Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Obsidian,(volcanic,Glass)

A young man’s remains from 79 AD have left experts speechless. His skeleton, found in the ancient town of <a href="https://www.herculaneum.ox.ac.uk/about-us/story-of-herculaneum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Herculaneum</a>, revealed something that no one expected. Fragments of his brain appear to have turned into shiny, black glass.



Volcanologist <a href="https://www.geologicalfieldtripsandmaps.com/N12/guido-giordano.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Guido Giordano</a>, from the Department of Science at <a href="https://www.uniroma3.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roma Tre University</a>, is part of a team that studied this strange <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-next-big-volcano-eruption-will-cause-global-chaos-climate-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phenomenon</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-happened">What exactly happened?</h2>



Archaeologists discovered the man during excavations in the 1960s, lying on a wooden bed in a building that was devoted to honoring <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Augustus-Roman-emperor" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emperor Augustus</a>. He was probably around 20 years old.



When nearby Mount Vesuvius erupted, waves of burning ash swept over Herculaneum. Researchers say that, at some point, the extreme heat transformed parts of his brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-mount-vesuvius-the-basics">Understanding Mount Vesuvius - the basics</h2>



Mount Vesuvius is one of the most famous volcanoes in the world. It looms over the Bay of Naples in Italy, standing as both a breathtaking natural wonder and a ticking geological time bomb. 



Back in 79 AD, the eruption that is the subject of this article buried the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under thick layers of ash and lava, freezing them in time. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mount-vesuvius-volcano_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mount-vesuvius-volcano_1s.webp" alt="Mount Vesuvius in Italy" class="wp-image-1961612"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Mount Vesuvius in Italy</figcaption></figure>



That eruption remains one of the deadliest in history, killing thousands and leaving behind eerily preserved ruins that give us a rare glimpse into ancient life. 



Today, scientists keep a close eye on Vesuvius, since it’s still very much active and sits dangerously close to millions of people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-turned-into-glass">How the brain turned into glass</h2>



According to the new analysis, temperatures above 950°F (510°C) would have been needed. The tissue then had to cool fast enough to avoid crystallizing.



“This is an amazing and truly unexpected find,” exclaimed Giordano. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-88894-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> point out that most organic matter would simply burn to ashes at this temperature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-mattered-for-scientists">Why it mattered for scientists</h2>



This unique case highlights a rarely seen effect of hot ash clouds, which are known as <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-dangerous-are-pyroclastic-flows" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyroclastic flows</a>. Such clouds can blast into an area at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high temperatures</a> and then rapidly recede.



One reason the brain fragments remained is that the surrounding deposit was not hot enough to remelt the glass. 



That deposit reached roughly 869°F (465°C), which is lower than the point where the glassy tissue would revert to a softer form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-about-a-rare-event">Clues about a rare event</h2>



Researchers say that the first scorching surge struck Herculaneum minutes before the main flow arrived. That could explain how this man’s brain was briefly exposed to extreme heat but then cooled.



Complex neuron and spinal cord structures remained embedded in the hardened material. These delicate features rarely survive in such clarity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mt-vesuvius-volcano_collegium-augustalium_brain-turns-to-glass_credit-Scientific-Reports_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mt-vesuvius-volcano_collegium-augustalium_brain-turns-to-glass_credit-Scientific-Reports_1s.webp" alt="(a) Carbonized body of the guardian in his wooden bed within the Collegium Augustalium; the vitrified brain remains have been found within his skull. (b) Panoramic eastward view of Herculaneum ruins with Vesuvius volcano in the background, and the location of the Collegium Augustalium within the city. Credit: Scientific Reports" class="wp-image-1961615"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">(a) Carbonized body of the guardian in his wooden bed within the Collegium Augustalium; the vitrified brain remains have been found within his skull. (b) Panoramic eastward view of Herculaneum ruins with Vesuvius volcano in the background, and the location of the Collegium Augustalium within the city. Credit: Scientific Reports</figcaption></figure>



Scientists examined the fragments with electron microscopes. They noticed patterns that align with known neuronal shapes, including <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554388/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">axons</a>.



Internal pores in the glassy chunks hinted at water vapor escaping from the tissue. The result was an almost volcanic obsidian-like appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-this-man-s-brain-turn-to-glass">Why did this man’s brain turn to glass?</h2>



All other humans in Herculaneum at the time appear to have fled toward the sea. This man did not.



“Maybe he was drunk,” joked Giordano. He suspects the victim was simply overwhelmed by the sudden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disaster</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-a-glass-preserved-brain">Insights from a glass-preserved brain</h2>



Understanding how extreme heat affects human remains could help experts reconstruct events in ancient and modern disasters. 



This case challenges previous assumptions about how bodies react in high-temperature environments.



It also raises questions about other potential instances of vitrified tissue that may have gone unnoticed in the past. If similar cases exist, they could provide further insights into the effects of pyroclastic flows on the human body.



Researchers may now look for evidence of this phenomenon at other volcanic sites where high heat and rapid cooling occurred.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-volcanic-hazards">Implications for volcanic hazards</h2>



Hot ash clouds can be extremely dangerous. Some modern fatalities, such as those near <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8674289/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Guatemala’s Fuego</a> volcano in 2018, likely involved these blasts.



Giordano explained that buildings near active volcanoes might need heat-resistant designs. Such measures could allow people a brief chance to escape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-a-single-discovery">Beyond a single discovery</h2>



Volcanic eruptions have shaped human history by burying entire cities. Pompeii is often in the spotlight, yet Herculaneum reveals equally gripping scenes.



The glass brain fragments remain the only known example of this natural process in human tissue. Their formation required fast heating, rapid cooling, and a precise window of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruption-zavaritzki-that-cooled-the-earth-and-turned-the-sun-green/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-on-ancient-life-and-death">Insights on ancient life and death</h2>



Study co-authors believe the victim was part of a religious community. The building where he was found was dedicated to the worship of Augustus.



The exact details of his final moments might stay unknown. Still, his remains add a layer of understanding to what happened that deadly day.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-88894-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Man's brain turned to glass after volcanic eruption, scientists think they know why

A young man’s remains from 79 AD have left experts...

Many people are interested in fresh protein sources that balance health benefits and greener production methods. Studies continue to reveal options that might fit the bill for those seeking new dietary ingredients.



The primary focus has now shifted to plant-derived proteins, including hemp seeds. Dr. Juan Presa-Lombardi from the <a href="https://udelar.edu.uy/portal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Republic</a> has worked with colleagues to shed more light on this subject.



Consumers often seek foods that combine practicality and positive impacts on the environment. Hemp seeds are a promising candidate. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-quality-protein-content">High-quality protein content</h2>



Early research highlights the advantageous amino acid profile of hemp seeds along with their versatility in cooking, making them a strong contender in the plant-based food industry.



“Hemp seeds are recognized for their high-quality protein content, which includes all nine essential amino acids,” stated Tănase Apetroaei, the lead author of a review on hemp seeds and functional foods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hemp-seeds-and-food-security">Hemp seeds and food security</h2>



Food producers are increasingly exploring alternatives to animal-based proteins. They realize that health-focused customers are demanding better choices.



The nutrient density and protein content of hemp seeds has brought them into discussions about food security. The plant grows in varied climates and might support innovations that rely on fewer resources.



“Aspirations abound for the plant-based meat and seafood industry to play a meaningful role in sustainably and efficiently feeding billions of people, mitigating the global impacts of climate change, and protecting public health,” stated the <a href="https://gfi.org/resource/analyzing-plant-based-meat-and-seafood-sales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Good Food Institute</a>. Focusing on plant-based products, points to a global surge in protein demand. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eco-friendly-food-production">Eco-friendly food production </h2>



<a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/journals/journalissues/gc#!recentarticles&amp;adv" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Green chemistry</a>, which emphasizes processes with minimal waste and reduced toxicity, is part of the conversation around hemp-based products. This approach could align with the global push for eco-friendly industrial methods.



“Our green chemistry method provides an efficient, eco-friendly way to unlock the full nutritional potential of hemp seeds," said Dr. Presa-Lombardi.



"We see this as a game-changer for the alternative protein sector, offering high yields and excellent functionality without compromising sustainability.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-promise-of-hemp-seeds">The promise of hemp seeds</h2>



Nonprofits and advocacy organizations have stepped in to voice their opinions on the use of hemp seeds in foods.



The <a href="https://nationalhempassociation.org/what-can-eating-hemp-seeds-do-for-me/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Hemp Association</a> emphasizes their beneficial fatty acids and fiber, noting how hemp-based ingredients appear in both specialty health products and mainstream grocery items.



Food companies are testing whether hemp offers a fresh angle to stand out in a competitive market. A consistent supply, paired with straightforward processing steps, might appeal to producers and entrepreneurs alike.



Groups committed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-diets-can-reduce-environmental-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable diets</a> see potential in tapping underused crops. Hemp is part of a broader list of ingredients that might fit that description.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-health-food-markets">Beyond health food markets</h2>



Processors often look at how well a protein source can blend into various foods. Texture, flavor, and stability guide whether consumers find it appealing.



Hemp seeds have been tested in items like protein bars, baked goods, and dairy alternatives. This range suggests they can go beyond niche health food markets if further research confirms consistent quality.



Many people see hemp as part of a cultural shift toward less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intensive-farming-raises-pandemic-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intensive farming</a> practices. This could link hemp seeds to products labeled “natural” or “organic,” though the meaning of these terms can vary across brands.



Some <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132324003123" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> also note hemp’s adaptability across geographical regions, hinting that local producers might incorporate it without major changes in their operations. This might encourage smaller-scale farms to participate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-extraction-and-processing">Improving extraction and processing </h2>



Communities familiar with hemp farming appreciate its historical significance. Modern developments add layers of technology and scientific rigor that might address doubts about efficiency.



Others wonder if hemp-based foods can remain cost-competitive. New information and improved extraction methods could be what it takes to reassure buyers.



Further research is key. Collaborative efforts between scientists, business leaders, and farmers may improve processing techniques and push down costs. Studies will also be needed to test the palatability and appeal of hemp <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protein</a> in foods.



This blend of research and commercial drive could determine whether hemp becomes a common ingredient. Every stakeholder has a role in shaping the outcome.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-untapped-potential-of-hemp-seeds">Untapped potential of hemp seeds</h2>



Some see hemp’s cultivation as an environmentally conscious choice, although that depends on practices and regulations. Balancing profitability and ecological concerns can be tricky for any crop.



The appeal of a fast-growing, protein-rich resource is undeniable, which is why hemp continues to surface in conversations about the future of food.



Hemp seeds offer potential for those exploring new solutions. With rising consumer demand for plant-based protein, hemp could secure a lasting role in modern diets.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11085560/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Food Science</a>.



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Hemp seeds could be a 'game-changer' as an alternative protein source

Many people are interested in fresh protein sources that balance...

The human body operates on an internal schedule, known as the circadian rhythm. This biological clock influences sleep, metabolism, and even muscle recovery. While most people associate circadian rhythms with sleep cycles, new research shows that these rhythms also affect how quickly injuries heal.



A study from Northwestern Medicine, conducted on mice, reveals that muscle injuries heal faster when they occur during the body's natural waking hours.



These findings could have significant implications for shift workers, aging individuals, and those with metabolic disorders. 



The study also raises important questions about how disruptions like jetlag and daylight saving time changes impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-ultra-processed-foods-makes-your-muscles-weaker-and-more-fragile/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle</a> recovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faster-recovery-during-active-hours">Faster recovery during active hours</h2>



The study, conducted on mice, shows that muscle injuries recover more quickly when they occur during active hours. Injuries during usual sleeping periods heal at a slower rate. 



Clara Peek, assistant professor of biochemistry and molecular genetics at Northwestern University <a href="https://www.feinberg.northwestern.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Feinberg School of Medicine</a>, believes these findings could help shift workers and those experiencing aging-related muscle issues.



The study also highlights how disruptions such as jetlag and daylight saving time changes affect circadian rhythms. “In each of our cells, we have genes that form the molecular circadian clock,” Peek said. 



“These clock genes encode a set of transcription factors that regulate many processes throughout the body and align them with the appropriate time of day. Things like sleep/wake behavior, metabolism, body temperature and hormones - all these are circadian.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-time-affects-muscle-recovery">How time affects muscle recovery</h2>



Peek’s lab previously found that muscle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/muscles-defy-aging-with-remarkable-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tissues</a> regenerate faster when damaged during natural waking hours. 



To understand why, the researchers examined muscle stem cells at different times of the day. They used single-cell sequencing to analyze injured and uninjured muscle tissue. 



The findings revealed that the inflammatory response in stem cells varies by time of day. These stem cells signal neutrophils, immune cells crucial to muscle recovery.



“We discovered that the cells’ signaling to each other was much stronger right after injury when mice were injured during their wake period,” Peek said. 



“That was an exciting finding and is further evidence that the circadian regulation of muscle regeneration is dictated by this stem cell-immune cell crosstalk.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-may-slow-muscle-recovery">Aging may slow muscle recovery</h2>



The research also uncovered the role of NAD+, a coenzyme essential for energy production and metabolism. The muscle stem cell clock influences NAD+ production after injury, which in turn affects immune responses.



To test this, the scientists used genetically modified mice with increased NAD+ production in muscle stem cells. They found that boosting NAD+ levels led to stronger inflammatory responses and improved muscle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-fuels-neuron-growth-through-muscle-signals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing</a>.



These findings may be crucial in understanding muscle recovery issues linked to aging and metabolic disorders. Peek believes circadian rhythm disruptions could explain slower healing in older individuals and those with obesity or diabetes.



“Circadian disruptions linked to aging and metabolic syndromes like obesity and diabetes are also associated with diminished <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-can-cause-muscle-decline-adult-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle</a> regeneration,” Peek said. 



“Now, we are able to ask: do these circadian disruptions contribute to poorer muscle regeneration capacity in these conditions? How does that interact with the immune system?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Peek and her team plan to explore the exact mechanisms by which NAD+ influences immune responses. They hope to uncover whether this process can be manipulated to improve muscle recovery in those affected by aging or metabolic disorders.



“A lot of circadian biology focuses on molecular clocks in individual cell types and in the absence of stress,” Peek said. 



“We haven't had the technology to sufficiently look at cell-cell interactions until recently. Trying to understand how different circadian clocks interact in conditions of stress and regeneration, is really an exciting new frontier.”



This research opens new possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-muscles-may-soon-be-able-to-regenerate-like-other-muscles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhancing muscle repair</a> by aligning treatment approaches with the body's natural rhythms. 



Optimizing recovery schedules and boosting NAD+ production could improve muscle healing. This study reveals how the body’s internal clock affects regeneration, offering new possibilities for better treatments. 



Understanding these processes may help aging individuals, shift workers, and those with metabolic disorders recover faster and maintain stronger muscles.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq8538" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Muscle recovery depends on time of day

The human body operates on an internal schedule, known as...

A recent study indicates that chronic stress may be associated with an increased chance of stroke in some younger adults - particularly women.



The researchers examined younger adults and found an association between stress and stroke in female participants, but not male participants. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-adults-and-work-related-stress">Young adults and work-related stress</h2>



The research team zeroed in on adults under the age of 50 who had experienced an ischemic stroke of unknown cause.&nbsp;



“Younger people often experience stress due to the demands and pressures associated with work, including long hours and job insecurity, as well as financial burdens,” said senior Nicolas Martinez-Majander, a doctor at the <a href="https://www.hus.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helsinki University Hospital</a> in Finland.&nbsp;



“Previous research has shown that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chronic-stress-disrupts-gut-bacteria-and-fuels-cancer-progression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic stress</a> can negatively affect physical and mental health. Our study found it may increase the risk of stroke in younger women.”



Ischemic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stroke-deaths-expected-to-rise-to-five-million-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke</a> occurs when a blood vessel is blocked, cutting off blood flow to part of the brain. Potential outcomes can include weakness, speech issues, vision problems, or even death.&nbsp;



While young adults generally carry a lower risk of stroke, chronic stress may lead to physiological changes that raise stroke likelihood in certain groups, especially younger women.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chronic-stress-and-stroke">Chronic stress and stroke</h2>



To investigate possible links between chronic stress and stroke, the researchers examined 426 participants aged 18 to 49 who had an ischemic stroke lacking a known cause. These individuals were then matched by age and sex with 426 people who had not experienced a stroke.



All participants answered a questionnaire evaluating stress during a one-month period. Those with stroke were instructed to recall how stressed they felt in the month before their stroke.&nbsp;



The survey asked 10 questions - one of which was, “In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life?” - and each question offered response options rated from zero to four, with four meaning “very often.”



Combining answers produced an overall stress score, with 0–13 deemed “low stress,” 14–26 “moderate stress,” and 27–40 “high stress.”&nbsp;



On average, people who suffered a stroke logged a stress score of 13, while those who did not have a stroke averaged 10. Overall, 46% of stroke survivors showed at least moderate stress levels, compared to 33% of those in the stroke-free group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stroke-risk-and-moderate-stress-nbsp">Stroke risk and moderate stress&nbsp;</h2>



After accounting for factors such as educational background, high blood pressure, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-has-a-hidden-impact-on-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol</a> consumption, the researchers discovered a striking pattern among younger women.&nbsp;



Moderate stress corresponded to a 78% greater stroke risk for women, and high stress was linked with a 6% increase. Yet, in younger men, no association appeared.



“More research is needed to understand why women who feel stressed, but not men, may have a higher risk of stroke,” said Martinez-Majander. 



“In addition, we need to further explore why the risk of stroke in women was higher for moderate stress than high stress. Knowing more about how stress plays a role could help us to create better ways to prevent these strokes.”



Though the data point to a heightened risk, the study cannot confirm that stress directly causes stroke. Instead, the results highlight a correlation warranting further examination. 



Future inquiries may focus on whether stress mediates other risk factors - such as hormone fluctuations or lifestyle behaviors - that then amplify the likelihood of stroke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-lifestyle-mechanisms">Possible lifestyle mechanisms</h2>



Chronic stress can trigger an overactive stress response, potentially causing long-lasting effects on blood pressure, inflammation, and metabolic processes.&nbsp;



Elevated stress might also reduce opportunities for exercise or encourage unhealthy habits (like poor nutrition or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smoking-cigarettes-accelerates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoking</a>), thereby intensifying stroke risk.&nbsp;



These mechanisms could be particularly pronounced among younger women balancing job demands, financial strains, and other social pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-of-the-study">Limitations of the study</h2>



A primary limitation to note is that those under intense stress may have been less inclined to participate in the study, potentially influencing results. Additionally, data collection hinged on self-reports of stress, a subjective measure that may vary between individuals.



Moreover, the study does not prove causation but only demonstrates an association between chronic stress and stroke in younger female participants. 



Finally, the analysis focused solely on ischemic strokes lacking a known origin, so the findings might not apply to other stroke types.



Nevertheless, these insights underscore the significance of stress management for younger adults, especially younger women. 



Understanding how moderate or high stress could lead to adverse health outcomes may pave the way for tailored prevention strategies - ranging from better mental health support to lifestyle modifications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-women-stress-and-stroke-prevention-nbsp">Young women, stress, and stroke prevention&nbsp;</h2>



While the exact reasons underlying the heightened stroke risk in stressed young women remain unclear, this study calls for closer monitoring of stress levels in clinical settings, alongside routine checks of factors like blood pressure and cholesterol.&nbsp;



Effective stress-reduction programs or workplace policies to lessen the burden on young women might also reduce future stroke occurrences.



By delving deeper into the physiological and behavioral pathways connecting stress and stroke, researchers can refine their efforts in mitigating risk.&nbsp;



For now, these findings point to stress as a meaningful element of stroke vulnerability among younger women, highlighting the need for interventions that tackle chronic stress before it contributes to more severe cardiovascular consequences.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000213369" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology®</a>.



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Work stress linked to higher stroke risk in young women

A recent study indicates that chronic stress may be associated...

New research suggests that using sex to ease social tension may have roots going back more than six million years, to a common ancestor shared by humans, bonobos, and chimpanzees.&nbsp;



While it’s no surprise that humans don’t only have sex to reproduce, this study highlights a similar pattern in our closest ape cousins, offering a window into how this behavior might have evolved in our own species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-bonobos-and-chimpanzees">Comparing bonobos and chimpanzees</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonobos</a> have long been recognized as “hypersexual” apes that turn to sexual activity to diffuse tension and mend rifts after disagreements. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-have-remarkable-spatial-memory-and-sense-of-direction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimpanzees</a>, on the other hand, have tended to be seen as more aggressive, leaving scientists uncertain about whether they also rely on sex to settle social conflicts. 



In a study led by <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> and published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.242031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>, researchers compared these two species under similar conditions to see how each used sex during tense moments.



The team observed bonobos and chimpanzees at two African great ape sanctuaries, logging more than 1,400 hours of data over seven months in 2019. They focused on two scenarios: after natural social altercations and just before feeding time, when appetites and power dynamics can lead to conflict.&nbsp;



The findings showed that while both species use sex to ease friction when competition is high - particularly before mealtimes - bonobos tended to rely on post-conflict “make-up sex” more frequently, whereas chimpanzees often used other forms of reassurance, such as grooming and body kissing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-our-evolutionary-past">A peek into our evolutionary past</h2>



The fact that bonobos and chimpanzees both use sexual contact to manage tension points to an ancient evolutionary trait, one that we humans appear to share.&nbsp;



“Whilst bonobos, who are famously hypersexual, were more likely to engage in so-called ‘make-up sex’ after periods of conflict, we found that chimpanzees, who some view as our more aggressive cousin, also use sex to ease tensions in many circumstances,” said lead author Jake Brooker, a postdoctoral researcher in Durham’s Department of Psychology.



Because bonobos and chimpanzees diverged from their common ancestor with humans over six million years ago, these findings hint that harnessing sex for social reasons - beyond mere reproduction - may have been part of that ancestral ape’s behavioral toolkit.&nbsp;



Bonobos’ reputation for “peace through pleasure” may not be so different in spirit from how chimpanzees and humans also use sexual bonds to relieve stress and reinforce alliances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-sex-to-prevent-conflict-nbsp">Using sex to prevent conflict&nbsp;</h2>



Another fascinating observation emerged when the researchers noticed that older apes in both species were more likely to initiate sexual interactions before feeding. This could mean that employing sex to prevent or reduce conflict is a learned or socially reinforced behavior.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, female bonobos and male chimpanzees showed a particular inclination toward initiating these interactions, though sex occurred across both heterosexual and same-sex pairings.



In contexts following disagreements, bonobos were more prone to using sex to patch things up, while chimpanzees often turned to other comforting gestures.&nbsp;



This difference might reflect the broader cultural or societal norms within each species - bonobos relying on a more sexually driven approach, and chimpanzees mixing sexual contact with an array of conciliatory activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-as-a-social-tool">Sex as a social tool</h2>



While humans are obviously different from apes in many ways, the study adds to a growing body of evidence that sex can serve social functions, such as conflict resolution, stress relief, and relationship maintenance.&nbsp;



Since bonobos, chimpanzees, and humans are all closely related, observing similarities in how these behaviors emerge under pressure can teach us more about our shared past.



It also challenges simplistic stereotypes: bonobos aren’t always the carefree “hippies” of the ape world, nor are chimpanzees unrelentingly belligerent. The reality is more nuanced. Even chimpanzees, known for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peaceful-bonobos-are-actually-more-aggressive-than-chimps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggressive tendencies</a>, use sexual contact to manage stress when circumstances demand it.



“Against the assumptions of pacifist sex-mad bonobos and aggressive chimpanzees, we found that both species used sex in similar ways during tense situations. This study highlights that beyond reproduction, sex plays an important role in their societies, and most likely for our early ancestors too,” said senior author Zanna Clay, a professor at Durham University.



With further research, scientists hope to learn more about how sex functions in different contexts for these apes, including how it varies in wild populations.&nbsp;



Such insights could add yet another layer of understanding to the intricate ways humans and our closest relatives navigate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-interactions-have-a-surprising-influence-on-memory-in-great-apes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social life</a> - both during times of strife and everyday interactions.



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Sex has been used in conflict resolution for millions of years

New research suggests that using sex to ease social tension...

For centuries, humans have wondered whether life exists beyond Earth. From ancient civilizations gazing at the stars to modern scientists sending robotic explorers to distant planets, the search for extraterrestrial life has been one of the most fascinating pursuits in human history. 



Now, within the next decade, space agencies plan to bring samples of Mars rock to Earth, marking a major step in this quest.



These samples may contain clues to the planet’s past and, potentially, signs of life. However, scientists must approach this mission with caution.



The possibility that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> samples could contain unknown microbes raises concerns about contamination and unforeseen consequences. To address this, researchers are working on new methods to detect life. 



For the first time, a team of scientists, including experts from the University of Tokyo and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>, has successfully tested a technique capable of identifying life in ancient Earth rocks similar to those found on Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-ancient-rocks-on-earth">Studying ancient rocks on Earth</h2>



The international Committee on Space Research (<a href="https://cosparhq.cnes.fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COSPAR</a>) developed safety protocols for handling Martian samples. 



These guidelines cover the collection, transport, and analysis of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-year-on-mars-avalanches-icy-explosions-and-the-arrival-of-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> rocks. The key challenge is detecting life in these samples, especially when none have been brought to Earth before.



To tackle this problem, a team led by Professor Yohey Suzuki at the University of Tokyo examined ancient Earth rocks rich in microbes. These rocks resemble those expected from Mars. The goal was to find a reliable method to detect life in such samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-method-to-detect-life-on-mars">New method to detect life on Mars</h2>



“We first tested conventional analytical instruments, but none could detect microbial cells in the 100-million-year-old basalt rock we use as the Martian analogue. So, we had to find an instrument sensitive enough to detect microbial cells, and ideally in a nondestructive way, given the rarity of the samples we may soon see,” said Suzuki. 



“We came up with optical photothermal infrared (O-PTIR) spectroscopy, which succeeded where other techniques either lacked precision or required too much destruction of the samples.”



O-PTIR spectroscopy uses infrared light to analyze prepared rock <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">samples</a>. Scientists remove the outer layers of the rock and slice them into thin sections. 



While this process is slightly destructive, it preserves most of the material for future studies. This approach is similar to how Apollo moon samples were preserved for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-microscopic-details-in-rocks">Revealing microscopic details in rocks</h2>



A green laser detects signals from the exposed rock, revealing microscopic details. This method can identify structures as small as half a micrometer. Such precision allows researchers to determine whether a structure was once part of a living organism.



“We demonstrated our new method can detect microbes from 100-million-year-old basalt rock. But we need to extend the validity of the instrument to older basalt rock, around 2 billion years old, similar to those the Perseverance rover on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> has already sampled,” said Suzuki. 



“I also need to test other rock types such as carbonates, which are common on Mars and here on Earth often contain life as well. It’s an exciting time to work in this field. It might only be a matter of years before we can finally answer one of the greatest questions ever asked.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-life-in-mars-samples">Detecting life in Mars samples</h2>



The possibility of discovering life on Mars is closer than ever. With space agencies preparing sample return missions, scientists are refining their methods to ensure they can detect biological material with accuracy. 



O-PTIR offers a promising way to analyze these samples while preserving them for future studies.



If signs of life are detected in the rock samples from Mars, the implications will be profound. This would mean that life is not unique to Earth and that it may exist elsewhere in the universe.



Even if the samples contain no traces of life, they will still provide valuable insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-mars-red-scientists-think-they-figured-out-billion-year-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet’s geological history</a> and climate evolution.



As technology advances, the search for extraterrestrial life continues to evolve. With each discovery, we come closer to answering one of the most fundamental questions in science: Are we alone in the universe?



The study is published in the International Journal of Astrobiology. 



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Detecting life on Mars: A breakthrough in space research

For centuries, humans have wondered whether life exists beyond Earth....

Insects play a crucial role in food chains and pollination. Over the last 20 years, their populations have dramatically declined due to rapid climate change. 



In a recent study, scientists have gained new insights into how certain fly species adapt to temperature shifts.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> studied two species from different climates: one from high-altitude forests in Northern California and the other from the hot deserts of the Southwest.



The findings reveal key differences in how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-like-to-play-and-have-fun-like-other-animals-according-to-a-fascinating-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> sense and respond to heat. The study suggests that changes in brain wiring and heat sensitivity influence whether a fly prefers warm or cool conditions.



This research may help predict how climate change will impact insect distribution and behavior. Tiny cold-blooded animals like flies rely on their environment to regulate body temperature. 



Their responses to temperature shifts offer valuable insights into the broader effects of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-flies-adapt-to-temperature">How flies adapt to temperature</h2>



The scientists found that flies from cool forests avoid heat due to their antennae’s molecular heat receptors.



In contrast, desert <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> are drawn to warmth, which is linked to changes in their brain wiring. These adaptations may have evolved over millions of years as each species adjusted to its environment.



The research sheds light on how animals develop preferences for specific temperature conditions. Understanding these adaptations can help predict future insect behavior in a rapidly changing world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-data-on-insects-and-climate-change">Limited data on insects and climate change</h2>



“Insects are especially threatened by climate change,” said Northwestern neurobiologist Marco Gallio. 



“Behavior is the first interface between an animal and its environment. Even before the struggle to survive or perish, animals can respond to climate change by migration and by changing their distribution."



“We are already seeing insect populations declining in many regions, and even insect vectors of disease like the Zika virus and malaria spreading into new areas.”



Gallio, a professor in the neurobiology department and the Soretta and Henry Shapiro Research Professor in Molecular Biology at the <a href="https://weinberg.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences</a>, studies fruit flies and their sensory systems. 



Professor Gallio noted that limited data exist on insects and temperature because “not enough people care about the insects.” However, the available figures show a drastic decline over the past 20 to 50 years.



Insects pollinate 70% of crops and form the base of most terrestrial food chains. Their disappearance could trigger catastrophic ecosystem damage and directly affect human well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-sensitivity-in-flies">Temperature sensitivity in flies</h2>



Professor Gallio’s lab has long focused on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-have-a-new-weapon-to-defend-against-parasitic-wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small insects</a> respond to different temperatures.



“The common fruit fly is an especially powerful animal to study how the external world is represented and processed within the brain,” Gallio said. 



Years of genetic and neuroscience research have created a detailed map of the fly brain, more complete than that of any other animal.



Scientists wondered how brain circuits differed between species that lived in distinct thermal environments. 



Using tools like CRISPR, they studied genetic and neural mechanisms that shape temperature preferences.



PhD student Matthew Capek, lead author of the study, explained that flies from different climates detect heat at different activation points. 



This discovery partially explained the forest flies’ preference for cooler temperatures. However, it did not fully clarify the desert flies’ attraction to heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-the-right-insect-temperature">Seeking the right insect temperature</h2>



“The desert fly seemed actively attracted to warmer temperatures - around 90 degrees Fahrenheit compared to the forest fly’s sweet spot just below 70 degrees,” Capek said.



“In fact, the activation threshold of the antenna heat sensors corresponded to their favorite temperature range, which they will seek, rather than to a temperature they should avoid.”



Instead of avoiding high temperatures, desert flies interpret warmth as something positive. Their brain circuits appear wired to approach heat rather than flee from it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-desert-flies-seek-heat">Why desert flies seek heat</h2>



Gallio initially found this puzzling. If deserts are already hot, why would <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> seek out warmth? A research trip to the Anza Borrego desert of Southern California provided the answer.



“Deserts in this region are very hot during the day, but temperatures can drop extremely rapidly when the sun goes down, and night can be downright freezing,” said Alessia Para, a research associate professor of neurobiology and key author of the study. 



“Flies in this climate may need to constantly attend to the rapidly changing temperature and always seek the ideal range, finding shady spots during the day and hiding in cacti for warmth at night.”



Flies from milder environments may only react to extreme temperature shifts. In contrast, desert flies must continuously monitor temperature changes to survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-climate-and-temperature">Insects, climate, and temperature</h2>



Tracking the right temperature at all times is energy-intensive. For desert <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-walk-jump-and-dance-using-the-same-motor-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a>, however, it is a necessary survival strategy. 



Professor Gallio sees their behavior as part of a larger puzzle about how animals adapt to different climates.



“This comparative work is useful in a couple of different ways,” Gallio said. 



“When an animal is born, the brain is already programmed to know if many of the things it will encounter are bad or good for it, and we do not understand how that programming works.



“These fly species represent a natural experiment because a stimulus that is good for one species is bad for the other, and we can study the differences that make it so. 



“We also want to learn more about how animals have been able to adapt to different temperatures during evolution, so that we may be able to better understand and even predict how they react to ongoing climate change. 



“Of course, we care about the insects, and we hope that what we learn may help us appreciate and protect them better.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08682-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Insect populations are "dramatically" declining around the world as scientists sound alarm

Insects play a crucial role in food chains and pollination....

The timing of biological events in nature is crucial for survival. Flowers bloom in spring, cicadas mate in summer, and caterpillars hatch to feed on their host plants. 



However, extreme weather can disrupt this natural schedule - known as phenology - upsetting the delicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-must-reconnect-with-nature-now-to-save-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">balance</a> of ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-nature-s-timing">Climate change and nature's timing</h2>



Phenology is closely tied to seasonal patterns, but climate change is interfering with nature's timing and causing shifts in how organisms interact.



A study led by <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> ecologist Daijiang Li has explored how extreme weather affects phenology. The team focused on butterflies, moths, and flowering plants across the United States.



Extreme weather events, such as heat waves, cold snaps, heavy rainfall, and droughts, impact ecosystems but are often overlooked. Most research examines gradual climate shifts rather than immediate weather extremes. 



This oversight creates a knowledge gap in understanding how sudden changes affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and their interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immediate-impact-of-extreme-weather">Immediate impact of extreme weather</h2>



"Most studies have focused on climatic variables or seasonalities, such as annual temperatures or precipitation averages," said Li. 



"But as individuals, we respond to and make our decisions in response to immediate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-must-live-in-harmony-with-nature-to-create-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental stress</a>, rather than a 10-year trend, right?"



Li and his team found that extreme weather events play a significant role in phenology, comparable to average temperature changes. The research showed that these events interact with climatic variables, influencing plants and insects in complex ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compounding-effects-of-weather-extremes">Compounding effects of weather extremes</h2>



"For example, extremely hot and extremely dry periods can have a compounding effect on the phenology," Li said.



"These variables don't occur in isolation. Rather, they interact with each other and interact with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-the-dual-crises-of-climate-and-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climatic variables</a> in driving the phenology of plants and insects as a whole."



The researchers analyzed data collected by citizen scientists through iNaturalist. This app allows users to document species by taking photos and uploading them to a database. Li’s team combined iNaturalist records with daily weather data from 1980 to 2022.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-specific-responses">Species-specific responses</h2>



"We looked at about 581 species of angiosperms (flowering plants) and the flying adults of 172 Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths) from 2016 to 2022," Li said. 



"We also looked at the spatial distribution patterns, how extreme weather events affect the phenology of those plants and insects, and also whether the plants and insects have similar or different responses to extreme weather events."



One concern is how extreme weather disrupts relationships between species. Some species depend on precise timing for survival. The yucca plant and yucca moth, for example, rely on each other. 



The moth pollinates the yucca flowers, while the plant provides food for its larvae. If this timing is disrupted, both species suffer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-of-phenological-mismatches">Risk of phenological mismatches</h2>



"If larval stages of insects are too responsive to early spring heat waves, they may be more susceptible to mortality when temperatures return to normal or during cold snaps," Li said. 



"Similarly, if spring is warmer than usual, plants are going to flower earlier, making them more vulnerable to late frost during growing season."



If pollinators like butterflies or moths emerge before or after plants flower, both struggle. Pollinators cannot find food, and flowers go unpollinated. These mismatches threaten entire ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-reactions-to-cold-spells">Unexpected reactions to cold spells</h2>



The study also revealed that plants and insects react differently to extreme weather. While extreme cold in spring caused butterflies and moths to emerge early, plant flowering times remained largely unchanged.



"Those kinds of phenological mismatches are going to have consequences for both the plants as well as for the insects, causing both populations to suffer," Li said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-extreme-weather">Future research on extreme weather </h2>



Li and his co-authors, Michael Belitz, Lindsay Campbell, and Robert Guralnick from the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>, believe incorporating extreme weather into climate models will improve predictions. This could help mitigate negative effects on ecosystems.



"This work has the potential to be relevant across multiple sectors, from conservation to food security," said Campbell, an assistant professor at the Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory.



"We are still just beginning to more fully understand how extreme weather impacts insects and plants, which ultimately impacts us and our food security," said Guralnick. "This work is a step towards that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goal</a>."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02248-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Nature’s timing is drastically changing due to extreme weather

The timing of biological events in nature is crucial for...

NASA's Lunar Trailblazer mission is taking off soon, and it's got one big job: solving the Moon's water mystery.



This tiny satellite is catching a lift on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket - tagging along with Intuitive Machines' IM-2 launch as part of NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services initiative.



It'll spend months making its way to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-are-searching-for-viable-sources-of-water-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar orbit</a> before getting down to business.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunt-for-moon-s-water">Hunt for Moon's water</h2>



Scientists made an incredible discovery in recent decades - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moons-entire-surface-is-covered-with-water-and-hydroxyl-not-just-the-poles/">Moon has water</a>. But we barely know anything about it. 



Where exactly is it? What form does it take? How much is there? Does it change over time?



<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/lunar-trailblazer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar Trailblazer</a> wants answers. This little satellite will map Moon water in unprecedented detail. 



The info it gathers during its two-year mission won't just teach us about the Moon either, it'll help us understand water cycles on airless bodies all across the solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smart-tech-for-moon-s-water-mystery">Smart tech for Moon's water mystery</h2>



The spacecraft carries two impressive instruments.



First, there's the High-resolution Volatiles and Minerals Moon Mapper (<a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=L-TRLBLZR-01" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HVM3</a>), an infrared spectrometer developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California.



Then, there's the Lunar Thermal Mapper (<a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=L-TRLBLZR-02" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LTM</a>), an infrared multispectral imager built by the University of Oxford with funding from the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/uk-space-agency" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Space Agency</a>.



HVM3 will track down spectral fingerprints - those wavelengths of reflected sunlight - that identify minerals and different water types on the lunar surface. 



The LTM handles mapping the minerals and thermal properties of the same areas.



Together, they'll create a complete picture of where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-is-the-moons-water-a-nasa-mission-will-soon-find-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> is, what form it takes, and how it shifts over time and temperature variations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-there-isn-t-simple">Getting there isn't simple</h2>



The Lunar Trailblazer isn't big - about the size of your dishwasher and weighing just 440 pounds with solar panels that extend 11.5 feet (3.5 meters) when fully open.



The mission team planned something clever: a looping path that'll take 4-7 months, and use the gravity of the Sun, Earth, and Moon as natural guides.



The team calls this technique a low-energy transfer, and it makes the journey much more feasible for the small explorer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peeking-into-dark-craters">Peeking into dark craters</h2>



Once it arrives, Lunar Trailblazer will direct its HVM3 instrument toward the Moon's South Pole craters. 



What makes these areas so remarkable? They contain cold traps that may have remained in darkness for billions of years - ideal hiding places for frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-scientists-have-harvested-water-from-lunar-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a>.



The spectrometer relies on faint light reflecting off crater walls to observe the floors of permanently shadowed regions.



If it detects substantial ice deposits at the bottom of these craters, future lunar explorers may have just identified their next crucial source of Moon water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-doing-more-with-less">Doing more with less</h2>



NASA selected Lunar Trailblazer back in 2019 through their Small Innovative Missions for Planetary Exploration program. It's all about hitching rides on other missions to save money.



These missions accept more risk and have less oversight than bigger projects. That's the trade-off - but it lets NASA green-light science missions that just couldn't happen otherwise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-lunar-exploration">Future of lunar exploration</h2>



Water is the key to survival in space. 



If Lunar Trailblazer finds abundant, accessible ice, future astronauts won’t have to bring all their water from Earth - they can extract it directly from the Moon. 



This could lead to sustainable lunar bases, longer missions, and even a stepping stone for Mars exploration.



But beyond its practical applications, this mission taps into something deeper - a human need to explore, to push boundaries, to uncover the unknown. 



Lunar Trailblazer isn’t just a satellite; it’s a bridge to the future, guiding us toward a new era of space discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-moon-s-water-mystery">Future research on Moon's water mystery </h2>



The data from Lunar Trailblazer won't just satisfy scientific curiosity. It'll be practical. Future astronauts could use lunar ice for drinking water, breathing oxygen, or even rocket fuel. 



Scientists might sample it to trace where Moon water originally came from.



<a href="https://www.gps.caltech.edu/people/bethany-l-ehlmann" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bethany Ehlmann</a> of Caltech leads the mission as Principal Investigator, with Caltech handling the science and mission operations through their IPAC center. 



NASA JPL manages everything and provides engineering support and the HVM3 instrument.



<a href="https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/capabilities/space.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lockheed Martin Space</a> built the spacecraft itself and handles flight operations. It's all part of NASA's broader <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar Discovery Exploration Program</a>, which is overseen by the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/planetarymissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Mission Program Office</a> at Marshall Space Flight Center.



Information for this article came from a NASA JPL <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/6-things-to-know-about-nasas-lunar-trailblazer/">press release.</a>



Image Credit: Lockheed Martin Space



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NASA's dishwasher-sized spacecraft will map Moon's water

NASA's Lunar Trailblazer mission is taking off soon, and it's...

A team of astronomers has produced the sharpest-ever images of infant planets forming around a distant star, revealing rings of dust that could eventually spawn moons.&nbsp;



Taking advantage of a state-of-the-art adaptive optics system called Magellan Adaptive Optics Xtreme (<a href="https://magao-x.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MagAO-X</a>), the researchers examined two protoplanets orbiting PDS 70 - a star that is only about five million years old. 



Situated roughly 370 light-years away in the constellation Centaurus, this newborn system offers a rare window into the formative stages of planetary evolution.



Led by the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, the research provides some of the clearest evidence to date that young planets can be surrounded by dense rings of dust.&nbsp;



These disks are expected to collapse into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-moon-looks-100-million-years-younger-than-its-true-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moons</a> over the next few million years. The team also noted surprising shifts in the brightness of the planets, suggesting highly turbulent conditions as they rapidly evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-stars-and-massive-planets">Young stars and massive planets</h2>



The youth of PDS 70 makes it a valuable proxy for what our own solar system might have looked like billions of years ago. In contrast, our Sun - a “middle-aged” <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-star-movement-in-omega-centauri-may-finally-be-explained/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a> at roughly 4.5 billion years old - has long since lost the fleeting features of its infancy.



“Multiple massive planets act kind of like brooms or vacuum cleaners. They basically scatter the dust away and clear the large gap that we observe in this great big disk of gas and dust that surrounds the star," explained Laird Close, a professor of astronomy at the University of Arizona’s <a href="https://astro.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Steward Observatory</a>.



Among thousands of confirmed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a>, very few are known to be in the protoplanetary stage. 



The two planets orbiting PDS 70, known as PDS 70 b and PDS 70 c, stand out as a unique opportunity for astronomers to track how worlds and their moons take shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-breakthrough-in-technology">Major breakthrough in technology </h2>



Central to the team’s success is MagAO-X, an advanced adaptive optics system installed on the 6.5-meter Magellan Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory in Chile. 



Adaptive optics counters the blurring effects of Earth’s atmosphere, which otherwise hinders ground-based observations.



With a deformable mirror that changes shape up to 2,000 times per second, MagAO-X can “untwinkle” stars in much the same way noise-cancelling headphones block ambient sound.



“This is a really great breakthrough in technology,” said Close, noting that the system achieves better resolution than even space-based telescopes like Hubble and the James Webb Space Telescope.&nbsp;



“Because our technology removes disturbances from the atmosphere, it’s a bit like taking a 6.5-meter telescope mirror and putting it in outer space by clicking a computer mouse button.”



In practical terms, this heightened resolution means MagAO-X can pick out exceptionally fine details from 370 light-years away - akin to discerning whether someone holds a single quarter or two quarters while standing 125 miles off.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-planets-with-dusty-birthplaces">Young planets with dusty birthplaces</h2>



One of the major discoveries from these observations was the presence of bright, compact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-directly-observes-carbon-factories-milky-way-galaxy-wolf-rayet-140/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rings of dust</a> around PDS 70 b and c.&nbsp;



These rings are expected to fall in on themselves over time, eventually giving rise to new moons, much like how Jupiter’s and Saturn’s moon systems likely formed out of similar dust disks in the early solar system.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/PDS-70-system_baby-planets_first-images_credit-Close-Close_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/PDS-70-system_baby-planets_first-images_credit-Close-Close_1s.webp" alt="Donuts of dust: An artist’s impression of the PDS 70 system with protoplanets, each surrounded by dust rings illuminated by starlight. The planets themselves (not to scale) have thin rings of plasma heated to around 14,000 degrees Fahrenheit, which glow at the red emission line of H-alpha light. Credit: Emmeline Close and Laird Close" class="wp-image-1961551"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Donuts of dust: An artist’s impression of the PDS 70 system with protoplanets, each surrounded by dust rings illuminated by starlight. The planets themselves (not to scale) have thin rings of plasma heated to around 14,000 degrees Fahrenheit, which glow at the red emission line of H-alpha light. Credit: Emmeline Close and Laird Close</figcaption></figure>



“We can see, for the first time, rings of dust surrounding protoplanets made visible by the bright starlight reflecting off of them,” said Jialin Li, a doctoral student in astronomy and one of the study’s co-authors.



Understanding these initial stages is vital, as the presence of dusty disks can affect how planets accumulate mass and whether substantial moons can form.&nbsp;



Over the coming millions of years, these forming gas giants could end up with satellite systems similar in scale to those found around Jupiter or Saturn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-shifts-in-planet-brightness">Surprising shifts in planet brightness</h2>



Another finding was how dramatically the planets varied in brightness over just three years. The team discovered that PDS 70 b dropped to about one-fifth of its original brightness, whereas PDS 70 c doubled in brightness over the same timeframe.



Close suggested these fluctuations are tied to changes in the hydrogen “waterfalls” streaming onto each planet. When hydrogen gas bombards a planet’s surface, it emits light at a wavelength known as H-alpha.&nbsp;



Because the amount of hydrogen flowing onto a planet can change quickly, its brightness at that specific wavelength can swing just as rapidly.



“Essentially, one of the planets abruptly went on a diet while the other was feasting on hydrogen,” said Close.



Despite these observations, astronomers still are not entirely sure what triggers such abrupt fluctuations. 



More continued monitoring of systems like PDS 70 may help clarify whether these brightness changes are typical for protoplanets or caused by particularly chaotic growth spurts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-ground-based-discoveries">The future of ground-based discoveries</h2>



MagAO-X has already broadened astronomers’ capabilities for examining protoplanets, and the team plans to search for additional infant worlds around other young stars.&nbsp;



Although discovering more planets at such an early formation stage is technically challenging, improvements in adaptive optics and telescope design could make it increasingly feasible.



“One of our main goals is to demonstrate just how well these observations can be done with telescopes on the ground,” said Jared Males, MagAO-X’s principal investigator and an associate astronomer at Steward Observatory.&nbsp;



“We can always build larger telescopes on the ground than in space, and this result shows how important it is to build the next generation of even larger telescopes and equip them with instruments like MagAO-X.”



By continuing to refine adaptive optics and other observational techniques, astronomers hope to fill in the missing details of how stars and their planets form.&nbsp;



In the process, they can draw parallels back to our own solar system’s earliest days - insights that were essentially lost to time after 4.5 billion years of evolution.



The study is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/ad8648" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astronomical Journal</a>.



Image Credit: Emmeline Close and Laird Close



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Stunning images of "baby planets" reveal surprising growth spurts

A team of astronomers has produced the sharpest-ever images of...

Our brains constantly create internal maps of the world, allowing us to navigate spaces, recall past experiences, and plan for the future. These cognitive maps enable us to recognize patterns, anticipate changes, and adapt our behavior accordingly.&nbsp;



Whether it's finding the right floor in a hotel or realizing we’ve stepped out onto the wrong one, these maps help us make sense of our surroundings.



Neuroscientists have long studied how neurons respond to specific locations, but how these mental maps form over time has remained largely unknown.&nbsp;



Now, researchers at <a href="https://www.janelia.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HHMI’s Janelia Research Campus</a> have uncovered a step-by-step process for how these maps develop in the hippocampus, a brain region critical for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-create-three-copies-of-every-memory-we-make/">memory</a> and spatial navigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-neural-activity-over-time">Tracking neural activity over time</h2>



By recording the activity of thousands of neurons in a mouse's hippocampus over days and weeks, the research team, led by the <a href="https://www.janelia.org/lab/spruston-lab" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spruston Lab</a>, systematically documented how the brain constructs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-maps-help-the-brain-remember-places-and-paths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive maps</a> as an animal learns.&nbsp;



The study focused on how the hippocampus differentiates between two visually similar environments - much like different floors in a hotel - with each offering a reward in different locations.



“We are mapping out the step-by-step process of cognitive map formation, which is such an important concept,” said Weinan Sun, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> and a co-leader of the research.&nbsp;



“But there is also a second contribution: The result of watching that process gives us a hint about the underlying computations, and we get a little bit closer to understanding what the brain is doing in making these maps.”



The findings not only provide new insight into memory formation but could also improve treatments for neurodegenerative diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-why-some-brains-resist-alzheimers-disease-symptoms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s</a> and advance artificial intelligence (AI) systems by helping them reason more like biological brains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-maps-of-similar-spaces">Brain maps of similar spaces</h2>



To study cognitive map formation, researchers used high-resolution imaging to track the neural activity of a mouse navigating a virtual environment. The mouse learned to recognize two nearly identical corridors - one offering a reward at a near location and the other at a far location - based on visual cues.



At first, the mouse had no understanding of the task, and its neural activity looked similar for both corridors. But as learning progressed, distinct patterns began to emerge.&nbsp;



Initially, the mouse learned where not to search for rewards, ignoring locations where it had previously been unsuccessful. Next, it recognized that only one reward was given per corridor and adjusted its behavior accordingly.&nbsp;



Finally, the mouse learned to suppress its response at the near reward location in the corridor where the reward was placed farther ahead. As the animal learned, its brain gradually separated the two corridors into completely distinct cognitive maps.



“Initially, the brain activity is very similar, and with learning, the activity becomes more and more different until they are orthogonal,” Sun explained. “In the end, each neural pattern of activity will encode a hidden state that reflects the true nature of the task.”



This ability to encode hidden states - aspects of an environment that are not immediately visible - is crucial for navigating complex and ambiguous spaces in the real world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-extracts-hidden-information">The brain extracts hidden information</h2>



The researchers identified a special type of neurons, which they call “state cells,” that help encode hidden information and distinguish between similar environments. These cells allow an animal to recognize whether it is in one corridor or the other - even if the visual surroundings appear identical.



“The brain cares about the immediate sensory input but interprets it in the context of the hidden state the animal is in,” Sun said.



This process mirrors how humans learn to differentiate between similar locations. When staying in a multi-floor hotel, for example, the hallways on each floor might look nearly identical.&nbsp;



At first, we might struggle to tell them apart, but over time, our brains encode subtle differences - such as the layout of furniture or the feel of the carpeting - allowing us to recognize our floor effortlessly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computational-principles-of-brain-maps">Computational principles of brain maps</h2>



Beyond mapping neural activity, the researchers wanted to understand the computational principles behind these maps. 



The experts tested various models and found that the best fit was a Clone-Structured Causal Graph (CSCG) - a type of state machine that infers hidden states based on observed patterns.



This finding suggests that the brain builds cognitive maps much like a computer program that predicts an outcome by piecing together hidden clues.



“One of the ultimate goals of neuroscience is to connect observed behavior with the cellular, molecular, and computational processes that produce it,” saID Janelia Executive Director Nelson Spruston, the study’s senior author.&nbsp;



“We are getting at the algorithmic level - arguably the hardest to pin down - which helps us connect the dots of how the brain operates to form these computations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-neuroscience">AI and neuroscience</h2>



Understanding how the hippocampus constructs cognitive maps could lead to advances in artificial intelligence and the treatment of memory disorders. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-ai-systems-learn-like-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI systems</a>, such as large language models (LLMs), struggle with tasks requiring reasoning, planning, and long-term memory.&nbsp;



By incorporating biological principles from the hippocampus, AI could become better at contextual learning and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decision-making</a>.



“Neuroscience and AI can learn a lot from each other,” said Johan Winnubst, lead scientist at <a href="https://e11.bio/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E11 Bio</a>, who co-led the research.&nbsp;



“What large language models are able to do is very impressive, but they also fail in a lot of very obvious ways. Some of that has to do with reasoning and long-term planning. Maybe we can introduce lessons from the hippocampus to improve these models.”



Additionally, insights from this study could help researchers design better treatments for neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s, where memory formation and cognitive mapping are severely impaired.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The researchers have made their data publicly available through an interactive visualization tool, allowing scientists worldwide to explore the neural patterns behind cognitive map formation.&nbsp;



Moving forward, they plan to expand their research to more complex environments, testing whether the same principles apply to different types of learning and decision-making.



By connecting behavior, neural activity, and computational models, this study takes an important step toward unraveling one of neuroscience’s greatest mysteries: how the brain builds the maps that shape our perception, memory, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/every-part-of-the-brain-works-together-to-support-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08548-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How our brains build mental maps of the world

Our brains constantly create internal maps of the world, allowing...

New research has uncovered a surprising wrinkle in our understanding of how pesticides affect bumble bees.&nbsp;



While common sense tells us that chemicals meant to kill insects can only harm pollinators, it turns out there may be moments when a tiny amount of poison could actually help a bumble bee queen make it through winter - at least in the short term.



A team of researchers led by <a href="https://agsci.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University’s College of Agricultural Sciences</a> examined imidacloprid, a widely used neonicotinoid insecticide. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-term-benefits-vs-long-term-fitness">Short-term benefits vs. long-term fitness </h2>



It’s already well-established that high doses of imidacloprid shorten bees’ lives and reduce their ability to reproduce. 



But when the scientists took a closer look, they found something unexpected: at low, sublethal doses, imidacloprid seemed to help bumble bee queens survive through diapause, which is the bug-world version of hibernation.



This phenomenon is called hormesis - when a small dose of something that’s generally harmful turns out to be beneficial under just the right circumstances.&nbsp;



The experts compared it to caffeine for humans. A small amount might provide a boost, but we all know it can also interfere with our sleep if we’re not careful.&nbsp;



“Even low doses can have unintended effects, such as disrupting sleep,” said Etya Amsalem, an associate professor of entomology at Penn State and the study’s lead author.



According to Professor Amsalem, if hormesis goes unrecognized, it could lead to the mistaken conclusion that certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-attack-bees-in-multiple-ways-throughout-the-body/">pesticides</a> benefit bees. 



“Such a misconception is dangerous, given the well-documented negative effects of imidacloprid and the trade-offs associated with hormetic responses - where short-term benefits trade-off with long-term fitness.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-winter-struggle-of-bumble-bee-queens">Winter struggle of bumble bee queens</h2>



One reason this discovery matters so much is that queen bumble bees spend a huge chunk of their life - often around 75% - in diapause. This is a dormant state that helps them weather harsh winter conditions.&nbsp;



If a queen doesn’t make it through this frigid, food-scarce period, an entire future colony is lost in the process.



“Despite the fact that most pollinators undergo winter diapause, pesticide risk assessments typically focus on the bee’s active seasons, overlooking a significant portion of the bee’s life cycle,” Amsalem explained.&nbsp;



So, while we know a fair bit about how chemicals impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-is-buzzing-off-bumblebee-senses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> during spring and summer, there’s a big gap in our knowledge about what happens to them over winter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pesticides-and-bumble-bee-survival">Pesticides and bumble bee survival</h2>



To figure out how imidacloprid might affect bees during both the active and dormant phases, the team fed bumble bees sugar water containing different concentrations of the insecticide.&nbsp;



For worker bees and males, higher doses led to the usual bad news: shorter lifespans and fewer offspring. But when the scientists gave queen bees just a little bit of imidacloprid before sending them into diapause under controlled conditions, they noticed a puzzling effect.&nbsp;



“Surprisingly, we found that sublethal imidacloprid exposure actually improved the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebee-queens-have-an-odd-preference-for-contaminated-soil/">queens</a>’ survival,” Amsalem said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormesis-a-double-edged-sword">Hormesis: A double-edged sword</h2>



While a longer winter survival time sounds like a good thing, that’s only one part of the bigger story. The team also saw that imidacloprid exposure lowered overall fitness, such as decreasing a colony’s total reproductive output.&nbsp;



In other words, the queen might make it through the winter more often if she has just a tiny bit of pesticide in her system, but that same pesticide still saps her and her colony in other ways - perhaps making them less robust once spring arrives.



That’s the essence of hormesis: it’s a trade-off. In bees, these short-term gains don’t necessarily mean the insecticide is actually beneficial when you look at the big picture.&nbsp;



Instead, scientists worry that not accounting for hormesis could lead us to think that certain pesticides are harmless or even helpful, when in fact they may still pose major threats to our pollinator populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-the-bigger-picture">Looking at the bigger picture</h2>



Bumble bees are critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinators</a> for a variety of crops. Any shift in their survival rates - good or bad - could have huge implications for agriculture and ecosystems. If our standard methods of testing pesticide safety overlook what happens during diapause, we risk missing the full picture.



Professor Amsalem believes these findings should be woven into how we assess and regulate pesticides. She also said we need to dig deeper into the “why” of this hormetic response. 



“Most importantly,” she explained, “we must strive to conduct nuanced science that provides a holistic understanding of how stressors affect pollinators - ensuring better-informed conservation efforts.”



To truly protect bumble bees and other pollinators, experts will need to examine every part of their life cycle, not just those busy spring and summer months.&nbsp;



That includes thinking about how warming and pesticides might affect them differently in different seasons - and whether certain amounts of chemicals that look safe on the surface can still be causing hidden problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The discovery that low doses of imidacloprid can help queens survive winter means we can’t simply dismiss all sublethal pesticide exposure as benign. It also means that if we don’t consider diapause in our risk assessments, we might jump to the wrong conclusions.&nbsp;



Future research will no doubt explore exactly how these low doses increase queen survival and whether similar patterns show up in other insect species or other types of pesticides.



What’s clear is that pollinator health is rarely a simple matter of “just avoid poison.” From the vantage point of ecology, everything is connected. A small dose can have unforeseen benefits - until it doesn’t.&nbsp;



By expanding our perspective to include times of the year we usually overlook, like the frigid months when queen bees are hidden away, we stand a better chance of keeping these vital pollinators humming along for generations to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0612">Biology Letters</a>.



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Pesticides affect bumble bee health in complex ways

New research has uncovered a surprising wrinkle in our understanding...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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