer by closely examining primordial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-microbes-discovered-in-2-billion-year-old-rocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> that inhabit present-day, oxygen-free ecosystems such as deep-sea hot springs.&nbsp;



These ancient microbes illustrate a particular kind of respiration in which carbon dioxide and hydrogen are combined to form acetic acid, and the findings explain how that reaction is harnessed to generate ATP.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-oxygen-free-metabolism">Significance of oxygen-free metabolism</h2>



Although life today often revolves around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oxygen-supply-may-have-been-kick-started-by-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a>-based respiration, many habitats on early Earth - and even some modern extreme environments - lack this gas entirely. Instead, microorganisms living there rely on alternative energy-producing pathways, one of which uses CO₂ and hydrogen.&nbsp;



Understanding such processes is vital for reconstructing how life might have functioned billions of years ago when oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere, and also for potentially developing new biotechnologies.



These ancient microbes perform a known reaction: combining carbon dioxide and hydrogen to yield acetic acid. 



The precise mechanism for producing ATP, however, remained unclear until a research team led by professor Volker Müller, Chair of molecular microbiology and bioenergetics at <a href="https://www.goethe-university-frankfurt.de/en?locale=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goethe University Frankfurt</a>, worked out the details.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-ion-based-energy-system">An ion-based energy system </h2>



According to Müller, the team was able to show that the production of acetic acid itself activates a sophisticated mechanism as part of which sodium ions are pumped out of the bacterial cell into the environment.



“This reduces the sodium concentration inside the cell, whereby the cell envelope acts like a kind of dam for the ions. Once this dam is opened, the sodium ions flow back into the cell, driving a kind of molecular turbine that generates ATP," explained Müller.



In essence, the ancient microbes devised an ion-based energy system. Instead of using oxygen to drive electron transport, they rely on a pathway that pumps sodium ions out, creating a gradient that can be exploited for ATP production. 



This approach parallels how many other organisms use proton gradients for ATP synthesis, underlining the remarkable plasticity of life’s energy strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-network-in-ancient-microbes">Protein network in ancient microbes</h2>



At the heart of the mechanism is a large, membrane-embedded collection of proteins called the Rnf complex. These proteins shunt electrons from hydrogen to carbon dioxide, forming acetic acid in the process.&nbsp;



However, Rnf’s delicate structure made it extremely difficult to isolate. Researchers only managed to do so a few years ago, demonstrating just how challenging it is to study such ancient systems in the lab.



When carbon dioxide and hydrogen come together, electrons move through several intermediates.&nbsp;



The Rnf complex mediates the final leg of that journey, ensuring that each electron is properly transferred. This procedure led to the question: how exactly is electron flow coupled to pumping out sodium ions?



Using cryo-electron microscopy, the scientists created detailed, high-resolution snapshots of the Rnf complex from the bacterium Acetobacterium woodii.&nbsp;



During the imaging process, the purified complex was rapidly frozen, forming a thin film of ice that preserved it in near-native condition.&nbsp;



By looking at Rnf from various angles, the team constructed 3D models that reveal which parts of the proteins physically interact to enable electron flow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sodium-ion-pumping-in-ancient-microbes">Sodium ion pumping in ancient microbes</h2>



Still, knowledge of the protein structures did not fully explain how moving electrons expels sodium ions. That puzzle was partially solved by a molecular dynamics simulation conducted by Professor Ville Kaila’s group at <a href="https://www.su.se/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stockholm University</a>.&nbsp;



The team's simulation highlighted a crucial iron-sulfur cluster stationed in the middle of the membrane. As soon as the cluster takes on an electron, it becomes negatively charged, attracting sodium ions from within the cell like a magnet.



“The positively charged sodium ions from inside the cell are drawn to this cluster, just like a magnet,” said Jennifer Roth, a doctoral candidate in Müller’s research group.&nbsp;



“This attraction in turn causes the proteins to shift around the iron-sulfur cluster, much like a rocker switch: they create an opening leading to the outside of the membrane, through which the sodium ions are once again released.”



That shift completes a full cycle: by “locking in” a sodium ion, toggling the cluster, and then releasing the ion externally, the cell effectively pumps sodium outward.&nbsp;



An abundant sodium gradient accumulates, and the bacteria later allow ions to flow back in, spinning the molecular turbine (ATP synthase) that synthesizes ATP.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-respiration-without-oxygen">Understanding respiration without oxygen</h2>



Though the spotlight is on ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-metabolism-has-evolved-to-become-energetically-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, this discovery could have pragmatic uses in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-capture-technology-faces-uncertainty-despite-heavy-investment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon capture</a>. These microbes seize carbon dioxide to create acetic acid.&nbsp;



With deeper understanding, industries may be able to harness bacteria to remove greenhouse gases from emissions or to produce high-value chemicals.&nbsp;



“Once we know how the bacteria generate energy in the process, we may be able to optimize this process in a manner that would allow us to produce even higher-quality end products,” said Müller.



Furthermore, similar respiratory enzymes are found in some pathogens, raising the prospect of drug design that targets these crucial proteins to combat bacterial diseases.



By explaining a novel system for respiration without oxygen, the study has revealed another facet of life’s resilience.&nbsp;



Such findings reveal how the earliest life forms innovated to harness energy, demonstrating the creative adaptations that allowed Earth’s diverse biosphere to flourish - even under seemingly inhospitable conditions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2024.06.21.599731" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Breathing without oxygen: How ancient microbes powered early life

Earth’s modern biosphere teems with plants, animals, and many other...

Our view of the Universe’s first galaxies is changing fast. Once, astronomers believed early galaxies were slow to mature, lacking heavy elements like oxygen.



Now, a discovery made in a remote desert has flipped that idea. At the heart of this revelation is JADES-GS-z14-0 - the most distant confirmed galaxy ever found. It glows not only with ancient light but also with unexpected chemical complexity.



The detection of oxygen in this galaxy has forced astronomers to reconsider how fast galaxies took shape after the Big Bang. These new findings have emerged from two separate research teams using one of the world’s most powerful telescopes. 



Their work, built on years of observations, is helping reshape our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-found-in-the-early-universe-that-shouldnt-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic history</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-window-into-the-early-universe">Window into the early Universe</h2>



JADES-GS-z14-0 lies so far away that its light took 13.4 billion years to reach us. That means we’re seeing it as it looked when the Universe was just 300 million years old - a mere 2% of its current age. Despite its youth, this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-signals-from-the-center-of-our-galaxy-hint-at-a-new-kind-of-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> shows signs of advanced development.



​The&nbsp;European Southern Observatory (<a href="https://www.eso.org/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESO</a>), which&nbsp;collaborates with the&nbsp;Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (<a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a>)&nbsp;in Chile, played a key role in observing the distant galaxy.​



ALMA, with its location in the Atacama Desert, continues to uncover cosmic details that other telescopes can’t reach. Its latest achievement? Detecting oxygen in JADES-GS-z14-0.



“It is like finding an adolescent where you would only expect babies,” said Sander Schouws, a PhD candidate at Leiden Observatory, the Netherlands, and first author of the Dutch-led study.



“The results show the galaxy has formed very rapidly and is also maturing rapidly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mature-galaxy-in-an-infant-universe">Mature galaxy in an infant Universe</h2>



Early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-shows-signs-of-violent-past-collisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> were thought to consist mostly of hydrogen and helium. Heavier elements like oxygen were expected to emerge later, after multiple generations of stars lived and died. 



Oxygen is forged in the cores of stars and then scattered across space by stellar explosions. Until now, researchers believed this process hadn’t occurred much by the 300-million-year mark.



Yet JADES-GS-z14-0 has about ten times more heavy elements than previously thought possible for such an early galaxy. This surprising chemical richness points to a much faster rate of star formation and death than earlier models allowed.



“I was astonished by the unexpected results because they opened a new view on the first phases of galaxy evolution,” said Stefano Carniani of the Scuola Normale Superiore of Pisa, Italy.



“The evidence that a galaxy is already mature in the infant Universe raises questions about when and how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-radiation-may-actually-be-a-catalyst-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies formed</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-pinpoints-galaxy-location">Oxygen pinpoints galaxy location</h2>



The oxygen detection didn’t just reveal new information about the galaxy’s makeup. It also gave astronomers a better way to measure the galaxy’s distance. 



ALMA’s detection of oxygen allowed researchers to estimate the galaxy’s location in the cosmos with unprecedented accuracy.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/oxygen_early-galaxy_discovery-graphic_JADES-GS-z14-0_ESO_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/oxygen_early-galaxy_discovery-graphic_JADES-GS-z14-0_ESO_1s.webp" alt="The inset in this image shows JADES-GS-z14-0 –– the most distant known galaxy as of today –– as seen with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). The two spectra shown here result from independent analysis of ALMA data by two teams of astronomers. Both found an emission line of oxygen, making this the most distant detection of oxygen, when the Universe was only 300 million years old. Credit: ALMA/ESO" class="wp-image-1962941"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The inset in this image shows JADES-GS-z14-0 –– the most distant known galaxy as of today –– as seen with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). The two spectra shown here result from independent analysis of ALMA data by two teams of astronomers. Both found an emission line of oxygen, making this the most distant detection of oxygen, when the Universe was only 300 million years old. Credit: ALMA/ESO</figcaption></figure>



​Eleonora Parlanti, a PhD student at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sns.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scuola Normale Superiore of Pisa</a> and co-author of the study, explained the significance of the finding.



“The ALMA detection offers an extraordinarily precise measurement of the galaxy’s distance down to an uncertainty of just 0.005 percent. This level of precision - analogous to being accurate within 5 cm over a distance of 1 km - helps refine our understanding of distant galaxy properties,” said Parlanti.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-our-view-of-the-early-universe">Enhancing our view of the early Universe</h2>



While ALMA provided the final confirmation, the galaxy’s story began with the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>). 



JWST’s powerful infrared sensors first spotted JADES-GS-z14-0 and marked it as a candidate for further study. That’s when ALMA stepped in to provide deeper insight and validation.



“While the galaxy was originally discovered with the James Webb Space Telescope, it took ALMA to confirm and precisely determine its enormous distance,” noted Professor Rychard Bouwens, a member of the team at <a href="https://local.strw.leidenuniv.nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden Observatory</a>.



“This shows the amazing synergy between ALMA and JWST to reveal the formation and evolution of the first galaxies.”



The combined power of these two telescopes makes it possible to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spherex-will-scan-the-galaxy-to-look-for-lifes-ingredients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> not just by their light but by their chemical fingerprints. Together, they allow astronomers to build a more complete picture of the early Universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-formation-after-the-big-bang">Galaxy formation after the Big Bang</h2>



The detection of oxygen in such a young galaxy suggests the early Universe evolved more quickly than expected. 



Galaxies might not have needed as much time to grow complex structures and develop rich oxygen-based chemical diversity. This finding challenges earlier models that assumed slower progress.



Gergö Popping, an ESO astronomer at the <a href="https://www.eso.org/sci/facilities/alma/arc.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European ALMA Regional Centre</a> who did not take part in the research, shares the same sense of wonder.



"I was really surprised by this clear detection of oxygen in JADES-GS-z14-0. It suggests galaxies can form more rapidly after the Big Bang than had previously been thought," said Popping.



"This result showcases the important role ALMA plays in unraveling the conditions under which the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bullseye-galaxy-reveals-stunning-rings-after-galactic-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> in our Universe formed."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-rich-galaxy-raises-new-questions">Oxygen-rich galaxy raises new questions</h2>



This discovery leaves astronomers with more questions than answers. How did such a young galaxy become chemically mature so quickly? 



Are there more galaxies like JADES-GS-z14-0 out there, waiting to be found? And if so, what does that mean for our theories about galaxy formation?



As ALMA and JWST continue their joint work, scientists hope to uncover more early galaxies and gather stronger evidence. Each new detection brings us closer to understanding the first chapters of our cosmic story. 



The early Universe may be far more dynamic than we ever imagined.



Image Credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser



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"Astonishing" discovery: Oxygen is found in the universe where it shouldn't be

Our view of the Universe’s first galaxies is changing fast....

Human activity in the Galápagos Islands is quietly reshaping wildlife behavior. A new study published in the journal Animal Behaviour reveals that Galápagos yellow warblers (Setophaga petechia aureola) grow more aggressive in response to traffic noise. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, found only on the islands, respond differently based on their proximity to roads.



​The study was led by researchers from <a href="https://www.aru.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anglia Ruskin University</a> and the <a href="https://klf.univie.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Konrad Lorenz Research Centre</a> at the University of Vienna. Using recorded bird songs and simulated traffic sounds, the team observed how warblers reacted in different territories.​



The results showed birds living near roads exhibited more aggression, while those farther away behaved more passively when exposed to the same noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-human-impact-on-islands">Growing human impact on islands</h2>



The Galápagos Islands lie over 500 miles off Ecuador’s coast. Once a quiet haven of biodiversity, the region now feels the strain of human presence. 



A rapid rise in population and tourism has increased the number of vehicles on roads. This shift transforms the once-isolated environment, bringing unexpected consequences for its native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>.



The Galápagos yellow warbler, a subspecies genetically distinct from its mainland relatives, serves as a biological indicator of this change. The researchers studied the birds on the islands of Floreana and Santa Cruz.



In both regions, vehicle noise prompted warblers to behave more aggressively, even on Floreana, where only around 10 vehicles are in use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-change-their-songs-near-traffic">Birds change their songs near traffic</h2>



The scientists tested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-moving-north-and-breeding-earlier-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird responses</a> by playing songs through a speaker, simulating a territorial intruder. Sometimes the sounds were paired with traffic noise. 



When this occurred near roads, birds became more aggressive - flying near the speaker and singing longer. In quieter areas, birds became less confrontational when noise accompanied the song.



This pattern suggests that long-term exposure matters. Warblers with more experience around noise adjusted their behavior in ways that could help maintain territorial control despite sound interference.



“Birds use song during territorial defense as an aggressive signal. However, if external noise such as traffic interferes with the signaling, effectively blocking this communication channel, increasing physical aggression would be an appropriate response,” noted Dr. Caglar Akcay, senior lecturer in behavioural ecology at Anglia Ruskin University.



The research suggests these birds are learning to adapt. Changes in song length and pitch help their calls rise above low-frequency traffic sounds. 



In all territories, birds raised the minimum frequency of their songs when traffic was present. This adjustment could improve their chances of being heard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-flexibility-and-conservation">Behavioral flexibility and conservation</h2>



The findings shed light on the unexpected reach of human activity. Even in the Galápagos - long seen as a sanctuary for natural evolution - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-breathing-in-plastic-what-does-that-mean-for-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> now must compete with the noise of progress.



“Our results show that the change in aggressive responses in yellow warblers occurred mainly near roads. Birds occupying roadside territories on both islands, and therefore having regular experience of traffic noise, may have learned to increase physical aggression when the territorial intrusion was accompanied by traffic noise,” said Dr. Akcay.



Beyond aggression, warblers demonstrate flexibility. They tweak their songs to cut through the clamor. These subtle changes show nature’s resilience, but they also signal a need for reflection.



“Our study shows the importance of considering behavioral plasticity in conservation efforts and developing strategies to mitigate the effects of noise pollution on wildlife. It also highlights the significant impact of human activities on wildlife behavior, even in relatively remote locations such as the Galápagos Islands,” noted Dr. Akcay.



Understanding this behavioral flexibility may guide future conservation. It reminds us that protecting biodiversity requires more than preserving land - it demands attention to the noise we bring with us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traffic-noise-changes-birds-behavior">Traffic noise changes birds’ behavior</h2>



This study urges conservationists and policymakers to look beyond visible damage. Roads, buildings, and pollution are easy to spot. Noise, on the other hand, slips in silently, altering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-birds-can-handle-climate-variability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> in less obvious ways. 



Yet its effects are clear. For the Galápagos yellow warbler, this may mean adjusting song and behavior just to be heard and understood.



The warbler’s story is a quiet warning: the modern world reaches even the most distant corners. If we are to protect these natural wonders, we must consider not only what we build, but what we sound like as we do.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347225000466" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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Some birds get 'road rage' when exposed to traffic noise

Human activity in the Galápagos Islands is quietly reshaping wildlife...

Scientists who study our planet’s energy imbalance have noticed Earth now holds onto more energy than it sends away. This extra heat is raising global temperatures, warming the planet, and sparking questions about how changes in clouds and oceans might hasten climate shifts.



<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adb448" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have discovered surprising cloud patterns that no longer bounce as much light back into space. This effect makes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> from greenhouse gases worse and could speed up changes in weather, sea levels, and marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clouds-reflect-less-sunlight">Clouds reflect less sunlight </h2>



“Think of Earth as a mirror reflecting sunlight back to space,” said Professor Richard Allan from the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>, who is the lead author of the study.



This is now referred to as a "dirty mirror" because certain clouds, especially over the ocean, have become less reflective than in past decades.



When cloud layers fade or become thin, more solar energy travels through into the water below. Warmer oceans then release <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat</a> into the air, which boosts temperatures in a cycle that can reshape wind and precipitation patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cloud-changes-matter">Why cloud changes matter</h2>



Any decrease in cloud brightness increases the total heat that Earth keeps enclosed within the atmosphere. This, in turn, intensifies storms, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-the-mass-extinction-that-reshaped-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat waves</a>, and heavy rainfall. Scientists have traced these changes to areas off California and Namibia, where <a href="https://weather.metoffice.gov.uk/learn-about/weather/types-of-weather/clouds/low-level-clouds/stratocumulus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stratocumulus clouds</a> once helped bounce more light back into space.



Ongoing reductions in sea ice near Antarctica also matter. Darker seas absorb extra warmth, reinforcing the heating that <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> already cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-oceans-trap-heat-shift-clouds">Warm oceans trap heat, shift clouds</h2>



The top few hundred feet of the ocean, sometimes called the <a href="https://timescavengers.org/climate-change/ocean-layers-mixing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean mixed layer</a>, quickly absorb incoming heat. Warm water can then sink or shift horizontally, making temperature changes at the surface look unpredictable.



A shallower mixed layer warms up more rapidly when clouds let in extra solar radiation. This explains why we sometimes see abrupt spikes in ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-meltdown-is-accelerating-global-warming-already-changing-earth-in-unimaginable-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a>, followed by shifts in global weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-air-pollution-shifts">Air pollution shifts</h2>



Reduced <a href="https://earth.gsfc.nasa.gov/climate/data/deep-blue/aerosols" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a> in certain parts of Asia have also let more sunlight pass through, adding to the warming effect. Cleaner air is healthier for people but also contains fewer of the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reflective particles</a> that once helped cool some regions.



Scientists noticed that eastern China now sends less light away than expected, which may reflect better pollution controls. This change can interact with greenhouse gases to disturb cloud patterns and ocean currents over the north Pacific.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-climate-action">Implications for climate action</h2>



We rely on satellites, ocean floats, and climate models to see how much sunlight our planet reflects or stores. These systems reveal a steady increase in Earth’s net heat gain, prompting governments to plan for possible extremes.



Less reflective clouds - combined with increasing greenhouse gas buildup - could lead to bigger challenges for agriculture, fisheries, and coastal safety. Understanding the dirty mirror effect can guide policies that balance cleaner air with stable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-the-world-is-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather patterns</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-complex-chain-of-events">A complex chain of events</h2>



When sea surfaces get warmer, entire ecosystems shift, as species must adapt or move. Extra heat in the ocean can supercharge storms or disrupt currents that carry nutrients around the globe.



Cycles like <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ninonina.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a> push heated water around the Pacific, which can heighten the overall warming signal. This motion highlights why temperature jumps might feel sudden but are actually part of a complex chain of events.



Experts note that the dirty mirror effect may keep evolving as aerosol policies shift worldwide. Future data will show whether lower pollution levels, combined with thinning clouds, will accelerate warming faster than current forecasts suggest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-clouds-and-global-warming">Tracking clouds and global warming</h2>



Long-term solutions require better insights into how clouds respond to rising ocean heat. Every region contributes to the bigger story, whether through pollution regulations, carbon cuts, or monitoring local seas.



Although this cycle looks complicated, careful tracking of clouds, aerosols, and ocean temperatures offers hope for action. Some of the same steps that protect human health may also shape how much sunlight gets reflected back into space.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adb448" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Clouds are trapping more heat and making global warming worse

Scientists who study our planet’s energy imbalance have noticed Earth...

High in the Andes Mountains, glaciers have fed life for centuries. Their frozen stores of water support millions of people across six countries - Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. These towering ice reserves aren’t just symbols of beauty and endurance. They’re critical lifelines.



But those lifelines are now unraveling. Global warming is melting these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-threaten-global-water-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a> at an alarming pace. Scientists report that Andean glaciers are thinning by 0.7 meters each year - 35 percent faster than the global average.



Glacier retreat threatens to dry up rivers, weaken farming systems, limit drinking water, and destabilize power supplies.



At the heart of this crisis is the basic human need for water. In South America, more than 90 million people rely on glacier-fed sources for daily survival. This is not a distant problem for the next generation. 



This is unfolding now. And it is doing so more rapidly than many expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-loss-threatens-water-supply">Glacier loss threatens water supply</h2>



On March 21 2025, scientists from the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a> and <a href="https://www.newcastle.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Newcastle</a> will issue a direct warning to global policymakers.



The occasion is the first-ever World Day for Glaciers, hosted by UNESCO in Paris. Their policy brief, titled The Future of the Andean Water Towers, outlines how the glaciers are vanishing and what that means for water and food security across the region.



The document draws on years of research and satellite observations. It presents the reality that some feared but hoped would not come so soon. The ice loss in the Tropical Andes could reach near-total collapse, while other parts of the mountain range may lose over half their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> coverage if current trends continue.



“Our brief shows that what scientists have been predicting for years is now coming true, and swift action needs to be taken if we stand any hope of saving and preserving the glaciers that so many people rely on as a source of water,” noted Dr. Jeremy Ely, a researcher at the University of Sheffield.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-perfect-storm-of-climatic-pressures">A perfect storm of climatic pressures</h2>



The causes are complex but deeply connected to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-glaciers-unleashed-floods-that-reshaped-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. Rising air temperatures, more frequent droughts, decreased snowfall, and erratic weather patterns have combined to weaken the glaciers’ ability to regenerate. 



Since the year 2000, the pace of ice loss has reached levels never seen before. This acceleration aligns with rising greenhouse gas emissions around the globe.



The Andes are especially vulnerable. Many of the glaciers exist at lower elevations compared to other mountain ranges. That makes them more sensitive to even modest temperature increases. 



As warming continues, the glaciers no longer act as natural regulators of water flow. They melt too quickly in hot seasons and can’t replenish during colder months.



The results are clear: unstable water supplies, dry farming lands, energy shortages, and rising tensions over resources. These changes threaten to alter life for both rural communities and sprawling cities that rely on glacial meltwater downstream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-loss-of-glaciers-and-water">Rapid loss of glaciers and water</h2>



The Paris Agreement of 2015 brought a measure of hope. Countries agreed to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. 



Scientists warned that exceeding this target would cause serious harm, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-age-cycles-are-predictable-but-humans-may-change-that/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a>, lower crop yields, economic damage, and water scarcity.



However, that 1.5°C ceiling was already surpassed for several months in 2024. Projections now suggest that we are moving toward a world that will warm by more than 2°C. In that future, large swaths of the Andes could become completely ice-free before the century ends.



This raises troubling questions. How will countries adapt to rapid glacier loss? What happens to communities that have relied on consistent freshwater from melting snow and ice for generations? And how can international agreements hold weight when their benchmarks are already being missed?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-water-loss">Consequences of water loss</h2>



As glacier-fed rivers weaken, governments will need to act fast. One likely response is to build large-scale water storage systems, such as dams. 



These structures can store water during rainy seasons and release it during dry periods. But such infrastructure requires huge investments. Many of the countries most affected may not have the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-that-thrives-on-ice-plays-an-unexpected-role-in-glacier-melting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources</a> to afford them.



Without alternatives, rural areas may face food shortages. Crops that rely on irrigation could fail. Livestock may suffer. Urban areas might experience water rationing, which can spark unrest. The loss of water also limits hydropower production, which fuels industries and homes throughout the continent.



“Such a loss of ice across the Andes needs urgent attention as it will increase the stress on freshwater resources relied upon by communities and major cities downstream of the glaciers,” said Dr. Ely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closing-window-for-global-cooperation">A closing window for global cooperation</h2>



Global coordination is not just helpful - it’s essential. As glaciers shrink, so does the margin for error. Scientists agree that curbing carbon emissions is the only reliable way to slow the damage. No amount of policy writing will reverse the melting unless it’s backed by action.



The longer the world waits, the harder it will be to reverse or even manage the crisis. Temperature increases of up to 4.5°C by 2100 are not just theoretical - they’re becoming real possibilities. If that happens, water and food security will deteriorate for millions.



“All the targets that have been set have already been missed and failed,” Dr Ely said. "Yet the only way to preserve glaciers is to drastically reduce carbon emissions once and for all. 



"The situation is serious, and it will take global cooperation to tackle climate change and make meaningful difference for the communities around the world most vulnerable from the effects of climate change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next-matters-most">What happens next matters most</h2>



The Andean glacier crisis is a climate emergency in motion. It touches agriculture, energy, urban life, and rural survival. It is not a regional issue - it is a global one. 



The science is clear, the warnings have been given, and the time for delay has passed.



Whether the glaciers remain or vanish now depends on how quickly and how boldly the world responds.



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Millions could run out of water if glaciers continue to melt

High in the Andes Mountains, glaciers have fed life for...

Modern birds are closely related to dinosaurs, as seen by comparing flightless species like chickens and ostriches, which walk on two hind legs, or predatory hawks and eagles with their keen senses and sharp talons, to small theropod dinosaurs.&nbsp;



Still, birds have diverged in crucial ways from their reptilian predecessors. One vital turning point was their development of larger brains, which spurred changes in skull size and shape.



Recent work by researchers at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> and the <a href="https://missouri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Missouri</a> demonstrates how these physical transformations affected how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> move and utilize their beaks to eat and interact with the world - adaptations that helped them become one of the most diverse lineages on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-nature-of-a-wiggly-skull">Complex nature of a “wiggly” skull</h2>



Unlike many other animals, modern birds, along with certain snakes and fishes, have skulls whose jaws and palates are not firmly fixed in place.&nbsp;



Alec Wilken, a graduate student in integrative biology at the University of Chicago and lead author of this new study, calls this kind of flexible anatomy “wiggly.” He notes that such a trait complicates attempts to understand its function.&nbsp;



“Just because you have a joint there, that doesn’t mean that you know how it moves. So, you also have to think about how muscles are going to be pulling on the joint, what kind of torque they have, and how other joints in the head limit the mobility,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-how-bird-skulls-evolved">Investigating how bird skulls evolved</h2>



Wilken first became involved in this project in 2015 while studying at the University of Missouri. 



There, Casey Holliday, an associate professor of pathology and anatomical sciences, had received support from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) to investigate how bird skulls, jaw muscles, and feeding mechanics evolved from their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> lineage to modern birds.



Wilken contributed to the research by analyzing data from computer tomography (CT) scans of fossils and existing birds, as well as the skulls of other reptiles such as alligators. 



The gathered data then supported the creation of 3D models that track muscle positions, movements, and the physics of how they operate together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-modern-bird-skulls">Advantages of modern bird skulls</h2>



One distinctive feature of modern birds is referred to as “cranial kinesis,” which is the capacity to move different portions of the skull independently. This affords birds an evolutionary edge, letting them open or expand their palates and use their beaks in various ways.



“Having a wiggly head like this really gives them a lot of evolutionary benefits,” Wilken said. Parrots, for instance, employ their beaks to climb, while other birds break open tough seeds and nuts.&nbsp;



“In some ways, the beak functions like a surrogate hand, but being able to move the palate around while eating is also mission critical to helping them acquire food and survive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-from-dinosaurs-to-birds">The path from dinosaurs to birds</h2>



From analyzing these 3D models, the scientists observed that as non-avian theropod dinosaurs developed increasingly larger brains and skulls, muscles shifted into arrangements that allowed for more mobile palates and jaws.&nbsp;



Consequently, these transformations increased muscle force and supported cranial kinesis in the majority of today’s birds.



“We see this cascade of changes that happened along the dinosaur to bird transition,” said Holliday. “A large part of it hinges upon when birds evolved a relatively large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>. Just like in humans, bigger brains drive a lot of changes in the skull.”



Over time, paleontological findings have shown that the line between dinosaurs and birds is considerably blurred, especially since many dinosaurs sported feathers and some were capable of flight.&nbsp;



However, the scientists noted that truly flexible skulls and palates appeared later than species such as Archaeopteryx, leading them to speculate that cranial kinesis may turn out to be a key factor distinguishing modern birds from more primitive dinosaur-like birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-future-understanding">A blueprint for future understanding</h2>



While it is well established that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-secrets-of-the-evolution-of-prehistoric-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric reptiles</a> gave rise to the birds we now see flying overhead, the genetic and mechanical steps along that journey remain a topic of intense investigation.&nbsp;



This latest research strengthens the idea that the interplay between a bigger brain and skull modifications allowed birds to free up their jaws and palates, leading to vast ecological success.



Ultimately, the improved skull flexibility and diversified feeding methods among birds mirror the complicated interplay of evolutionary pressures that have continued since the time of dinosaurs.&nbsp;



The new study represents only one step in unravelling how birds learned to harness their beaks’ capabilities, and how earlier dinosaur species formed the foundation for today’s avian biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2411138122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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‘Wiggly’ skulls helped birds evolve from dinosaurs

Modern birds are closely related to dinosaurs, as seen by...

A new study indicates that an experimental drug can reduce Alzheimer’s-related dementia risk in those certain to develop symptoms in their 30s, 40s, or 50s.&nbsp;



If confirmed, the results suggest that removing amyloid plaques from the brain long before memory issues occur may delay or even avert the onset of Alzheimer’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-disruptions-could-signal-the-onset-of-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individuals-with-early-alzheimer-s-risk">Individuals with early Alzheimer’s risk</h2>



The international research team was led by the <a href="https://knightadrc.wustl.edu/for-the-community/volunteer-for-research/dian/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Knight Family Dominantly Inherited Alzheimer Network-Trials Unit</a> (DIAN-TU) at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis.



The study was focused on 73 people carrying rare, inherited mutations that substantially increase the production of amyloid in the brain - mutations that guarantee them Alzheimer’s disease in middle age.&nbsp;



Over two decades, the Knight Family DIAN-TU has worked to find therapies aimed at preventing or slowing disease progression in such families.



For a subgroup of 22 participants who exhibited no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-mild-covid-can-cause-prolonged-cognitive-impairment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive problems</a> at the beginning of the study and who received the drug the longest (an average of eight years), the treatment decreased the risk of developing symptoms from 100% to approximately 50%.&nbsp;



This calculation, supported by multiple sensitivity analyses, suggests that early intervention may give participants additional healthy years, although the duration of protection is not yet known.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giving-people-more-years-of-healthy-life-nbsp">Giving people more years of healthy life&nbsp;</h2>



Study senior author Randall J. Bateman, a professor of neurology at <a href="https://medicine.washu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WashU Medicine</a>, noted that everyone in the study was destined to develop Alzheimer’s disease and some of them haven’t yet.



“We don’t yet know how long they will remain symptom-free - maybe a few years or maybe decades. In order to give them the best opportunity to stay cognitively normal, we have continued treatment with another anti-amyloid antibody in hopes they will never develop symptoms at all,” said Bateman.&nbsp;



“What we do know is that it’s possible at least to delay the onset of the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease and give people more years of healthy life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eliminating-amyloid-plaques-in-the-brain-nbsp">Eliminating amyloid plaques in the brain&nbsp;</h2>



These results bolster the amyloid hypothesis, which proposes that Alzheimer’s disease begins with an accumulation of amyloid plaques in the brain. Researchers have speculated that eliminating those plaques, or halting their formation, could keep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-activity-may-delay-the-onset-of-dementia-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a> at bay.



For this work, Bateman and colleagues investigated whether an experimental anti-amyloid therapy might prevent Alzheimer’s dementia.&nbsp;



The study sample comprised people who initially joined the Knight Family DIAN-TU-001 trial (the world’s first Alzheimer’s prevention study) and then continued into an extension phase where they received an anti-amyloid medication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insufficient-evidence-of-alzheimer-s-prevention-nbsp">Insufficient evidence of Alzheimer’s prevention&nbsp;</h2>



Knight Family DIAN-TU-001 began in 2012 to evaluate anti-amyloid therapies as preventive measures for Alzheimer’s in participants with no or very mild symptoms and lying between 15 years before and 10 years after their expected onset age.&nbsp;



Results shared in 2020 indicated that one drug - gantenerumab, made by <a href="https://www.roche.com/innovation/structure/genentech" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roche/Genentech</a> - lowered brain amyloid levels and changed certain Alzheimer’s biomarkers.&nbsp;



However, researchers found insufficient evidence of cognitive benefit because participants without symptoms remained stable, whether on drug or placebo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extending-the-trial">Extending the trial</h2>



To refine and continue testing, the team initiated an open-label extension of the trial. All individuals carrying a high-risk Alzheimer’s mutation could join - regardless of original trial assignment.&nbsp;



Because everyone in the extension received the study drug, the researchers compared them with participants in a separate, untreated observational study and with some participants who had received placebo but did not enter the extension.



Although the extension was designed to run three years, it ended mid-2023 after Roche/Genentech stopped gantenerumab’s development in late 2022, owing to Phase III results in early symptomatic Alzheimer’s failing to meet the main endpoint of slowing clinical decline.&nbsp;



By that time, most extension participants had received gantenerumab for an average of 2.6 years.



Analyses of that extension data revealed that removing amyloid far in advance of symptoms potentially delayed disease onset and dementia progression, especially among participants with no initial symptoms who received the drug for about eight years. 



In that subgroup, the drug halved the risk of becoming symptomatic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treating-early-alzheimer-s">Treating early Alzheimer’s</h2>



Though gantenerumab and other anti-amyloid therapies can trigger ARIA (amyloid-related imaging abnormalities) visible on brain scans, most cases yield no clinical symptoms and resolve on their own.&nbsp;



Two participants developed severe ARIA and had to discontinue the therapy but subsequently recovered. No life-threatening events or deaths occurred, and the overall safety profile matched other gantenerumab research.



Once Roche ended gantenerumab, most participants switched to lecanemab - an anti-amyloid agent recently authorized by the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a> for slowing cognitive decline in symptomatic Alzheimer’s.&nbsp;



The newly launched Knight Family DIAN-TU Amyloid Removal Trial will also use lecanemab to see how effectively it prevents or postpones Alzheimer’s in these high-risk families.



While the trial focuses on genetically caused early-onset Alzheimer’s, the team believes that the results will inform prevention and treatment for all forms of Alzheimer’s disease.&nbsp;



Both early- and late-onset disease begin with amyloid accumulation roughly 20 years before clinical symptoms arise. Data from early-onset mutation families has proven consistent with late-onset Alzheimer’s trials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimism-for-therapeutic-breakthroughs-nbsp">Optimism for therapeutic breakthroughs&nbsp;</h2>



“If late-onset Alzheimer’s prevention trials have similar results to the DIAN-TU trials, there soon could be Alzheimer’s preventions available for the general population,” Bateman said.&nbsp;



“I am highly optimistic now, as this could be the first clinical evidence of what will become preventions for people at risk for Alzheimer’s disease. One day soon, we may be delaying the onset of Alzheimer’s disease for millions.”



While gantenerumab has been withdrawn from development, other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-have-found-powerful-antibodies-that-neutralize-all-covid-variants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibodies</a> targeting amyloid remain under evaluation for Alzheimer’s.&nbsp;



Observers within the research community say the findings demonstrate the significance of focusing on early removal of brain amyloid for potentially avoiding or postponing dementia, fueling optimism for near-future therapeutic breakthroughs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laneur/article/PIIS1474-4422(25)00024-9/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Neurology</a>.



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Stopping Alzheimer’s before it starts: Early treatment shows potential

A new study indicates that an experimental drug can reduce...

NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has taken direct images of multiple gas giants in the HR 8799 system. This young planetary system, located 130 light-years away, has been a focal point for planet formation studies.



The observations indicate that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-3d-view-of-an-exoplanet-atmosphere-reveals-chaotic-alien-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> in HR 8799 are rich in carbon dioxide. This suggests they formed in a similar way to Jupiter and Saturn. 



Scientists believe they slowly built solid cores that attracted surrounding gas by means of gravitational force, a process called core accretion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atmospheres-of-gas-giants">Atmospheres of gas giants</h2>



<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb</a>'s ability to analyze exoplanet atmospheres using spectroscopy has further confirmed these observations. 



The Telescope's spectroscopic instruments help to identify atmospheric components in great detail.



This means that scientists can now infer the chemical makeup of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-super-earth-hd-20794-found-just-20-light-years-away-is-best-target-yet-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distant worlds</a> using imaging.



“By spotting these strong carbon dioxide features, we have shown there is a sizable fraction of heavier elements, like carbon, oxygen, and iron, in these planets’ atmospheres,” said William Balmer, of <a href="https://www.jhu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> in Baltimore. 



“Given what we know about the star they orbit, that likely indicates they formed via core accretion, which is an exciting conclusion for planets that we can directly see.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-giants-in-hr-8799">Gas giants in HR 8799</h2>



HR 8799 is about 30 million years old - extremely young compared to our solar system’s 4.6 billion years. Its planets still radiate heat from their formation, emitting strong infrared signals. 



These signals allow researchers to gather important data on how such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-sized-exoplanet-orbiting-ultracool-dwarf-star-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> form.



Gas giants can emerge in two main ways. One involves forming a solid core that then gathers surrounding gas, similar to the way in which Jupiter and Saturn are thought to have formed.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/HR-8799-system_carbon-dioxide_analysis-graphic_nasa_webb_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/HR-8799-system_carbon-dioxide_analysis-graphic_nasa_webb_1s.webp" alt="This graph shows a spectrum of one of the planets in the HR 8799 system, HR 8799 e. Spectral fingerprints of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide appear in data collected by Webb’s NIRCam (Near-Infrared Camera). Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1962889"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This graph shows a spectrum of one of the planets in the HR 8799 system, HR 8799 e. Spectral fingerprints of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide appear in data collected by Webb’s NIRCam (Near-Infrared Camera). Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



The other occurs when gas particles rapidly collapse into a massive object from a young star’s cooling disk. Understanding which process is more common helps scientists differentiate planetary systems.



“Our hope, with this kind of research, is to understand our own solar system, life, and ourselves in the comparison to other exoplanetary systems, so we can contextualize our existence,” Balmer explained.



“We want to take pictures of other solar systems and see how they’re similar or different when compared to ours. From there, we can try to get a sense of how weird our solar system really is - or how normal.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cutting-edge-imaging-technology">Cutting-edge imaging technology</h2>



Out of nearly 6,000 known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-kmt-2020-blg-0414-reveals-fate-of-earth-eight-billion-years-from-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a>, very few have been imaged directly.



This is because even large planets appear thousands of times fainter than their host stars. Webb’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/nircam/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIRCam</a> (Near-Infrared Camera) coronagraph made these new images possible by blocking starlight to the reveal hidden worlds.



This technology helped researchers detect infrared signals from HR 8799’s planets at wavelengths absorbed by specific gases. 



Their findings show that these planets contain more heavy elements than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hr-8799-plants-and-brown-dwarfs">HR 8799 plants and brown dwarfs</h2>



Scientists are now working to determine whether objects seen around distant stars are true gas giants or whether they are brown dwarfs. Brown dwarfs form like stars but lack the mass needed for nuclear fusion to occur.



“We have other lines of evidence that hint at these four HR 8799 planets forming using this bottom-up approach,” said Laurent Pueyo, an astronomer at the Space Telescope Science Institute (<a href="https://www.stsci.edu/">STScI</a>) in Baltimore, who co-led the research.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/HR-8799-system_carbon-dioxide_first-direct-image_nasa_webb_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/HR-8799-system_carbon-dioxide_first-direct-image_nasa_webb_1s.webp" alt="NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has provided the clearest look in the infrared yet at the iconic multi-planet system HR 8799. The closest planet to the star, HR 8799 e, orbits 1.5 billion miles from its star, which in our solar system would be located between the orbit of Saturn and Neptune. The furthest, HR 8799 b, orbits around 6.3 billion miles from the star, more than twice Neptune’s orbital distance. In this image, the color blue is assigned to 4.1 micron light, green to 4.3 micron light, and red to the 4.6 micron light. Credit: NASA/Webb" class="wp-image-1962891"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has provided the clearest look in the infrared yet at the iconic multi-planet system HR 8799. The closest planet to the star, HR 8799 e, orbits 1.5 billion miles from its star, which in our solar system would be located between the orbit of Saturn and Neptune. The furthest, HR 8799 b, orbits around 6.3 billion miles from the star, more than twice Neptune’s orbital distance. In this image, the color blue is assigned to 4.1 micron light, green to 4.3 micron light, and red to the 4.6 micron light. Credit: NASA/Webb</figcaption></figure>



“How common is this for planets we can directly image? We don't know yet, but we're proposing more Webb observations to answer that question.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hard-work-pays-off">Hard work pays off</h2>



“We knew Webb could measure colors of the outer planets in directly imaged systems,” added Rémi Soummer, director of STScI’s <a href="https://www.stsci.edu/stsci-research/research-topics-and-programs/russell-b-makidon-optics-laboratory" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Russell B. Makidon Optics Lab</a> and former lead for Webb coronagraph operations.



“We have been waiting for 10 years to confirm that our finely tuned operations of the telescope would also allow us to access the inner planets. Now the results are in and we can do interesting science with it.”



Webb’s NIRCam observations of HR 8799 and another system, 51 Eridani, were conducted under NASA’s <a href="https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/691/JWSTSSS/index.html#:~:text=Guaranteed%20Time%20Observation%20Programs%20for,plan%20the%20observatory's%20scientific%20mission." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Guaranteed Time Observations programs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The James Webb Space Telescope is the world’s leading space science observatory and is operated as an international collaboration between <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>, the European Space Agency (<a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>), and the <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canadian Space Agency</a>.



It will continue to uncover the mysteries of our solar system and study gas giants and other distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-planet-system-hd110067-discovered-that-moves-in-perfect-mathematical-harmony/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a>. 



By looking deeper into the cosmos, the JWST helps scientists understand the origins of the universe and humanity’s place in it.



Information in this article comes from a NASA <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/webb/nasas-webb-images-young-giant-exoplanets-detects-carbon-dioxide/#:~:text=NASA's%20James%20Webb%20Space%20Telescope%20has%20captured%20direct%20images%20of,target%20for%20planet%20formation%20studies.">press release</a>.



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First direct image of CO2 outside our solar system captured by Webb

NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has taken direct images...

Brown,And,White,Sugar

Sugar substitutes and artificial sweeteners show up in many diets and "low-calorie" products, promoted as a way to help people enjoy sweet flavors without the usual calories.



Some folks pick them to help manage weight goals or reduce daily sugar intake. Others look for sugar-free snacks to limit changes in blood glucose.



Their popularity reflects a common desire to avoid sugar-related pitfalls. Yet concerns continue to surface about how these substances may affect overall health. 



Senior and corresponding author Stanley Hazen, M.D., Ph.D., from Cleveland Clinic’s <a href="https://www.lerner.ccf.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lerner Research Institute</a>, addresses these questions through new findings on certain sugar substitutes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sugar-substitutes-the-basics">Sugar substitutes - the basics</h2>



There are many forms of "sugar substitutes," also known as artificial sweeteners. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-fed-artificial-sweetener-exhibit-alarming-health-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aspartame</a>, sucralose, saccharin, and sugar alcohols such as erythritol and xylitol are available in various items labeled “diet” or “low-calorie.” 



They offer sweetness in small amounts because many are far sweeter than table sugar. Saccharin, for example, is typically hundreds of times sweeter than sugar, so only a tiny dose is required.



They also appeal to those trying to manage their weight. Some people believe replacing sugar with these products helps them avoid extra calories. 



Others rely on them to reduce sudden spikes in blood sugar, which can be appealing to individuals with conditions like diabetes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-divide-in-the-scientific-community">Divide in the scientific community</h2>



Several regulatory agencies consider many of these sugar substitutes acceptable at certain daily intake levels. Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-baby-food-isnt-nutritious-despite-what-the-label-says/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutritional guidelines</a> encourage their use when people need to cut back on simple carbohydrates. 



“Many professional societies and clinicians routinely recommend that people at high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-cannabis-users-face-higher-heart-attack-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular risk</a> - those with obesity, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome - consume foods that contain sugar substitutes rather than sugar,” Dr. Hazen explained.



“These findings highlight the importance of further long-term clinical studies to assess the cardiovascular safety of erythritol and other sugar substitutes.”



Though these products are labeled “<a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/food-ingredients-packaging/generally-recognized-safe-gras" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Generally Recognized as Safe</a>,” the way individuals actually consume them raises questions that may not have been fully covered in past research. 



Some experts would like to see broader and longer studies on potential effects beyond weight management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sugar-substitute-called-erythritol">Sugar substitute called Erythritol</h2>



Over time, scientists wondered if all sugar substitutes behave the same way in the body. A Cleveland Clinic team looked at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythritol" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">erythritol</a>, a sugar alcohol found in sugarless items such as gum and certain snack products. 



During an intervention study with healthy volunteers, they noticed a pattern that prompted follow-up.



“This research raises some concerns that a standard serving of an erythritol-sweetened food or beverage may acutely stimulate a direct clot-forming effect,” said study co-author W. H. Wilson Tang, M.D., research director for Heart Failure and Cardiac Transplantation Medicine at <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cleveland Clinic</a>. 



“Erythritol and other sugar alcohols commonly used as sugar substitutes should be evaluated for potential long-term health effects, especially when such effects are not seen with glucose itself.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-xylitol-also-has-issues">Xylitol also has issues</h2>



Those same scientists saw that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holiday-dangers-keeping-your-pets-safe-on-easter-weekend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">xylitol</a>, another sugar alcohol, displayed similar behavior in the bloodstream. 



Individuals with higher xylitol levels appeared to have an increased likelihood of experiencing serious cardiac-related events over the following few years. 



Since these trends emerged in people already facing cardiovascular issues, the question has become whether these substances could pose added risks.



Some products are marketed as keto-friendly, which has further boosted the reputation of sugar alcohols for those on very <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-carb-diets-have-more-nutritional-value-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">low-carb diets</a>. 



While xylitol and erythritol fit the profile for reduced-calorie sweetening, this latest work suggests that they merit deeper research to see how they interact with blood and overall heart function in various groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-sweetness-and-safety">Balancing sweetness and safety</h2>



In light of the new data, there are suggestions for caution, particularly if a person has conditions linked to thrombosis or other cardiac complications. 



“I feel that choosing sugar-sweetened treats occasionally and in small amounts would be preferable to consuming drinks and foods sweetened with these sugar alcohols, especially for people at elevated risk of thrombosis, such as those with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sugary-drinks-linked-to-millions-of-diabetes-and-heart-disease-cases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart disease</a>, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome,” Dr. Hazen advises. 



“Cardiovascular disease builds over time, and heart disease is the leading cause of death globally. We need to make sure the foods we eat aren’t hidden contributors.”



Manufacturers often include sugar substitutes in a range of drinks and snacks. Some individuals like them simply because they believe they promote better control of caloric intake. 



Yet researchers suggest that people who already have heart-related issues or metabolic conditions pay special attention to how often they rely on these sweeteners.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



One reason experts remain cautious is the fact that sweetener consumption can vary widely from person to person. Some drink several diet beverages a day or frequently snack on sugar-free treats. 



Guidelines about upper intake levels were developed when long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/morning-coffee-drinkers-have-a-lower-risk-of-heart-disease-and-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular outcomes</a> were less clear. 



Now, these studies may prompt new evaluations of how all sugar alcohols behave in those at high risk for blood clots.



Whether someone chooses sugar alternatives for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-could-save-an-enormous-number-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weight management</a> or portion control, these details introduce fresh reasons to check in with a healthcare provider. 



An individual plan that considers medical history and personal risk factors can be valuable when figuring out how often to use products sweetened with substances like erythritol or xylitol.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-sugar-substitutes">What's next for sugar substitutes</h2>



Opinions differ about whether these sugar substitutes fully serve their intended purpose. Some see them as helpful for limiting sugar. 



Others consider them a source of unintended problems when used regularly, especially in people with a history of heart disease or metabolic disorders. 



As new information continues to emerge, discussions may lead to fresh guidelines or label requirements that highlight potential cardiovascular considerations.



For now, moderate consumption and a balanced diet remain popular approaches. Artificial sweeteners may fit into certain meal plans, but the recent research from Cleveland Clinic invites extra thought about possible drawbacks. 



Reading labels and talking with trusted healthcare professionals can help people figure out the best mix of sweet options in daily life. 



That awareness may allow many to avoid unwelcome surprises while still keeping their favorite flavors on the menu.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATVBAHA.124.321019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology</a>.



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Artificial sweeteners and sugar substitutes directly linked to heart attacks and strokes

Sugar substitutes and artificial sweeteners show up in many diets...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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