Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Black holes are among the most mysterious objects in the universe. Their immense gravitational pull can warp space and time, yet they remain invisible unless they interact with their surroundings. 



Understanding black holes is crucial to deciphering the history of the cosmos. Scientists know that supermassive black holes sit at the centers of large galaxies, including the Milky Way. 



However, much remains unknown about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-massive-early-universe-black-hole-stuns-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> in smaller galaxies.



Using early data from the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (<a href="https://www.desi.lbl.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DESI</a>), researchers have uncovered an extraordinary population of black holes hiding in dwarf galaxies. 



This discovery includes the largest-ever sample of dwarf galaxies with actively feeding black holes.



The study also presents the most extensive collection of intermediate-mass black hole candidates. These findings push the boundaries of astrophysics and open new avenues for exploring galaxy formation and evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-universe">Mapping the Universe</h2>



DESI is one of the most advanced instruments in modern astronomy. It can capture light from 5,000 galaxies at once, allowing scientists to collect vast amounts of data efficiently. 



The instrument operates on the Nicholas U. Mayall 4-meter Telescope at <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/programs/kitt-peak-national-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kitt Peak National Observatory</a> in Arizona. 



The project is funded by the Department of Energy (<a href="https://www.energy.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DOE</a>) and the National Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF</a>), with contributions from international partners.



The DESI survey is in its fourth year and aims to observe 40 million galaxies and quasars. This ambitious project involves over 900 scientists from 70 institutions worldwide. 



DESI’s precision and large-scale capabilities make it a crucial tool in identifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-draco-1es-1927-654-just-awoke-is-spewing-material-at-incredible-speeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hidden black holes</a> across the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-for-black-holes-in-dwarf-galaxies">Hunting for black holes in dwarf galaxies</h2>



Dwarf galaxies are small, faint, and contain fewer stars than massive galaxies. They are difficult to study because their black holes are not as prominent. 



In large galaxies, astronomers can detect black holes by observing the movement of stars and gas around them. However, dwarf galaxies require a different approach.



One way to find <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> in these galaxies is by identifying active galactic nuclei (AGN). When a black hole consumes surrounding material, it releases a massive amount of energy, making it easier to detect. 



This energy illuminates the surrounding region, acting as a signal for scientists.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/black-holes_dwarf-galaxies_NoirLabs_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/black-holes_dwarf-galaxies_NoirLabs_1s.webp" alt="This mosaic shows a series of images featuring candidate dwarf galaxies hosting an active galactic nucleus, captured with the Subaru Telescope’s Hyper Suprime-Cam. Credit: Legacy Surveys/D. Lang (Perimeter Institute)/NAOJ/HSC Collaboration/D. de Martin (NSF NOIRLab) &amp; M. Zamani (NSF NOIRLab)" class="wp-image-1960353"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This mosaic shows a series of images featuring candidate dwarf galaxies hosting an active galactic nucleus, captured with the Subaru Telescope’s Hyper Suprime-Cam. Credit: Legacy Surveys/D. Lang (Perimeter Institute)/NAOJ/HSC Collaboration/D. de Martin (NSF NOIRLab) &amp; M. Zamani (NSF NOIRLab)</figcaption></figure>



“When a black hole at the center of a galaxy starts feeding, it unleashes a tremendous amount of energy into its surroundings, transforming into what we call an active galactic nucleus,” says Ragadeepika Pucha, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.utah.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah</a>.



The team identified 2,500 dwarf galaxies hosting AGN - the largest sample ever discovered. Previous studies estimated that only 0.5% of dwarf galaxies contained an AGN, but this new research suggests a much higher percentage.



These results indicate that many low-mass black holes have remained undetected until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-intermediate-mass-black-holes">Mystery of intermediate-mass black holes</h2>



Most known black holes are either stellar-mass or supermassive. Stellar-mass black holes form when massive stars collapse. 



Supermassive black holes exist at the centers of large galaxies, weighing millions to billions of times the mass of the Sun. However, intermediate-mass black holes remain elusive.



Scientists believe these mid-sized black holes could be the remnants of the first black holes formed in the early universe. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/black-holes_intermediate-mass_mosaic_NoirLabs_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/black-holes_intermediate-mass_mosaic_NoirLabs_1s.webp" alt="This mosaic shows a series of images featuring intermediate-mass black hole candidates, arranged in increasing order of stellar mass, captured with the Subaru Telescope’s Hyper Suprime-Cam. Credit: Legacy Surveys/D. Lang (Perimeter Institute)/NAOJ/HSC Collaboration/D. de Martin (NSF NOIRLab) &amp; M. Zamani (NSF NOIRLab)" class="wp-image-1960355"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This mosaic shows a series of images featuring intermediate-mass black hole candidates, arranged in increasing order of stellar mass, captured with the Subaru Telescope’s Hyper Suprime-Cam. Credit: Legacy Surveys/D. Lang (Perimeter Institute)/NAOJ/HSC Collaboration/D. de Martin (NSF NOIRLab) &amp; M. Zamani (NSF NOIRLab)</figcaption></figure>



They may also be the seeds that eventually grew into supermassive black holes. Despite their importance, only about 100-150 intermediate-mass black hole candidates had been identified before DESI’s survey.



In their search, researchers found 300 new intermediate-mass black hole candidates, the most extensive collection to date. This dataset provides a powerful tool for studying how these black holes form and evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancements-in-black-hole-detection">Advancements in black hole detection</h2>



Detecting black holes in dwarf galaxies requires high-precision instruments. DESI’s advanced design played a key role in this discovery. 



The instrument uses small optical fibers to capture light from distant galaxies. This allows researchers to focus on the central regions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-supermassive-black-holes-are-hidden-by-gas-and-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> without interference from surrounding starlight.



“The technological design of DESI was important for this project, particularly its small fiber size, which allowed us to better zoom in on the center of galaxies and identify the subtle signatures of active black holes,” said Stephanie Juneau, associate astronomer at NSF <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOIRLab</a>.



Previous instruments had larger optical fibers that collected too much light from the outskirts of galaxies. This extra light diluted the signals scientists were searching for. 



DESI’s small fibers provided a clearer view of black hole activity in dwarf galaxies, leading to a higher detection rate than previous surveys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-findings-and-new-questions">Unexpected findings and new questions</h2>



Scientists expected most black holes in dwarf galaxies to be intermediate-mass. However, the study revealed an unexpected result. 



Of the 2,500 dwarf AGN candidates, only 70 overlapped with the 300 intermediate-mass black hole candidates.



This suggests that many of the detected black holes in dwarf galaxies may be more massive than previously thought.



The findings raise new questions about how black holes form and evolve in different types of galaxies. Do different black hole formation processes occur in dwarf and large galaxies? Are some intermediate-mass black holes growing more rapidly than expected?



“For example, is there any relationship between the mechanisms of black hole formation and the types of galaxies they inhabit?” Pucha said. 



“Our wealth of new candidates will help us delve deeper into these mysteries, enriching our understanding of black holes and their pivotal role in galaxy evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-black-hole-research">Future of black hole research</h2>



DESI’s discoveries mark a turning point in the study of black holes. The new dataset will help scientists explore the early stages of black hole growth and their impact on galaxy evolution. As the DESI survey continues, researchers expect to uncover even more hidden black holes.



By studying these newly identified black holes, scientists hope to answer fundamental questions about the structure and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-seen-creating-their-own-food-gases-x-rays-fascinating-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history of the universe</a>. 



Future research will focus on confirming the nature of these candidates and examining how they interact with their host galaxies.



Black holes remain one of the greatest mysteries of astrophysics. Thanks to DESI, scientists now have a powerful tool to uncover their secrets, bringing us closer to understanding the forces that shape the cosmos.



The study is published in The Astrophysical Journal and <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2411.00091" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



Image Credit: NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/J. da Silva/M. Zamani



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Thousands of active black holes discovered where it was believed they couldn't exist

Black holes are among the most mysterious objects in the...

Global temperature records have soared to unsettling highs, sparking justifiable concerns among climate watchers. Observers note that these extreme readings may represent the start of a warmer era rather than an isolated spike.



The Paris Agreement set an average temperature increase of 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 degrees Fahrenheit) above pre-industrial levels as a critical limit for controlling climate damage. 



Early signals hint that we may be inching toward this threshold, raising questions about whether we can protect ecosystems from escalating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate impacts</a>.



William Ripple, a professor at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, emphasized the human toll of creeping temperature increases.



“Every fraction of a degree beyond this level translates into more extreme weather, biodiversity loss, and human suffering,” said Ripple.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-1-5-degrees-is-a-big-deal">Why 1.5 degrees is a big deal</h2>



Crossing 1.5 °C above pre-industrial temperatures goes beyond a mere statistical marker. 



It reveals how anthropogenic warming can transform local and regional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climates</a> in ways that directly affect public health, food security, and infrastructure.



Researchers warn that floods, extreme storms, and prolonged heat waves become more frequent as greenhouse gases accumulate. 



Slow changes, such as sea level rise, can also endanger cities along vulnerable coastlines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mounting-economic-costs">Mounting economic costs</h2>



Climate-related hazards carry a steep financial toll for households, businesses, and government agencies. Reinsurance firm <a href="https://www.swissre.com/press-release/Hurricanes-severe-thunderstorms-and-floods-drive-insured-losses-above-USD-100-billion-for-5th-consecutive-year-says-Swiss-Re-Institute/f8424512-e46b-4db7-a1b1-ad6034306352" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Re</a> estimated that natural disasters exceeded US$135 billion in damage around the world in 2024.



Such losses strain global supply chains, complicate insurance coverage, and threaten property values in high-risk zones. 



Some economists believe the costs of recovery will increase even further if greenhouse gas emissions continue unchecked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-from-short-term-data">Signs from short-term data</h2>



One warm year on the thermometer does not necessarily confirm a long-term breach of the Paris Agreement. 



Weather oscillations, including strong El Niño events, can temporarily elevate global temperatures above the norm.



However, a study in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02246-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a> indicates that once the first year hits a 1.5 °C increase, the planet is likely within a multi-decade window at that level. 



The authors of the study note that strong emission cuts could still slow or halt further <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperatures-increase-scientists-plan-slow-down-rising-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-related-health-concerns">Heat-related health concerns</h2>



As temperatures rise, heat-related ailments become more common, and hospital visits spike during severe heat waves. 



The threat also extends to biodiversity, as many species cannot adapt quickly to shifting temperature and precipitation patterns.



Marine ecosystems, including coral reefs, are especially sensitive to even slight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-the-world-is-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature changes</a>. 



Some reefs can recover from moderate bleaching events, but repeated stress often leads to permanent damage and loss of marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-temperature-risks">Global temperature risks</h2>



The <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a> highlights the importance of limiting temperature rise to a global average of 1.5 °C or slightly above. 



Even half a degree beyond this limit can trigger non-linear impacts that become increasingly difficult to reverse.



Policy analysts often stress that climate goals work best when governments adopt clear targets with tangible deadlines. 



If international cooperation lags, the pace of warming could outstrip efforts to adapt and mitigate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-faster-action">A call for faster action</h2>



“Unless rapid action is taken, 2024 will be remembered not as an anomaly, but as the beginning of a new climate era - one defined by escalating risks,” said Ripple.



Researchers note that the use of renewables, clean transportation, and sustainable agricultural practices can curb emissions swiftly.&nbsp;



Other experts caution that delayed efforts might lock in further warming, creating a loop of intensified disasters and greater economic strain. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-temperature-solutions-exist">Global temperature solutions exist</h2>



A second study published in Nature Climate Change supports the idea that once temperatures breach 1.5 °C, more permanent exceedance may occur sooner than expected.



Some policymakers advocate carbon pricing and stronger efficiency standards to drive down emissions. 



Civil society groups, meanwhile, emphasize grassroots initiatives that help communities adapt and reduce fossil fuel dependence.



Local governments in coastal regions are reinforcing sea walls and updating building codes. Inland areas face different trials, such as droughts, wildfires, and shifting agricultural zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choices-today-will-shape-the-future">Choices today will shape the future</h2>



Experts agree that the next few years could determine whether 1.5 °C becomes our new normal. If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-meltdown-is-accelerating-global-warming-already-changing-earth-in-unimaginable-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a> continue to rise, adaptation costs will likely become a growing burden on national budgets.



Yet, optimism remains that targeted policies, technological breakthroughs, and public engagement can keep warming in check. 



Whether or not this happens depends on collective action and bold leadership at every level of society.



Signs of crossing the 1.5 °C threshold should not trigger despair, but they do demand urgency. Choices made today about energy, transportation, and resource use will shape conditions for decades.



Communities worldwide stand at a critical juncture between decisive intervention and escalating risk. The ultimate outcome rests on how quickly we act in the face of rising temperatures.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02246-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Have global temperatures breached the 1.5°C point of no return?

Global temperature records have soared to unsettling highs, sparking justifiable...

In a fast-paced world where change is constant, habitually experimenting and veering away from the known can be viewed as both clever and risky. 



A fascinating new study reveals that this apparent curiosity is not exclusive to humans but is also shared with other animals.



The study from MIT suggests we have a built-in tendency to continuously tweak our methods to a task, despite having already mastered a successful approach - and, surprisingly, even when these alterations can lead to mistakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-we-keep-experimenting">Why do we keep experimenting?</h2>



When defined roles and rules seem to be in place, why do we still feel the need to adapt, explore, and deviate from the norm? 



The answer, according to Mriganka Sur, the lead author of the study at <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>, lies in two compelling reasons.



First, he says, simply because a task’s rules seem set one moment doesn’t mean they’ll stay that way in this uncertain world, so altering behavior from the optimal condition every so often could help reveal necessary adjustments.



Second, and of equal importance, continuous exploration could also offer a chance to discover something superior to our current best.



"If the goal is to maximize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-brain-identify-rewards-and-punishments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reward</a>, you should never deviate once you have found the perfect solution, yet you keep exploring. Why? It’s like food. We all like certain foods, but we still keep trying different foods because you never know, there might be something you could discover," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-experiment-how-we-react-to-change">The experiment: How we react to change</h2>



Former research technician Tudor Dragoi, now a graduate student at Boston University, led the study alongside fellow researchers in the Sur Lab. They investigated how humans and marmosets - a small primate - predict event timing.



Three humans and two marmosets participated in a straightforward task. They observed an image on a screen for a variable duration, within a set range, and had to respond by pressing a button as soon as the image disappeared.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marmosets-with-bold-personalities-are-faster-learners/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marmosets</a> tapped a tablet, while the humans clicked a mouse. Success was determined by reacting as quickly as possible but without responding prematurely.



Marmosets were rewarded with juice for correct responses. Although marmosets required more training than humans, all participants eventually adopted a similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pandemic-restrictions-had-a-lasting-effect-on-behavior-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavioral pattern</a>.



The longer the image remained on the screen, the faster their reaction time was when it disappeared.



This aligns with the hazard model of prediction - if an image has a limited duration, the longer it stays visible, the more likely it is to disappear soon. With experience, reaction times improved overall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expectation-versus-experimenting">Expectation versus experimenting</h2>



However, as the experiment progressed, the team observed an unexpected trend.



Mathematical modeling of the reaction time data revealed that both humans and marmosets adjusted their responses based on the previous trial’s outcome, despite already having learned the task. 



If the image disappeared quickly in one round, participants slightly reduced their reaction time in the next, seemingly anticipating another short duration. 



Conversely, if the image was visible for longer, they extended their reaction time, as if expecting another longer wait.



These findings build on a 2023 study from Sur’s lab, which revealed a similar pattern in mice. Even after mastering the rules of a different cognitive task, the mice occasionally deviated from the successful strategy. 



As in this study, learning the optimal approach did not stop them from exploring alternatives - even at the expense of missing a reward.



"The persistence of behavioral changes even after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-it-comes-to-practice-and-learning-variety-is-key/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">task learning</a> may reflect exploration as a strategy for seeking and setting on an optimal internal model of the environment," concluded the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-link-between-learning-and-autism">The link between learning and autism</h2>



The striking similarity between human and marmoset behaviors in the study carries profound implications for studies on autism spectrum disorders. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-diagnoses-have-almost-tripled-in-the-us-over-the-past-ten-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Autism</a> is often associated with differences in making environmental predictions. 



As marmosets show higher cognitive abilities than mice and possess inherent social traits, they are increasingly used in autism studies. Hence, establishing that marmosets can model neurotypical human behavior in prediction is a significant stride. 



This revelation strengthens the argument that marmosets can indeed be valuable models for autism-related studies.



The study reiterates the astounding intricacies of learning and adaptation in both humans and animals. It not only sheds light on the flexibility of our learning processes but also paves the way for more comprehensive research into autism.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225001150" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Why humans and animals keep experimenting, even when there's no need

In a fast-paced world where change is constant, habitually experimenting...

Glaciers have long been a crucial part of Earth's climate system, acting as reservoirs of freshwater and influencing global sea levels. However, recent studies reveal an alarming trend - glaciers are melting at an unprecedented rate and losing vast amounts of ice.



This loss not only threatens water supplies in many regions but also accelerates the rise of sea levels, putting coastal communities at risk.



A major international study involving 35 research teams has provided new insights into the extent of glacier loss over the past two decades. 



The findings paint a troubling picture of rapid ice depletion across the world, with significant consequences for both local and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global environments</a>.



The scale and speed of this transformation demand urgent attention from scientists, policymakers, and the global community.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-pace-of-ice-loss">Growing pace of ice loss</h2>



Since the year 2000, glaciers outside of Greenland and Antarctica have collectively lost an average of 273 billion tons of ice per year. However, this loss has not remained constant.



Data shows a 36% increase in ice loss between 2012 and 2023 compared to the earlier period from 2000 to 2011. 



This acceleration suggests that glaciers are becoming more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-glacier-retreat-in-the-arctic-signals-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vulnerable to climate change</a>, with rising temperatures pushing them past critical thresholds.



In the year 2000, glaciers spanned a total area of 705,221 square kilometers (272,287 square miles) and held approximately 121,728 billion tons of ice. 



Over the past two decades, they have lost around 5% of their total volume. Some regions have experienced even greater losses, with Central Europe seeing a staggering 39% reduction in its glacier volume.



In contrast, glaciers in the Antarctic and Subantarctic islands have lost only 2% of their volume, highlighting the uneven impact of warming on different parts of the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-glacier-and-ice-sheet-loss">Comparing glacier and ice sheet loss</h2>



While much attention has been given to the melting of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, the new research shows that glaciers are losing ice at an even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-glaciers-could-disappear-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">faster rate</a>. 



The total glacier mass loss recorded during the study period was 18% higher than the loss from the Greenland Ice Sheet and more than double that of the Antarctic Ice Sheet. 



This data challenges previous assumptions that glaciers contribute less to rising sea levels than polar ice sheets.



The increased glacier melt has profound consequences. As ice disappears, it not only reduces freshwater availability in some regions but also releases vast amounts of water into the oceans. 



This process directly contributes to sea-level rise, intensifying the risks faced by low-lying coastal cities and island nations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glambie-glacier-monitoring">Glambie glacier monitoring</h2>



To track these rapid changes, scientists turned to an ambitious research initiative called the Glacier Mass Balance Intercomparison Exercise, or Glambie. 



This global effort, coordinated by the World Glacier Monitoring Service (<a href="https://wgms.ch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WGMS</a>) at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, brings together data from multiple sources to create a unified picture of glacier mass loss.



“We compiled 233 estimates of regional glacier mass change from about 450 data contributors organised in 35 research teams,” explained Michael Zemp, who co-led the study.



Glambie integrates information from field measurements as well as satellite data from missions such as the <a href="https://terra.nasa.gov/about/terra-instruments/aster" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">US Terra/ASTER</a>, <a href="https://icesat-2.gsfc.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICESat-2</a>, the US-German <a href="https://grace.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/grace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GRACE</a>, the German TanDEM-X, and ESA’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO/CryoSat" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CryoSat</a>. 



By combining optical, radar, laser, and gravimetry observations, scientists have created the most detailed annual record of glacier mass changes between 2000 and 2023.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-ice-melt-threatens-water-supplies">Glacier ice melt threatens water supplies</h2>



Glacier melt is not just an environmental concern - it is a direct threat to freshwater availability.



Many communities depend on glacier-fed rivers for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower. As glaciers shrink, their ability to provide a stable water supply diminishes, leaving millions of people vulnerable to shortages.



“To put this in perspective, the 273 billion tons of ice lost annually amounts to what the entire global population consumes in 30 years, assuming three liters per person and day,” noted glaciologist Prof. Zemp.



The loss of glacier ice is particularly concerning in regions such as Central Asia and the Central Andes, where glaciers play a crucial role in seasonal water supply. 



During the warm and dry months, glacier runoff sustains river flows, ensuring communities and ecosystems receive enough water.



Without this natural reservoir, many regions could face severe drought conditions in the coming decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-ice-loss-and-rising-seas">Glaciers, ice loss and rising seas</h2>



Beyond regional water concerns, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doomsday-glacier-may-collapse-sooner-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> melt is a significant driver of global sea-level rise. 



Between 2000 and 2023, glaciers lost a total of 6,542 billion tonnes of ice, contributing 18 millimeters to rising ocean levels. 



The rate of ice loss has surged from 231 billion tons per year in the early 2000s to 314 billion tons per year in the past decade.



Glaciers now rank as the second-largest contributor to rising sea levels, surpassed only by ocean warming. 



They contribute more to sea-level rise than both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets combined. This growing contribution underscores the urgency of addressing glacier melt in climate policy discussions.



“Glaciers are vital freshwater resources, especially for local communities in Central Asia and the Central Andes, where glaciers dominate runoff during warm and dry seasons,” said glaciologist Inés Dussaillant.



“But when it comes to sea-level rise, the Arctic and Antarctic regions, with their much larger glacier areas, are the key players. However, almost one-quarter of the glacier contribution to sea-level rise originates from Alaska.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancing-satellite-monitoring-for-future-research">Advancing satellite monitoring for future research</h2>



The findings from this research demonstrate the value of long-term satellite monitoring. While satellites were not initially designed to track glacier loss, scientists have successfully adapted them to measure changes in ice volume over time.



“The research is the result of sustained efforts by the community and by space agencies over many years, to exploit a variety of satellites that were not initially specifically designed for the task of monitoring glaciers globally,” said Noel Gourmelen, who co-led the study.



Future missions such as Europe’s Copernicus <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Copernicus/CRISTAL_prepares_to_sparkle#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISTAL mission</a> will build on the work of ESA’s CryoSat, ensuring that glacier monitoring remains a top priority. 



By improving data collection, these missions will help researchers better understand ice loss trends and their implications for global water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-immediate-action">Need for immediate action</h2>



The study was funded primarily through ESA’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FutureEO programme</a>, with additional support from the International Association for <a href="https://cryosphericsciences.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cryospheric Sciences</a> and various research institutions. Stephen Plummer, ESA Earth Observation Applications scientist, highlighted the importance of the research:



“We take great pride in supporting this vital research through our ESA Science for Society programme element as it brings together, for the first time, multiple estimates of glacier mass loss from different satellites and in situ observations through a community-driven approach," stated Plummer.



“These findings are not only crucial for advancing our scientific understanding of global glacier changes, but also provide a valuable baseline to help regions address the challenges of managing scarce freshwater resources and contribute to developing effective mitigation strategies to combat rising sea level," Plummer concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-critical-moment-for-glaciers">A critical moment for glaciers</h2>



The release of this study is particularly timely as 2025 marks the United Nations’ International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation. 



The coming decade, designated as the Decade of Action for Cryospheric Sciences, will be crucial for addressing glacier melt and its far-reaching consequences.



With continued scientific research, improved satellite monitoring, and decisive global action, there is still hope for mitigating the worst effects of glacier loss. 



However, time is running out. The fate of the world’s glaciers - and the millions who rely on them - depends on the choices made today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08545-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Glacier ice melting continues to accelerate, causing huge global problems

Glaciers have long been a crucial part of Earth's climate...

Cancer cells have recently been shown to collaborate to obtain vital nutrients from their environment, a phenomenon that was overlooked in the past. 



This unexpected discovery may offer new avenues to combat tumors by targeting how they share the resources essential for their survival and growth.



The study was carried out by researchers at <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York University</a> led by Carlos Carmona-Fontaine, an associate professor of biology.



“We identified cooperative interactions among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-cancer-cells-have-a-molecular-switch-that-could-be-rewired-to-behave-normally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer cells</a> that allow them to proliferate,” Carmona-Fontaine said. “Thinking about the mechanisms that tumor cells exploit can inform future therapies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-cells-compete-and-collaborate">Cancer cells compete and collaborate</h2>



For years, it has been well-established that cancer cells primarily compete for resources to gain an edge over neighboring cells. Eventually, this internal rivalry leads to increasingly aggressive tumors steered by the hardiest cells. 



At the same time, ecologists point out that many organisms cooperate under stressful conditions - penguins crowd together for warmth in extreme cold, for instance, and yeast works collectively to search for nutrients when food is scarce.&nbsp;



Because cancer cells frequently inhabit low-nutrient environments, the researchers questioned whether these cells might also engage in cooperative behaviors for survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-that-cancer-cells-collaborate-nbsp">Signs that cancer cells collaborate&nbsp;</h2>



To explore the possibility of cooperation, the team used a robotic microscope and specialized image analysis software to monitor various types of cancer cells as they grew. They varied both the density of the cell cultures and the levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-suffering-from-declining-plant-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a> available, observing how these conditions affected the cells over time.&nbsp;



In doing so, they uncovered a strong tendency for tumor cells - when starved of key amino acids like glutamine - to band together in order to secure nutrients.



“Surprisingly, we observed that limiting amino acids benefited larger cell populations, but not sparse ones, suggesting that this is a cooperative process that depends on population density,”&nbsp; Carmona-Fontaine explained. “It became really clear that there was true cooperation among tumor cells.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-nutrients-through-external-enzymes">Sharing nutrients through external enzymes</h2>



Further examination of skin, breast, and lung cancer cells revealed that the tumors tapped into a shared source of amino acids from oligopeptides - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protein</a> fragments made up of short chains of amino acids - found outside the cell.



“Where this process becomes cooperative is that instead of grabbing these peptides and ingesting them internally, we found that tumor cells secrete a specialized enzyme that digests these peptides into free amino acids,” Carmona-Fontaine said.&nbsp;



“Because this process happens outside the cells, the result is a shared pool of amino acids that becomes a common good.”



By converting protein fragments into readily available nutrients outside the cell, cancer cells effectively create a collective resource, enhancing their growth potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-the-key-enzyme">Targeting the key enzyme</h2>



The researchers pinpointed CNDP2 as the enzyme responsible for breaking down these oligopeptides. To confirm the importance of CNDP2, they tested different drugs for their ability to block cancer cells from transforming oligopeptides into amino acids.&nbsp;



The drug bestatin, a known CNDP2 inhibitor, prevented cancer cells from extracting nutrients and ultimately drove them to extinction.&nbsp;



Next, the team employed<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> CRISPR gene-editing</a> technology to eliminate the CNDP2 gene entirely, thus stopping cells from producing the enzyme and disrupting their cooperative nutrient-sharing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-direct-hit-on-tumor-growth">A direct hit on tumor growth</h2>



When these genetically modified cells were introduced into mice, they formed tumors at a greatly reduced rate compared to unaltered cells. Restricting amino acids in the diet amplified this effect, further limiting tumor development in cells lacking CNDP2.&nbsp;



Moreover, cells with normal CNDP2 could also be suppressed by combining bestatin with a low-amino-acid diet.



“Because we’ve removed their ability to secrete the enzyme and to use the oligopeptides in their environment, cells without CNDP2 can no longer cooperate, which prevents tumor growth,” Carmona-Fontaine said.&nbsp;



“Competition is still critical for tumor evolution and cancer progression, but our study suggests that cooperative interactions within tumors are also important.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hindering-tumor-collaboration-nbsp">Hindering tumor collaboration&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers believe that these insights could inspire treatments designed to disrupt cooperation among cancer cells. According to Carmona-Fontaine, their findings represent “a conceptual contribution that will have an impact in the clinic.”&nbsp;



Bestatin, which has been used safely in humans for decades - particularly in Japan - as a supplement to chemotherapy, has shown limited effectiveness when given alone.



“We hope that a clearer understanding of this mechanism can help us make drugs more targeted and more effective,” Carmona-Fontaine said.&nbsp;



By aiming therapies at this shared nutrient pool, clinicians could hamper cancer cell growth before the tumors evolve into more resistant forms. This approach of hindering tumor collaboration may offer a novel angle in the ongoing battle against cancer.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08588-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Carmofon lab/NYU



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Cancer cells collaborate to survive challenging conditions

Cancer cells have recently been shown to collaborate to obtain...

In 2018, a wildfire engulfed nearly two thousand hectares of shrubland in the ecologically critical area of Pichu Pichu volcano, located in Peru's Andean region. 



Unlike Mediterranean ecosystems, vegetation on the volcanic soils of Arequipa - one of the world's driest regions - has not evolved to recover from fire disturbances.



A team of researchers from the Miguel Hernández University of Elche <a href="https://www.umh.es/?lang=EN" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(UMH)</a> embarked on a study to assess the impact of wildfire events on such fragile ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprepared-for-wildfire">Unprepared for wildfire</h2>



The researchers dug deep into the soil, collecting and examining samples from the fire-charred area, 3,700 meters above sea level.



The findings of the study, published in the Spanish Journal of Soil Science, reveal that the fire not only burned the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-vegetation-are-a-key-driver-of-global-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a>, but also scarred the soil. This was evident even four years after the event.



Post-fire erosion has resulted in a severe loss of soil organic carbon (SOC), which is an essential factor for soil fertility. The loss of SOC also leads to compaction, making the soil more inhospitable to new plant growth.



"The Peruvian Andes are not prepared for wildfires," noted Jorge Mataix Solera, a scientist who has spent over three decades studying post-fire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-uncover-effects-of-wildfires-on-soil-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil recovery</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-and-difficult-recovery-in-the-andes">Slow and difficult recovery in the Andes</h2>



Solera further explained that the consequences of wildfires vary significantly based on the ecology of the region, but that in the Andes the combined effect of loss of vegetation and loss of soil organic carbon made recovery extremely difficult and slow.



The study highlighted that Pichu Pichu's soil was severely affected by the fire and showed substantial physical and chemical degradation, which further hampered the ecological recovery process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burned-soil-lost-resilience">Burned soil, lost resilience</h2>



The study identified the soil's natural propensity to repel water, which was aggravated by the loss of the vegetation, as a significant impediment to recovery.



Without vegetation to retain moisture, water just slides off the surface of the volcanic soil, leading to accelerated erosion.



"While well-structured and evolved soils, such as Mediterranean soils, have a high water-holding capacity, young volcanic Andean soils, which are naturally sandy, lose this ability after fire-induced organic matter loss," explained UMH researcher&nbsp;Minerva García Carmona.



With the soil's inability to hold water directly influencing its degradation, scientists need to understand the impact of fire on these young, fragile soils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-species-and-soil-degradation">Plant species and soil degradation</h2>



Of particular importance is the role of different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-plant-species-remain-unphotographed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>, which serve as the combustible material in wildfires and affect soil degradation.



The research focused on two native plant species that dominate the vegetation: Berberis lutea, known locally as "palo amarillo del Perú," and Parastrephia quadrangularis, or "tola."



The study revealed that soils under Berberis lutea bushes underwent greater degradation after a wildfire. This could have been due to the fact that this shrub is a larger plant with a higher biomass, which would have provided more fuel for combustion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfires-on-the-rise">Wildfires on the rise</h2>



Peru’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-season-of-2023-redefined-what-is-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfire season</a> typically peaks between July and October, but recent years have seen a troubling surge in fire activity. 



In September 2024, the Queimadas satellite monitoring project recorded an unprecedented 7,037 wildfire hotspots across the country - the highest on record.



This escalation in fire activity highlights the urgent need to understand how soil in fire-prone regions responds to these new fire regimes.



“In a region like Arequipa, located in a desert environment, understanding soil response under new fire regimes is essential for assessing ecosystem resilience to climate change,” noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-significance-of-wildfire-research">Global significance of wildfire research </h2>



Solera emphasized the global significance of wildfire research. He believes that the more we study these impacts, the better we can design prevention strategies and post-fire treatments to mitigate the long-term effects of rising temperatures and prolonged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-persistent-droughts-will-impact-wildlife-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>.



“This is as critical in Peru as it is in Spain or California. Although fire is a natural phenomenon, the climate crisis is exacerbating these events, and we must do everything possible to restore and protect these ecosystems,” concluded Solera.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontierspartnerships.org/journals/spanish-journal-of-soil-science/articles/10.3389/sjss.2025.13983/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spanish Journal of Soil Science</a>.



Image Credit: Jorge Mataix Solera



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Burned and barren: How wildfires transform volcanic soils

In 2018, a wildfire engulfed nearly two thousand hectares of...

Health is often thought to be written in our genes, but a new study suggests otherwise. Researchers from Oxford Population Health have uncovered compelling evidence that environment plays a far greater role in determining health and longevity than genetic predisposition. 



The experts analyzed data from nearly half a million UK Biobank participants to examine how environmental influences compare with genetic risk scores for major diseases.



The findings challenge the common belief that genetic makeup determines <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forming-healthy-habits-takes-much-longer-than-21-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health outcomes</a>. Instead, lifestyle choices, socioeconomic conditions, and early-life exposures appear to shape the risk of developing diseases and experiencing premature death. 



This research provides fresh insight into how our environment affects biological aging and highlights opportunities to improve public health through changes in policy and personal habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-affects-health-and-aging">What affects health and aging?</h2>



The study showed that environmental factors explained 17 percent of the variation in mortality risk, while genetic predisposition accounted for less than 2 percent.



The researchers assessed 164 environmental factors and their effects on 22 major diseases, revealing that lifestyle and living conditions have a much stronger influence on long-term health than previously thought.



Among the key environmental factors identified, smoking, socioeconomic status, physical activity, and living conditions played the most significant roles in mortality and biological aging. 



The research also showed that early-life exposures, such as childhood body weight and maternal smoking, have long-term consequences, affecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-say-this-is-the-best-fruit-to-eat-for-a-healthier-liver/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a> and longevity decades later.



“Our research demonstrates the profound health impact of exposures that can be changed either by individuals or through policies to improve socioeconomic conditions, reduce smoking, or promote physical activity,” noted Professor Cornelia van Duijn, senior author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-lifestyle-in-health-and-aging">Role of lifestyle in health and aging</h2>



The study examined how various lifestyle choices contribute to disease risk. Smoking emerged as a major factor, being linked to 21 different diseases. 



Socioeconomic factors, including household income, home ownership, and employment status, influenced 19 diseases. Physical activity also played a critical role, with associations found in 17 diseases.



Importantly, the research indicated that 23 of the identified environmental factors are modifiable, meaning that changes in behavior or policy could significantly reduce the risk of age-related diseases and premature death. 



The study also revealed that environmental influences had a greater effect on diseases affecting the lungs, heart, and liver, whereas genetic factors played a more prominent role in conditions such as dementias and breast cancer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-biological-aging">Measuring biological aging</h2>



To assess how environmental exposures accelerate aging, the researchers used a novel measurement tool known as the “aging clock.” 



This method tracks biological aging by analyzing blood protein levels, providing a more precise way to determine how fast an individual is aging.



“Our exposome approach allowed us to quantify the relative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-less-could-extend-your-lifespan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contributions</a> of the environment and genetics to aging, providing the most comprehensive overview to date of the environmental and lifestyle factors driving aging and premature death,” noted Dr. Austin Argentieri, lead author of the study.



This technique had already been validated in studies involving large cohorts from China and Finland, demonstrating its reliability in detecting age-related changes. 



The findings reinforce the idea that aging is not solely dictated by genetics but is significantly influenced by external factors, many of which can be adjusted to improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-avocado-every-day-diet-quality-can-add-years-to-life-but-this-fruit-has-enemies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health outcomes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poorer-environments-increase-health-risks">Poorer environments increase health risks</h2>



One of the most striking aspects of the research is the impact of socioeconomic conditions on health and longevity. People with lower incomes, insecure housing, or unstable employment faced significantly higher risks of developing chronic illnesses and dying prematurely.



Professor Bryan Williams, Chief Scientific and Medical Officer at the <a href="https://www.bhf.org.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Heart Foundation</a>, stressed the urgent need for systemic change. 



“Your income, postcode, and background shouldn’t determine your chances of living a long and healthy life. But this pioneering study reinforces that this is the reality for far too many people,” he stated.



The study highlights the need for stronger public health policies aimed at reducing socioeconomic disparities.



Addressing issues such as income inequality, access to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-fruits-and-vegetables-improve-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthcare</a>, and education could have a profound effect on overall health outcomes, giving more people the opportunity to lead longer, healthier lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-population-health">Improving population health</h2>



Although individual lifestyle factors and environmental exposures each contribute to disease risk, their combined impact is even greater. The study found that the cumulative effect of these influences over a lifetime plays a major role in determining health outcomes. 



This concept, known as the exposome, highlights how long-term exposure to multiple environmental factors collectively shapes aging and mortality.



This research paves the way for new strategies aimed at improving population health by identifying key environmental factors that contribute to common age-related diseases. 



By understanding how different exposures interact, scientists and policymakers can develop more targeted interventions to reduce health risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-environment-to-major-health-risks">Linking environment to major health risks</h2>



Professor van Duijn emphasized the need for a more comprehensive approach to studying environmental health. 



“Studies on environmental health have tended to focus on individual exposures based on a specific hypothesis. While this approach has seen many successes, the method has not always yielded reproducible and reliable findings,” she noted.



Instead, the researchers used a broader approach, analyzing all available exposures without preconceived hypotheses. This method allowed them to uncover the most significant drivers of disease and mortality, offering a clearer picture of how different factors contribute to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ditch-the-diet-trends-for-a-healthier-relationship-with-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health outcomes</a>.



“We have made a big leap forward in understanding how to provide accurate evidence on the causes and consequences of age-related diseases by combining novel computational methods with clinical and epidemiological knowledge to explore the interplay between multiple exposures," said Professor van Duijn.



"In an ever-changing environment, it is critical that we combine these techniques with novel advances in smart technology to monitor lifestyle and environment, as well as with biological data, to understand the impact of the environment over time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-health-and-aging">Rethinking health and aging </h2>



The study’s findings provide a strong case for shifting focus toward environmental and lifestyle interventions to improve health outcomes. 



There is still much to learn about how factors like diet, exposure to pollutants, and emerging infectious diseases affect long-term health. Researchers must continue investigating how different populations are impacted by environmental and genetic interactions.



“There are a lot of questions still to be answered related to diet, lifestyle, and exposure to new pathogens (such as bird flu and COVID-19) and chemicals (think of pesticides and plastics), and the impact of environmental and genetic factors in different populations,” said Professor van Duijn.



By shedding light on the profound impact of environmental factors on aging and disease, this study presents an opportunity to rethink how health is managed on both personal and policy levels. 



With greater emphasis on reducing harmful exposures and improving living conditions, society has the potential to extend healthy lifespans and reduce premature mortality.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-024-03483-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Medicine</a>.



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Beyond genetics: The biggest factors that influence health and aging

Health is often thought to be written in our genes,...

For decades, scientists believed that arachnids, a group that includes spiders, scorpions, mites, and horseshoe crabs, made a single transition from water to land. This long-standing view shaped evolutionary biology, influencing how researchers classified and studied these creatures. 



However, a new study presents a different picture, suggesting that this transition happened multiple times rather than once.



The research also highlights the role of whole-genome duplication in shaping key traits in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australias-deadliest-spider-is-actually-three-different-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> and scorpions, particularly silk production and venom synthesis. These genetic changes may have played a crucial role in their evolutionary success. 



By challenging traditional ideas, this study reshapes the way we understand chelicerate evolution and provides new directions for future research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-details-about-arachnid-evolution">New details about arachnid evolution</h2>



Dr. Efrat Gavish-Regev from The National Natural History Collections at <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hebrew University</a> of Jerusalem and Professor Prashant P. Sharma from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin</a> have taken a fresh approach to chelicerate evolution. 



Their review explores how molecular phylogenetics, evolutionary developmental biology, and genomic research have transformed our understanding of these arthropods.



Traditionally, arachnids were classified as a monophyletic terrestrial group, meaning they descended from a single land-dwelling ancestor. However, recent phylogenomic studies challenge this notion. 



The studies indicate that horseshoe crabs are not a separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slingshot-spiders-listen-for-the-right-moment-to-launch-their-webs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineage</a> but are actually nested within the arachnid group.



This suggests that arachnids did not evolve from a single land colonization event. Instead, different arachnid groups may have independently <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fungus-gibellula-attenboroughii-infects-and-controls-spiders-turning-them-into-zombies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapted</a> to life on land at different points in their evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arachnid-groups-evolved-independently">Arachnid groups evolved independently </h2>



“The idea that all arachnids share a single terrestrial ancestor has been widely accepted for decades, but the latest molecular evidence and a different interposition of some homologies points to a more complex scenario,” said Dr. Gavish-Regev.



“Instead of a straightforward transition from water to land, our research suggests that different arachnid groups may have independently adapted to terrestrial life at different points in their evolutionary history.”



This revelation raises important questions about how these adaptations occurred. If multiple groups of arachnids transitioned to land separately, then different environmental pressures and genetic changes must have influenced their evolution. 



Some species may have gradually developed adaptations for land, while others may have made more sudden transitions. This multi-event hypothesis challenges existing evolutionary models and forces scientists to rethink how arachnids adapted to terrestrial life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-whole-genome-duplication">Role of whole-genome duplication</h2>



One of the key findings of this study is the role of whole-genome duplication in arachnid evolution. This process, where an organism duplicates its entire genetic code, is a powerful driver of evolutionary change. 



By having extra copies of genes, species can experiment with new traits while retaining essential functions.



In spiders and scorpions, whole-genome duplication may have played a direct role in the evolution of important characteristics like silk production and venom synthesis. 



These traits have been crucial to the survival and diversification of arachnids, allowing them to hunt, defend themselves, and adapt to different environments. 



Without whole-genome duplication, the vast diversity of spiders and scorpions seen today might not have been possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-evolutionary-changes-in-arachnids">Key evolutionary changes in arachnids</h2>



“Arachnoid evolution has been shaped by a number of factors, including gene duplications that likely played a role in the development of key traits,” explained Professor Sharma.



“By combining phylogenetic research with new gene-editing tools, we are now in a position to explore these evolutionary changes in greater detail than ever before.”



With modern genetic research tools, scientists can now examine the effects of whole-genome duplication more closely. By studying these genetic changes, they can trace how certain genes evolved and what role they played in shaping arachnid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>. 



This research not only improves our understanding of evolutionary biology but also provides insights into how genes influence the development of complex traits across different species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancements-in-chelicerate-phylogeny">Advancements in chelicerate phylogeny</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary relationships between different chelicerate species has been a long-standing challenge. 



Some relationships remain unresolved, but advances in genomic techniques are beginning to provide more clarity. As more high-quality genomic data becomes available, researchers expect to answer some of the remaining questions about arachnid evolution.



By mapping out the evolutionary tree of chelicerates, scientists can better understand how different species are related and how their traits evolved. This has broader implications for studying the diversity of life and the mechanisms that drive adaptation in different environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This research has significance beyond evolutionary biology. Understanding arachnid evolution has practical applications in various fields, including pest management, biomedicine, and bio-inspired materials.



By studying how certain traits evolved, scientists can develop new approaches to pest control, design medical treatments based on venom components, and create materials inspired by spider silk.



A growing body of genetic data continues to shape scientific understanding of evolutionary history. As new studies build on these findings, researchers will gain an even clearer picture of how arachnids adapted to their environments.



These discoveries could lead to new breakthroughs in biology, genetics, and even biotechnology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-research-on-arachnids">Evolutionary research on arachnids</h2>



While this study provides valuable insights, it also opens up many new questions. 



If arachnids transitioned to land multiple times, what environmental factors drove these changes? Were there specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic mechanisms</a> that made the transition easier for some groups? How do these findings compare to other arthropod lineages that also moved from water to land?



Future research will likely explore these questions using even more advanced genomic tools. As genetic sequencing technology improves, scientists will be able to examine ancient evolutionary events with greater precision. 



This will help refine evolutionary models and improve our understanding of how life adapts to new environments.



The journey of arachnids from water to land is more complex than previously thought. By revising traditional evolutionary models, this study lays the foundation for new discoveries in evolutionary biology. As more data emerges, the fascinating story of arachnid evolution will continue to unfold.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-022024-011250" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annual Review of Entomology</a>.



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Rethinking arachnid evolution: The surprising history of spiders

For decades, scientists believed that arachnids, a group that includes...

Orchids are among the most diverse and fascinating plants in the world. Their ability to adapt to different environments has allowed them to thrive in forests, grasslands, and even rocky terrains. 



While most orchids rely on photosynthesis to produce their own food, a few species have taken a different path. Instead of creating their own energy, they survive by feeding on fungi.



This parasitic shift raises an intriguing question: why would a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adelopetalum-argyropus-new-orchid-species-discovered-resembles-small-cupcake/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> abandon its ability to produce food and depend entirely on another organism?



Kobe University researchers explored this mystery by studying Oreorchis patens, an orchid that exists in both photosynthetic and parasitic forms. The findings suggest that this transition may not be a matter of necessity but rather an opportunity that arises under specific conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-photosynthesis-and-parasitism">Balancing photosynthesis and parasitism</h2>



Most orchids maintain a symbiotic relationship with fungi. The plants supply sugars produced through photosynthesis, while fungi provide water and essential nutrients. 



This relationship benefits both organisms and is a key survival strategy for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/despite-their-incredible-adaptability-orchids-are-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchids</a> in nutrient-poor environments. However, some orchids no longer contribute to this exchange. Instead of photosynthesizing, they take all their nutrients from fungi, effectively becoming parasites.



“I’ve always been intrigued by how orchids turn parasitic. Why would a plant give up its reliance on photosynthesis and instead ‘steal’ from fungi?” noted <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> botanist Suetsugu Kenji.



This question led researchers to examine Oreorchis patens, a species that offers a rare glimpse into the transition from mutualism to parasitism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-orchid-s-dual-strategy">An orchid’s dual strategy</h2>



Unlike fully parasitic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-orchids-have-fingers-to-pollinate-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchids</a>, Oreorchis patens still retains its ability to photosynthesize. However, it can also absorb up to half of its nutrients from fungi. This makes it an excellent model for studying why some orchids partially abandon photosynthesis.



Suetsugu observed that some Oreorchis patens individuals develop unusual coral-shaped rootstalks. These structures resemble those found in orchids that rely entirely on fungi. 



“I thought that this would allow me to compare plants with these organs to those with normal roots, quantify how much extra nutrients they might be gaining, and determine whether that extra translates into enhanced growth or reproductive success,” said Suetsugu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wood-helps-orchids-absorb-fungi-nutrients">Wood helps orchids absorb fungi nutrients</h2>



To uncover the role of fungi in this process, researchers examined orchids growing in different environments. Their study, published in The Plant Journal, revealed a fascinating pattern. 



When Oreorchis patens grows near decomposing wood, it shifts its fungal partners to species that break down rotting material. This shift allows the orchid to extract significantly more nutrients from its fungal hosts.



Surprisingly, despite its increased reliance on fungi, the orchid does not stop photosynthesizing. Instead, the extra nutrients enhance its growth, making it larger and more robust. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchid-parents-nurture-seedlings-through-fungal-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchids</a> in these conditions also produce more flowers, indicating a clear reproductive advantage.



“In short, these orchids aren’t merely substituting for diminished photosynthesis, they’re boosting their overall nutrient budget," noted Suetsugu.



"This clear, adaptive link between fungal parasitism and improved plant vigor is, to me, the most thrilling aspect of our discovery, as it provides a concrete ecological explanation for why a photosynthetic plant might choose this path.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-all-orchids-become-parasites">Why don’t all orchids become parasites?</h2>



Despite the apparent benefits, fewer than 10% of Oreorchis patens individuals exhibit parasitic behavior. The researchers noticed that parasitic orchids were only found near fallen and rotting tree trunks. 



This suggests that switching to parasitism requires a specific set of conditions, particularly the presence of fungi that can handle an increased nutritional load.



These specialized fungi thrive in decaying wood but only at certain stages of decomposition. Since such conditions are rare and unpredictable, most Oreorchis patens individuals continue relying primarily on photosynthesis. 



The transition to parasitism happens only when the right fungi are available, not necessarily when the orchid needs extra nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Although this study sheds light on why some orchids turn parasitic, many questions remain. Scientists still do not know what triggers the development of the coral-like rootstalks in Oreorchis patens. 



Environmental factors likely play a role, but the exact mechanisms remain unclear. Another question is how flexible the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchid-bees-are-endangered-by-deforestation-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchid</a> is in choosing its fungal partners and whether other species exhibit similar behavior.



Suetsugu sees this research as part of a larger effort to understand the full range of plant lifestyles. 



“This work is part of a broader effort to unravel the continuum from photosynthesis to complete parasitism," said Suetsugu.



"Ultimately, I hope such discoveries will deepen our understanding of the diverse strategies orchids employ to balance different lifestyles, thereby aiding in the preservation of the incredible diversity of these plants in our forests."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-for-orchids">Conservation efforts for orchids</h2>



Understanding how orchids interact with fungi is essential for conservation efforts. Many parasitic orchids depend on specific fungal species, which means changes in forest ecosystems could threaten their survival. 



By studying these relationships, researchers can better predict how orchids will respond to environmental changes and how best to protect them.



This research was supported by the <a href="https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Japan Society for the Promotion of Science</a>, the Japan Science and Technology Agency (<a href="https://www.jst.go.jp/EN/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JST</a>), and the <a href="https://www.chikyu.ac.jp/rihn_e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research Institute for Humanity and Nature</a>. 



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tpj.70045" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Plant Journal</a>.



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Some orchids turn parasitic when conditions allow

Orchids are among the most diverse and fascinating plants in...

The vastness of the universe holds countless mysteries, from the birth of galaxies to the intricate chemistry of interstellar space. Among the many molecular players shaping the cosmos, one stands out for its fundamental role in star formation and chemical evolution - trihydrogen, or H₃⁺.



Often called “the molecule that made the universe,” it plays a crucial role in interstellar chemistry, fueling reactions that contribute to the formation of stars and planets.



H₃⁺ is found across the universe, in everything from glowing nebulae to gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn. Scientists have long understood its primary formation mechanism: when molecular hydrogen (H₂) collides with its ionized form (H₂⁺), H₃⁺ is created.



Yet, researchers remain eager to explore alternative pathways leading to the formation of H₃⁺ and to get an estimate of its full abundance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-detecting-molecules-guide-diatoms-through-turbulent-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">across the cosmos</a>.



A recent study from Michigan State University (<a href="https://msu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSU</a>) has shed new light on this puzzle. Led by researchers Piotr Piecuch and Marcos Dantus, the study provides insights into how H₃⁺ forms in compounds known as methyl halogens and pseudohalogens.



The findings build upon previous discoveries and open new avenues in astrochemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-pathways-to-h₃-formation">New pathways to H₃⁺ formation</h2>



Until recently, scientists assumed that H₃⁺ primarily formed through well-known ionization reactions in space. However, the MSU team challenged this notion by investigating alternative sources.



Their earlier work revealed that H₃⁺ could emerge from a process known as the “roaming mechanism” in doubly ionized organic molecules.



Double ionization occurs when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-found-throughout-the-universe-hint-that-life-began-in-deep-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecule</a> loses two electrons due to intense energy exposure, such as from cosmic rays or high-powered lasers. Traditionally, a doubly ionized molecule was expected to fragment violently due to repulsion between the two positive charges. 



Instead, the researchers observed an unusual effect. The molecule did not break apart immediately. Instead, a neutral hydrogen molecule (H₂) formed within the structure, roamed around, and eventually captured an extra proton, leading to the creation of H₃⁺.



The study provided a fresh perspective on how H₃⁺ could arise in environments beyond the standard hydrogen ionization pathway. Building on this work, the team turned their attention to halogenated compounds, seeking to determine whether similar processes could occur in these substances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methyl-halogens-and-pseudohalogens">Methyl halogens and pseudohalogens</h2>



Methyl halogens and pseudohalogens are compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, and halogen elements, such as fluorine, chlorine, or bromine.



These molecules exist in space and play a role in various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-discovery-water-molecules-will-force-chemistry-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical reactions</a>. The MSU researchers suspected that H₃⁺ might form within these compounds through double ionization and the roaming mechanism.



By using ultrafast laser spectroscopy and advanced computational modeling, the team observed the formation process in unprecedented detail. Their experiments confirmed that H₃⁺ could emerge from several methyl halogens and pseudohalogens, which provided new evidence of this alternative formation pathway.



Understanding these reactions is significant because it suggests that H₃⁺ may originate from a broader range of molecular sources than previously thought. If these mechanisms occur frequently in space, they could contribute significantly to the overall abundance of H₃⁺ in the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-h₃-in-astrochemistry">Significance of H₃⁺ in astrochemistry</h2>



“H₃⁺ is a small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-molecule-could-shape-the-future-of-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecule</a> that might not be as important to us on Earth as water or proteins, but it’s a molecule we truly want to understand in terms of its abundance in the universe, how it is produced, and how fast its chemical reactions are,” explained Piecuch.



“With our findings, we can communicate with others who are looking for sources of H₃⁺ and the molecules that can form it.”



The importance of H₃⁺ extends beyond its formation. It acts as a key reactant in many interstellar chemical reactions, and plays a pivotal role in forming more complex organic molecules. These molecules, in turn, contribute to the chemistry that eventually leads to the building blocks of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-of-doubly-ionized-molecules">Behavior of doubly ionized molecules</h2>



Being “the molecule that made the universe” comes with significant expectations. Scientists have long recognized the essential role of H₃⁺, but the unexpected discovery of the roaming mechanism has reshaped how they think about molecular behavior under extreme conditions.



“H₃⁺ is essential for astrochemistry, from the birth of stars to the formation of many organic molecules,” said Dantus.



The team’s previous work had already suggested that doubly ionized molecules do not always explode apart as conventional wisdom predicted. 



Instead, their experiments revealed that neutral hydrogen molecules can linger within the ionized structure, searching for a way to interact. The roaming H₂ then captures an additional proton, forming H₃⁺.



“We demonstrated that the hydrogen didn’t simply fly away, but it stuck around, sometimes for quite a long time,” Dantus added. “This was highly unusual.”



Piecuch compared this roaming effect to the expected Coulomb explosion, where two positive charges within a small molecule repel each other with great force. Instead, the study showed a more intricate and delicate process where charged and neutral components interact in unexpected ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-new-h₃-sources">Searching for new H₃⁺ sources</h2>



The researchers did not stop at merely identifying compounds that produce H₃⁺. Equally important was recognizing which compounds failed to generate H₃⁺ under similar conditions. 



By comparing successful and unsuccessful cases, they developed a set of predictive factors that could help identify other molecules capable of forming H₃⁺.



Turning their attention to halogens and pseudohalogens, Piecuch, Dantus, and their colleagues confirmed several more molecules that form H₃⁺ through double ionization. Just as crucially, they also identified those that do not.



To illustrate their findings, the researchers worked with Professor Benjamin Levine at Stony Brook University to create computer simulations of these reactions. The resulting animations, included in the study’s supplementary material, provide a visual representation of H₃⁺ formation in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-techniques-in-chemistry">Advanced techniques in chemistry</h2>



These discoveries were made possible through a combination of ultrafast laser spectroscopy and computational chemistry. 



The ability to measure reactions occurring on femtosecond timescales - one quadrillionth of a second -allowed the researchers to capture <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular movements</a> that would otherwise remain invisible.



Piecuch emphasized the importance of combining experimental and theoretical approaches.



“What was quite special about this project - to bring it to fruition - was the use of state-of-the-art techniques from each side, including high-level theory and experimentation,” he said.



By leveraging these tools, the researchers uncovered fundamental insights into how molecular ions behave - knowledge that could influence multiple fields of chemistry and physics in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-cosmic-chemistry">Understanding cosmic chemistry</h2>



The findings have broad implications for astrochemistry. By establishing a set of governing factors for H₃⁺ formation, they provide a framework for future research. This knowledge can guide scientists in identifying other organic compounds that might contribute to H₃⁺ production.



“Hydrogen is the most common element in the universe, so H₂ meeting H₂⁺ is still the key,” Dantus explained. “However, there are so many organic molecules in these diffuse molecular clouds that it’s possible a lot of H₃⁺ is still being formed by the processes we’ve studied.”



“Even if there are only a few percent more H₃⁺ molecules in the universe because of the small organic compounds we and others have studied, the models that scientists use to study processes such as star formation may have to be revisited,” Piecuch concluded.



As researchers continue to explore the origins and behavior of H₃⁺, they push the boundaries of what is known about the molecules that shape the universe. With each discovery, scientists come closer to understanding the fundamental chemistry that governs the cosmos.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55065-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Seeking the origins of the molecule that made the universe

The vastness of the universe holds countless mysteries, from the...

The chemicals in sunscreens are increasingly present in the ocean, but much about their impact on marine life remains poorly understood. This is the conclusion of a new study from Plymouth Marine Laboratory and the University of Plymouth.&nbsp;



With sunscreen now integral not only to health care but also to various products - ranging from personal care to industrial materials - experts worry about the large-scale release of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-acid-in-our-skin-could-be-a-natural-sunscreen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">compounds</a> into coastal waters and the long-term consequences for aquatic ecosystems.



“This review highlights the mindboggling range of sunscreen-derived chemicals that we know are released into coastal marine environments – and demonstrates that our understanding of the effects of these toxic compounds on marine organisms is surprisingly limited,” said co-author Frances Hopkins, a marine biogeochemist at the <a href="https://pml.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plymouth Marine Laboratory</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-sunscreen-pollution-enters-the-ocean">How sunscreen pollution enters the ocean</h2>



Sunscreens use UV filters - either organic (chemical-based) or inorganic (mineral-based) - to absorb or scatter ultraviolet rays. Beyond sunscreens, such filters are added to various items including shampoos, moisturizers, lipsticks, plastics, rubber, paint, and cement, helping protect them from solar damage.



Because of modern lifestyles, these compounds inevitably find their way into marine environments through direct and indirect exposure.&nbsp;



Direct exposure occurs when people swimming or diving carry sunscreen-laden water off their skin directly into the sea. Indirect exposure happens when residue is washed off during showers, laundering towels, and even through urine.&nbsp;



Additionally, recycled wastewater plays a role, as some agricultural practices use treated water or sludge, which can deposit UV filter contaminants into soil and eventually run off into rivers and coasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enormous-scale-of-sunscreen-pollution">Enormous scale of sunscreen pollution</h2>



Traditional wastewater treatment cannot effectively remove many UV filter chemicals. Data show organic UV filters in 95% of wastewater effluents and 86% of surface waters worldwide.&nbsp;



They have been found not only in tourist-heavy beach areas but also in remote regions like Antarctica and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trace-amounts-of-sunscreen-found-at-the-north-pole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a>, highlighting their pervasive reach.



As global sunscreen sales are projected to reach $13.64 billion by 2026, researchers estimate 6,000-14,000 tons of UV filters wash into coral reef zones every year.&nbsp;



Many filters, especially benzophenones, have been deemed persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic. Benzophenone-3, in particular, is on the <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Chemical Agency</a>’s watch list as a potential hormone disruptor.



“There are increasing amounts and varieties of sunscreens entering the environment, and contaminants occur in all possible combinations,” said Awadhesh Jha, a professor in genetic toxicology and ecotoxicology at the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Plymouth </a>and the study’s senior author.&nbsp;



“It is therefore imperative that we understand their bioaccumulation potential across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food chain</a>, and the mechanisms through which they act at molecular and cellular levels, alone and in combination with other stressors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-chemistry-with-unknown-effects">Complex chemistry with unknown effects</h2>



A single sunscreen can contain three to eight UV filter compounds, adding up to 15% of the product’s mass. Organic filters - up to 55 different types exist - work by absorbing UV radiation, while inorganic filters like titanium dioxide (TiO₂) and zinc oxide (ZnO) reflect it.&nbsp;



Each compound has different properties, toxicities, and solubilities, complicating efforts to understand how these chemicals behave once in the ocean.



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2025.117627" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>, involved a review of over 110 publications related to sunscreen, UV filters, and their ecological or toxicological impacts.&nbsp;



The researchers note that at least 25% of a sunscreen’s UV filters wash off during swimming, and a single busy beach can see up to 35 kilograms of sunscreen deposited into the water per day.



“We are essentially sitting on a ticking time bomb,” said study co-author Mahasweta Saha, a marine chemical ecologist at Plymouth Marine Laboratory. “It is crucial to exercise caution in introducing new substances, as they could exacerbate existing challenges.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-research-is-urgently-needed">More research is urgently needed</h2>



Despite broad commercial use, little is known about the long-term ecotoxicological effects of these compounds, especially regarding their potential to bioaccumulate in the food chain.&nbsp;



Marine ecosystems already face pressures such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-ocean-warming-in-2024-is-a-warning-for-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean warming</a>, acidification, marine heatwaves, and eutrophication. The addition of poorly understood chemicals could worsen the strain on marine organisms.



“It is therefore imperative that we understand their bioaccumulation potential across the food chain, and the mechanisms through which they act,” Jha emphasized. 



This includes gauging effects at the molecular level - understanding if they disrupt hormones, reproductive cycles, or growth - and how multiple stressors might interact to amplify harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precautionary-measures-are-needed">Precautionary measures are needed</h2>



The scientists call for coordinated, science-based policy actions to address the threats of sunscreen pollution.



They recommend improved wastewater treatments to remove UV filters, the development of biodegradable sunscreens, and enhanced monitoring to track sunscreen-derived pollutants in global coastal areas.



The study further recommends adopting a precautionary approach, acknowledging that while sunscreens protect human health, they also risk harming fragile marine life including corals, fish, and other sea creatures vital to the ecosystem.



Thus, as oceans become repositories for countless chemical compounds, unraveling the complex interactions among UV filters is critical. Failing to act could intensify existing stresses on marine habitats, with possible ramifications for seafood safety and the broader health of our planet’s waters.



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Sunscreen pollution is invading the ocean - with unknown consequences 

The chemicals in sunscreens are increasingly present in the ocean,...

A new study has identified 15 fundamental motives that drive human behavior, showing how these forces intertwine and relate to one another.



Analyzing these motives through an evolutionary lens clarifies how they guide our habits and interactions - ultimately shedding light on our emotional life and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/optimal-decision-making-is-a-balance-of-experience-and-knowledge/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decision-making</a> processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-motives-beyond-social-needs">Human motives beyond social needs</h2>



Psychological theories exploring why we do what we do have often focused on social or cultural drivers of behavior, with Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs being the most familiar.&nbsp;



But while Maslow’s pyramid emphasizes belongingness and other higher-level needs, it does not fully capture the significance of evolutionary pressures that once helped humans survive and now underlie our modern choices.



Seeking a deeper understanding, <a href="https://www.hse.ru/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HSE University</a> scientists, alongside colleagues at the <a href="https://www.lshtm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine</a>, propose treating human motives as evolutionary adaptations.&nbsp;



If certain behaviors once aided survival in prehistoric environments, they reason, the motives behind those behaviors can still be detected today through standard psychometric techniques.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-catalog-of-core-motives">Creating a catalog of core motives</h2>



To test this idea, the research team conducted an online survey of more than 500 participants. In the survey, respondents were asked to rate their agreement with 150 statements referencing routine preferences, worries, and social goals.&nbsp;



The statements covered a spectrum of basic needs and impulses, such as “I enjoy going on roller coasters,” “Eating is less important to me than it seems to be for most people,” and “I spend a lot of time staying in touch with my friends,” among others.



Using network analysis, the team searched for stable clusters in participants’ motivations.&nbsp;



The result was a catalog of 15 core motives, organized into five larger categories:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Environmental: Hoard, Create</li>



<li>Physiological: Fear, Disgust, Hunger, Comfort</li>



<li>Reproductive: Lust, Attract, Love, Nurture</li>



<li>Psychological: Curiosity, Play</li>



<li>Social: Affiliate, Status, Justice</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-motives-interact">How motives interact</h2>



While identifying motives was a crucial step, the researchers also explored how these motives functionally interact with each other.&nbsp;



“For instance, the motives of Love and Nurture are positioned close to each other in the network, which makes sense from an evolutionary perspective, as caring for offspring enhances their chances of survival,” explained Albina Gallyamova, a junior research fellow at the HSE Center for Sociocultural Research.



By contrast, the motives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-pathway-discovered-that-suppresses-fear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fear</a> and Curiosity often appear in tension with each other: Fear protects against potential dangers but, when too strong, can suppress Curiosity - needed for innovation and knowledge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-motives-with-broad-impacts">Motives with broad impacts</h2>



Two motives stood out for their broad impact on the entire network: Play and Status.&nbsp;



The motive for Status can facilitate achieving other goals by opening up access to valuable resources, which boosts an individual’s likelihood of success in multiple areas, including romantic relationships.&nbsp;



On the other hand, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/minecraft-is-a-digital-playground-for-learning-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Play</a> aids skill development, which in turn helps a person maintain or improve their Status.



The study also revealed intriguing links, like how Justice correlates with both Nurture and Curiosity, implying that an individual’s concern for fairness may be partly driven by empathy for others (Nurture) and a desire to stay informed (Curiosity) about potentially antisocial behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-and-gender-differences">Age and gender differences</h2>



Among other findings, the scientists noted important differences in how people of varying ages and genders prioritize certain motives.&nbsp;



Women tended to rank Nurture and Comfort more highly, while men showed a greater focus on Status and Attract, a pattern that aligns with presumed evolutionary roles. Younger participants also gravitated to motives like Play and Status, while older individuals gave more weight to Fear and Comfort.



“These changes reflect different life stages: initially, we strive to secure our place in society, and later, we focus on safety and survival,” Gallyamova said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-applications-of-the-research-nbsp">Practical applications of the research&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding these 15 fundamental motives can guide approaches in marketing, therapy, and AI development, the researchers say. For example, in targeted advertising, knowledge of which motives appeal to different demographics allows more precise messaging.&nbsp;



Younger individuals driven by Status and Play might respond to promotions involving social prestige and fun, whereas older audiences may value reliability and comfort.



Similarly, developers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a> could use an evolutionary perspective to build user interfaces that resonate with people’s core motivations - perhaps focusing on user autonomy, creativity, and social connectivity for younger audiences, while emphasizing convenience for an older group.&nbsp;



In therapy, counselors might find it helpful to identify whether a client’s motives for Fear or Curiosity are out of balance and address them accordingly, potentially mitigating excessive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-health-may-be-the-key-to-anxiety-relief/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a>.



“Ultimately, understanding the evolutionary motives that drive our behaviour enables us to create solutions that make people’s lives more comfortable, safer, and more interesting,” Gallyamova concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2024.112921" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Personality and Individual Differences</a>.



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Human behavior is driven by fifteen key motives

A new study has identified 15 fundamental motives that drive...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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