Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Osiris-rex,Spacecraft,Collected,Samples,From,Asteroid,Bennu,101955,,And,Returned

Samples from asteroid Bennu have delivered remarkable insights into the origins of Earth’s water, the organic molecules that may have seeded life here and elsewhere, and the fundamental materials and building blocks of our planet and solar system. 



All of this was discovered in just 4 ounces of dust and rock, carefully gathered by NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission in 2023.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relics-of-the-early-solar-system-nbsp">Relics of the early solar system&nbsp;</h2>



Michelle Thompson, an associate professor of earth, atmospheric, and planetary sciences at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a>, was among the first nine lead investigators on the OSIRIS-REx science team to examine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-bennu-holds-secrets-of-the-solar-systems-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bennu</a>’s samples.&nbsp;



Thompson and her colleagues had 72 hours to perform initial measurements and analyses, drawing on her expertise in how off-world bodies and their chemistry respond to space environments.&nbsp;



The discoveries shed light on how Earth and the solar system formed and whether life’s building blocks arrived via asteroids.



“Asteroids are relics of the early solar system,” Thompson said. “They’re like time capsules. We can use them to examine the origin of our solar system and to open a window to the origin of life on Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-bennu-sample-to-earth">Bringing Bennu sample to Earth</h2>



NASA’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/osiris-rex-safely-delivers-rock-samples-from-asteroid-bennu-back-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSIRIS-REx</a> is the agency’s first mission to retrieve samples from an asteroid and return them to Earth. 



The mission is focused on analyzing solar system building blocks and exploring resources that might enable future deep-space missions.&nbsp;



After more than a decade of planning and collaboration among hundreds of team members, OSIRIS-REx successfully returned 4.29 ounces (121.6 grams) of Bennu’s material - exceeding its goal of 60 grams.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-once-in-a-lifetime-experience">Once-in-a-lifetime experience</h2>



The asteroid samples provide scientists with a rare, pristine look at asteroid dust and rock unaltered by Earth’s atmosphere.



“This is a truly once-in-a-lifetime - maybe a once-in-several-lifetimes - experience,” Thompson said. “OSIRIS-REx was selected in 2011, the year I started graduate school, and launched in 2016, the year I finished my PhD.”&nbsp;



“It reached Bennu in 2018, the year I came to Purdue. And now I am one of the first humans to get to study it. Bennu is a treasure trove of information; this is literally the project of my career.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pristine-samples-from-asteroid-bennu-nbsp">Pristine samples from asteroid Bennu&nbsp;</h2>



Although pieces of asteroids sometimes land on Earth naturally as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meteorites</a>, the fiery journey through Earth’s atmosphere often damages or contaminates them.&nbsp;



By bringing Bennu’s samples home inside a protective capsule, scientists can examine them in a virtually unaltered state. 



This clarity allows for more precise evaluations of organic compounds, isotopes, and minerals that could explain the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-origins-of-water-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">origins of water</a> on Earth and the formation of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-molecules-in-bennu-samples">Organic molecules in Bennu samples</h2>



Bennu is a carbonaceous asteroid, rich in carbon and other elements crucial to life’s chemistry. The Bennu samples reveal key details about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-found-throughout-the-universe-hint-that-life-began-in-deep-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic molecules</a> that are essential to life’s development.



“Looking at the organic molecules from Bennu, we are getting an understanding of what kinds of molecules could have seeded life on early Earth,” Thompson noted. 



“We won’t find life itself, but we’re looking at the building blocks that could have eventually evolved into life.”



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="KNaqn8jEPp-4282904-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ammonia-is-crucial-for-life">Ammonia is crucial for life</h2>



Scientists found incredibly large amounts of ammonia in the Bennu samples. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-green-tech-ammonia-fertilizer-production-using-earths-natural-forces/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ammonia</a> is important for life because it can combine with formaldehyde, which was also found in the samples, to create complex molecules like amino acids when the conditions are right. 



When amino acids join together into long chains, they form proteins, which are essential for almost every function in living things.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bennu-comes-from-a-water-planet">Bennu comes from a water planet</h2>



The presence of elements like phosphate, sulfate, and other salt minerals in Bennu’s dust points to an environment conducive to forming vital biomolecules.&nbsp;



“Together with our international partner teams, we have been able to detect a large proportion of the minerals that are formed when salty, liquid water - known as brine - evaporates more and more and the minerals are precipitated in the order of their solubility,” explains Dr. Sheri Singerling, who manages the Schwiete Cosmo Lab.



Professor Frank Brenker of <a href="https://www.goethe-university-frankfurt.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goethe University Frankfurt</a> noted that other teams have found various precursors of biomolecules such as numerous amino acids in the Bennu samples.



“This means that Bennu’s parent body had some known building blocks for biomolecules, water and - at least for a certain time - energy to keep the water liquid," explained Professor Brenker.



Similar brines have been detected or suggested across the solar system, including at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-on-the-dwarf-planet-ceres/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dwarf planet Ceres</a> and Saturn’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-could-survive-near-surface-europa-enceladus-moons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon Enceladus</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-earth-s-water">Mystery of Earth's water</h2>



The samples also had traces of minerals containing water. Understanding how asteroids can deliver these resources offers vital context about how Earth’s water might have arrived.&nbsp;



“The scientific community doesn’t have a definitive understanding of how Earth got all its water,” Thompson said.&nbsp;



“Looking at how much water is part of these minerals in the samples from Bennu gives us a clue about how much water was out in the solar system when the planets were forming.”



“How much material was available that could have been delivered through impacts - not just organic material, but water and minerals as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Scientists around the world are now parsing the Bennu samples to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-origins-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deepen our knowledge</a> of planetary science.



The experts are analyzing mineral content, studying stable isotopes for clues about the solar system’s formation, and testing hypotheses about how organic compounds travel between celestial bodies.&nbsp;



The final goal is to piece together a clearer picture of how life-supporting environments arise and persist. Although the newly returned samples measure just a few ounces, their significance is immense.



Panspermia suggests that life, or the essential building blocks of life, could be distributed throughout the universe via meteoroids, asteroids, comets, or even space dust.



Is that what happened here on Earth? Is humanity the ultimate result of an asteroid colliding with our planet billions of years ago?



By continuing to analyze this pristine material from asteroid Bennu, we may just learn the answer to that question sooner rather than later.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center 



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NASA finds life's building blocks from an unknown water world in asteroid sample

Samples from asteroid Bennu have delivered remarkable insights into the...

As humanity strives to establish communities on the Moon, Mars, and beyond, the fundamental problem of how to maintain life remains paramount. The solutions revolve around supplying oxygen, food, and water. 



While it has been established that water exists on the Moon, pinpointing its precise locations presents a formidable challenge. Could it be within craters, permanently shadowed areas, or near the poles?



Answering these questions is essential for ensuring that astronauts can successfully inhabit the Moon.



A recent study by researchers at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a> (UC San Diego) might help transform this vision into reality by guiding upcoming space missions, including <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Artemis program</a>, which aims to thoroughly explore and ultimately settle on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lunar-anthropocene-how-humans-have-impacted-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-rooted-in-lunar-analysis">A legacy rooted in lunar analysis</h2>



Study lead author Maxwell Thiemens is a research fellow at <a href="https://www.vub.be/nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Brussel</a> and an alumnus of the <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>. He conducted the study with his father, Mark Thiemens, a professor of chemistry and biochemistry at UC San Diego.



Their contributions build upon UC San Diego’s historical connections to lunar research. In 1967, Nobel Laureate Harold Urey and James Arnold, both at UC San Diego’s Department of Chemistry, were among the earliest scientists to receive Apollo 11 lunar samples.&nbsp;



Urey was one of the first to theorize the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moons-entire-surface-is-covered-with-water-and-hydroxyl-not-just-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar water</a>, particularly within the permanently shadowed polar regions.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-did-the-moon-get-its-water">Where did the Moon get its water?</h2>



Contemporary scientific understanding suggests that lunar water could stem from one of three primary origins. First, it may be indigenous to the Moon.



Another theory is that lunar water was created by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-solar-wind-which-creates-beautiful-auroras-on-earth-is-now-less-mysterious/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar winds</a>, where hydrogen from the Sun reacts with lunar oxygen under high energy. The third possibility is that the water was deposited by icy comets that crashed onto the lunar surface.



Just as civilizations on Earth have historically settled near dependable water supplies, any permanent lunar presence will hinge on identifying and understanding the Moon’s water sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extracting-water-from-lunar-rocks">Extracting water from lunar rocks</h2>



Seeking to clarify where and how lunar water forms, Morgan Nunn Martinez (formerly a UC San Diego graduate student) conducted an analysis of small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-rocks-may-unlock-secrets-of-the-moons-magnetic-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rock samples</a> obtained during the Apollo 9 mission in 1969.&nbsp;



While it might seem improbable for rocks to host measurable amounts of water, a process called thermal release makes it possible. During this process, lunar specimens are heated to three temperature levels - 50°C, 150°C, and 1,000°C - to free water molecules embedded within the rock.



In the case of low-temperature releases (50°C, 150°C), lightly bound water molecules that are loosely attached to the rock are able to escape. 



On the other hand, in a high-temperature release (1,000°C), tightly bound water molecules, lodged deep within the rock’s structure, are liberated. Surprisingly, the rock samples were found to be relatively “wet.” 



After the molecules are driven off as water vapor, they are collected and purified until only oxygen remains. 



Scientists then measure the composition of the three oxygen isotopes in the sample - valuable for identifying both the origin and the time frame of the water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-water-molecules-nbsp">Origins of water molecules&nbsp;</h2>



In much the same way that every person has a distinct fingerprint, celestial bodies like comets and the Sun possess characteristic isotopic signatures.



By comparing the oxygen isotope ratios against those known signatures, researchers can pinpoint where the water molecules came from.



The results of the rock analysis indicate that most of the Moon’s water likely formed within the Moon itself or arrived through comet collisions, not primarily via the solar wind. This challenges earlier assumptions that solar wind interactions might be a dominant water source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-presence-on-the-moon">Human presence on the Moon</h2>



The findings offer critical insights to agencies such as NASA, which intends to establish a sustained human presence on the Moon through the Artemis program.&nbsp;



Determining water’s precise locations and its most likely origins will help mission planners decide where best to set up long-term habitation.



“This kind of work hasn’t been done before and we think it can provide NASA with some valuable clues about where water is located on the moon,” Mark Thiemens said. “The real goal of Artemis is to get to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>. Our research shows that there is likely at least as much water on Mars as on the moon, if not more.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-challenges-and-future-innovations">Practical challenges and future innovations</h2>



Although finding and analyzing lunar water sources marks a major step, effectively extracting and utilizing water to support human communities on the Moon is another challenge entirely.&nbsp;



Researchers will need to develop robust technology for large-scale water extraction, as well as systems to ensure that the water is potable or otherwise suitable for use in life support.



Questions such as whether the water requires purification and how to store it in sufficient quantities remain to be addressed. These solutions will be pivotal for enabling off-planet growth, ultimately extending beyond the Moon to Mars and other parts of the solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



By identifying the potential locations and likely origins of lunar water, this study paves the way toward human settlements on the Moon, an idea once confined to science fiction.&nbsp;



Through the synergy of advanced isotopic measurements, decades of lunar rock analysis, and forward-looking mission planning, researchers and space agencies are inching closer to making lunar colonization a reality.



Armed with fresh scientific data and improved extraction techniques, future explorers may soon find themselves sustainably living on the Moon.



The study is detailed in a special issue of the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2321069121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS) under the theme “Water on the Moon and Mars.”&nbsp;



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Experts are searching for viable sources of water on the Moon

As humanity strives to establish communities on the Moon, Mars,...

Earth, the only known planet to support life, owes much of its habitability to water. Understanding when and how water arrived on Earth is crucial for piecing together the story of life’s origins. 



Scientists have long debated whether water was present from the planet’s formation or if it arrived later through external sources. 



A recent study led by a Rutgers-New Brunswick scientist challenges existing theories, suggesting that water arrived much later than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-cycles-through-plants-with-unexpected-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">previously believed</a>.



The findings indicate that Earth received water toward the final stages of its formation. This discovery could reshape scientific understanding of the conditions necessary for life.



By examining isotopes in Earth’s rocks and comparing them with meteorites, researchers have provided new insights into the timing and process of water’s arrival on our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-of-life-s-origins">Timing of life’s origins</h2>



Scientists seek to pinpoint when key <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comets-may-have-delivered-water-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ingredients for life</a> first appeared on Earth. Water, energy, and a mix of organic chemicals known as CHNOPS - carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur - are essential for life to emerge. 



Determining when these components arrived can offer clues about the timing of life’s formation.



Katherine Bermingham is an associate professor in the <a href="https://eps.rutgers.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences</a> at Rutgers and lead author of the study.



“When water was delivered to the planet is a major unanswered question in planetary science,” said Bermingham. “If we know the answer, we can better constrain when and how life developed.”



Her research suggests that water was not present during the early phases of Earth’s formation, as some theories propose. Instead, the planet acquired it much later through a process known as late accretion, when additional material from space continued to shape Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examining-the-building-blocks-of-planets">Examining the building blocks of planets</h2>



Bermingham specializes in cosmogeochemistry, a field that examines the chemical composition of planetary materials to understand their origins. 



By analyzing Earth rocks and extraterrestrial materials such as meteorites, she investigates how rocky planets, including Earth, formed and evolved.



In this study, Bermingham’s team used thermal ionization mass spectrometry, a precise method for measuring isotopic compositions. 



They developed a new analytical approach to examine isotopes of molybdenum, an element found in both Earth’s crust and meteorites.



Isotopes are variations of an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, which gives them slightly different atomic masses while maintaining identical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distress-signals-earths-water-cycle-is-becoming-more-erratic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical properties</a>.



“The molybdenum isotopic composition of Earth rocks provides us with a special window into events occurring around the time of Earth’s final core formation, when the last 10% to 20% of material was being assembled by the planet. This period is thought to coincide with the Moon’s formation,” explained Bermingham.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-meteorites-and-earth-rocks">Comparing meteorites and Earth rocks</h2>



To track Earth’s early chemical history, the team examined meteorite samples from the National Museum of Natural History at the Smithsonian Institution. Scientists classify meteorites into two main groups based on their place of origin in the solar system.



The first group, known as “CC” meteorites, likely formed in the outer solar system, where conditions were wetter. The second group, “NC” meteorites, originated in the inner solar system, where conditions were much drier. 



This study focused on meteorites from the NC group to compare their chemical composition with Earth rocks.



The researchers analyzed molybdenum isotopes in rocks from Greenland, South Africa, Canada, the United States, and Japan. 



These rocks date back to the time of the Moon’s formation and are believed to contain elements added to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-other-planets-collected-first-water-from-unexpected-source-planetesimals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a> during this period.



By comparing the isotopic signatures of meteorites and Earth rocks, the team sought to determine whether the Moon-forming event delivered a significant amount of water to Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-water-may-have-arrived-late">Earth’s water may have arrived late</h2>



“Once we gathered the different samples and measured their isotopic compositions, we compared the meteorites’ signatures with the rock signatures to see if there was a similarity or a difference,” Bermingham said. “And from there, we drew inferences.”



The analysis revealed that the molybdenum composition of Earth rocks closely matched that of NC meteorites, which originated in the drier inner solar system. 



This finding suggests that Earth’s building blocks primarily came from a region of the solar system where water was scarce.



This contradicts a popular theory that a significant amount of Earth’s water arrived during the Moon-forming event. 



Instead, the study indicates that water was delivered in smaller amounts long after the Moon formed, during the later stages of planetary development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-source-of-earth-s-water">Rethinking the source of Earth’s water</h2>



“We have to figure out from where in our solar system Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-discovery-earths-building-blocks-contained-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building blocks</a> - the dust and the gas - came and around when that happened,” Bermingham said. “That’s the information needed to understand when the stage was set for life to begin.”



If most of Earth’s original material came from the drier inner solar system, then the Moon-forming event was likely not a major contributor of water. Instead, water must have arrived in smaller portions later. 



This conclusion challenges the idea that a single event provided Earth with the majority of its water. 



The study supports the view that water accumulated gradually over time, arriving through a combination of asteroid impacts and other processes occurring well after the planet had taken shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-about-life-s-early-conditions">Questions about life’s early conditions</h2>



“Our results suggest that the Moon-forming event was not a major supplier of water, unlike what has been thought previously,” Bermingham said. “These findings, however, permit a small amount of water to be added after final core formation, during what is called late accretion.”



This discovery raises new questions about how long it took for Earth to become habitable. If water arrived later than previously thought, then life may have taken longer to emerge. 



This could also have implications for understanding other planets, particularly those that scientists consider candidates for life.



By refining the timeline of Earth’s water history, this study contributes to a broader effort to understand planetary evolution. If water arrived late on Earth, then other planets might have followed a similar pattern. 



This could mean that life-supporting conditions take longer to develop than scientists once assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-in-the-search-for-earth-s-water">What’s next in the search for Earth’s water?</h2>



The study represents a step forward in unraveling Earth’s past, but it also highlights the many unanswered questions about the origins of water and life. 



Future research will likely focus on refining models of planetary accretion, analyzing additional meteorite samples, and exploring other isotopic markers that could provide further insights.



Other Rutgers contributors to the study include Linda Godfrey, an assistant research professor, and Hope Tornebene, a laboratory researcher in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 



The research continues to push the boundaries of planetary science, bringing us closer to understanding how Earth became a world capable of supporting life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016703724005751?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta</a>.



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Water arrived on Earth gradually over time, not in one big event

Earth, the only known planet to support life, owes much...

Childhood malignant brain tumors remain a significant challenge for clinicians and researchers around the world, largely because they are often only discovered after they have already become complex and difficult to treat.&nbsp;



Among these cancers, medulloblastoma stands out as the most common malignant brain tumor in children, frequently leading to devastating outcomes.&nbsp;



Now, a team of scientists at <a href="https://www.sickkids.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hospital for Sick Children</a> (SickKids) has made a pivotal finding that could stop a subtype of medulloblastoma - known as sonic hedgehog (SHH) medulloblastoma - from forming at its earliest stages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detection-of-childhood-brain-cancer">Detection of childhood brain cancer</h2>



Because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-antidepressants-could-help-treat-brain-tumors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain tumors</a> typically trigger noticeable symptoms only after considerable growth, crucial details about the cancer’s initial formation can remain hidden. 



By the time a young patient is diagnosed, the tumorous cells may have already undergone numerous mutations. 



In response to this clinical hurdle, a research group led by Dr. Peter Dirks at SickKids focused on the earliest cellular steps of SHH medulloblastoma.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-halting-tumor-formation">Halting tumor formation </h2>



The new study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54858-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, shows that a single protein serves as a critical “on switch,” awakening dormant stem cells that then give rise to a tumor.



“Our findings offer a novel strategy to target cancer stem cells, providing hope for more effective treatments against aggressive brain tumors,” said Dirks, a senior scientist in the Developmental, Stem Cell &amp; Cancer Biology program and Chief of the Division of Neurosurgery.



One of the study’s most significant insights is that by preventing the reactivation of these dormant, cancer-initiating cells, the entire cascade of tumor formation can be intercepted.&nbsp;



SHH medulloblastoma arises in a particular subset of patients, and this discovery suggests that if the first molecular trigger is blocked, the disease may be prevented from taking root in the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-opportunity-for-intervention-nbsp">An opportunity for intervention&nbsp;</h2>



In the study, the team looked at how SHH medulloblastoma unfolds at the cellular level. They found that the protein OLIG2 plays a central role in “waking up” quiescent stem <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-cancer-cell-death-may-transform-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> - cells that are otherwise inactive - and prompting them to divide uncontrollably, eventually forming tumors.&nbsp;



As the scientists dug deeper, they identified the exact window in which this reactivation occurs and recognized it as a prime opportunity for intervention.



“There is order to how the cancer initiating stem cells undergo fate changes to form tumors. We can target an early transition event and intercept the entire process - essentially stopping the cancer in its earliest form,” said study first author Kinjal Desai, a postdoctoral researcher in the Dirks lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-to-prevent-relapse">Potential to prevent relapse</h2>



By pinpointing OLIG2’s critical role, the researchers tested whether blocking its action could halt tumor initiation and, importantly, prevent relapse in cases that had already undergone conventional treatments.&nbsp;



The experts used a small molecule called CT-179, which disrupts OLIG2 function and stops the dormant stem cells from waking.&nbsp;



When combined with an existing therapeutic approach, this treatment not only blocked SHH medulloblastoma formation in a preclinical model but also effectively prevented residual cancer stem cells from becoming reactivated later on.&nbsp;



This two-pronged effect significantly reduced the chance of tumor regrowth and improved survival outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-brain-tumors-in-the-early-stages">Targeting brain tumors in the early stages</h2>



Simultaneously, researchers at <a href="https://www.choa.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta</a> and the <a href="https://www.qimrberghofer.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute</a> in Australia carried out related experiments, published concurrently in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-54861-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



Their work corroborates the SickKids findings, hinting that this kind of OLIG2-targeting strategy could go beyond SHH medulloblastoma to combat other pediatric brain tumors, including diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) - an aggressive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-cancer-rates-in-young-adults-linked-to-accelerated-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a> that has proven particularly resistant to conventional therapies.



This latest discovery advances previous research from the Dirks Lab on the early stages of brain tumors. While the new findings will require validation in clinical trials, they highlight the advantages of what Dr. Dirks describes as ‘precision biology.’



“At SickKids, we’re already genetically testing every child with cancer to inform their diagnosis and treatments - our study goes beyond genetic testing to precision biology,” Dirks said. “I am excited for a future where this ‘magic bullet’ for early treatment could be combined with diagnostic tests to potentially prevent the cancer from developing at all.”



By intervening at the very root of tumor formation, the team’s approach could offer a transformative path for children with medulloblastoma and other aggressive brain cancers.&nbsp;



If these promising strategies move successfully through clinical trials, early intervention might indeed stop pediatric brain tumors before they can even take hold, heralding a new era in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer treatment</a>.



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New therapy for childhood brain cancer halts tumor formation

Childhood malignant brain tumors remain a significant challenge for clinicians...

The stereotype that women outtalk men persists across many cultures. Yet, a prominent study in 2007 challenged that notion by finding that men and women each speak around 16,000 words per day, on average.



A new, larger investigation revisits this topic and offers a more nuanced view: women may indeed be more talkative - but only during a specific stage of life.



Study co-lead author Colin Tidwell is a clinical psychology doctoral candidate at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona </a>(U of A).&nbsp;



“There is a strong cross-cultural assumption that women talk a lot more than men,” said Tidwell. “We wanted to see whether or not this assumption holds when empirically tested.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-talking-varies-by-age-and-gender">Talking varies by age and gender</h2>



Analyzing data from nearly 2,200 participants, the researchers found that women aged 25 to 65 speak about 3,000 more words per day than men in the same age bracket.&nbsp;



However, in adolescence (10-17), emerging adulthood (18-24), and older adulthood (65 and up), they observed no notable gender gap in daily word count.



The study also suggests that people overall might be talking less than before, which the researchers suspect could be linked to growing reliance on digital communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-claim-that-women-talk-more">The claim that women talk more</h2>



In 2007, University of Arizona psychologist Matthias Mehl investigated the common claim that women are significantly more talkative than men.&nbsp;



Participants in that study - about 500 men and women - wore a device called the EAR (Electronically Activated Recorder), which periodically recorded brief clips of their everyday <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-20-minute-conversation-with-a-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conversations</a>.



After estimating each participant’s total daily word count, the researchers concluded that no significant gender difference existed - a finding that appeared in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1139940?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D90780648708216300104417575982572668868%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1738666255&amp;adobe_mc=MCMID%3D90780648708216300104417575982572668868%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1738667536" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a> and garnered national headlines.&nbsp;



Nevertheless, critics pointed out that most participants were college-aged and all lived in Austin, Texas, limiting the study’s diversity.



Almost two decades later, Mehl collaborated with Tidwell, Valeria Pfeifer, a postdoctoral researcher at the U of A, and Alexander Danvers, a former U of A postdoctoral fellow, to repeat the experiment on a larger scale.&nbsp;



The new work incorporates 630,000 EAR recordings from 22 separate studies across four countries, covering individuals aged 10 to 94 - a total of 2,197 participants, which is four times the original sample size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-women-talk-more">Why do women talk more?</h2>



Among all age groups studied, a significant difference between men’s and women’s word counts emerged only in early to middle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifestyle-choices-in-young-adulthood-impact-cognitive-ability-in-midlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adulthood</a> (25-64). During these years, women spoke about 21,845 words per day, while men spoke about 18,570.



The researchers remain unsure exactly why women might talk more during this period, but they propose that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parent-children-relationships-are-key-to-lifelong-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parenting</a> responsibilities could be one contributing factor.



“Gender-linked differences in child rearing and family care are one possibility that could account for this difference,” said Mehl, the senior author of the study and a professor in the U of A Department of Psychology.&nbsp;



“If biological factors like hormones were to be the main cause, a sizable gender difference should have also been present among emerging adults. If societal generational changes were to be the driving force, there should have been a gradually increasing gender difference with older participants. Neither, though, was the case.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-talking-trends-across-time">Talking trends across time</h2>



While the data suggest that women do speak more than men during early and middle adulthood, Mehl highlighted that individual differences can overshadow such group patterns.&nbsp;



The least talkative person in the entire study - a man - spoke roughly 100 words a day, while the most talkative participant - also a man - exceeded 120,000 words.



“We humans are so much more different individually than the two genders systematically,” Mehl said.



Another revealing finding was that the average word count across participants has been declining since 2005, slipping from about 16,000 words per day to about 13,000.



“We did a full analysis looking at what year the data were collected and found that, indeed, 300 spoken words on average per year go missing,” noted study co-lead author Pfeifer.



Although the exact cause for this decline is not fully established, researchers suspect that digital technologies - such as texting, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spending-less-time-on-social-media-improves-your-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social media</a>, and online chats - could be supplanting spoken conversations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conversation-as-a-health-behavior">Conversation as a health behavior</h2>



Mehl emphasized the need for further inquiry into the effects of talkativeness and social engagement on overall health. He is currently co-developing a device called SocialBit, akin to a Fitbit, that tracks the duration of daily conversations without recording their content. Instead, it relies on an algorithm to detect whether ambient sounds contain speech.



“I'm fascinated by the idea that we know how much we need to sleep, we know how much we need to exercise, and people are wearing Fitbits all the time, but we have no idea how much we're supposed to socialize,” he said.&nbsp;



“The evidence is very strong that socializing is linked to health, at least to the same extent as physical activity and sleep are. It's just another health behavior.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions-nbsp">Future research directions&nbsp;</h2>



Overall, the follow-up study offers a refined perspective on the question of whether women speak more than men. While the gap exists during early and middle adulthood, no significant difference emerges in adolescence, emerging adulthood, or older age.&nbsp;



Beyond that, both genders may be speaking fewer words over time - possibly due to a shift toward digital forms of communication.



As researchers continue to investigate the intersection between conversation, well-being, and modern technology, novel tools like SocialBit may shed light on just how much human dialogue contributes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-activity-may-delay-the-onset-of-dementia-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a>, reinforcing the importance of face-to-face interactions in an increasingly digital era.



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Do women really talk more than men? A new look at the debate

The stereotype that women outtalk men persists across many cultures....

Octopuses have long fascinated scientists with their intelligence, camouflage abilities, and unique biology. 



These remarkable creatures continue to surprise researchers, revealing new secrets about their evolutionary past. One of the most intriguing mysteries has been the question of how octopuses determine their sex.



Scientists at the University of Oregon recently identified a sex chromosome in the California two-spot octopus. This discovery confirms that cephalopods, a group that includes squid and nautiluses, rely on chromosomes for sex determination. 



The research also suggests that this chromosome has existed for at least 480 million years, making it one of the oldest known sex chromosomes in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turquets-octopus-dna-tells-scientists-that-west-antarctic-ice-sheet-collapse-is-close/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-chromosome-in-octopuses">Sex chromosome in octopuses</h2>



“Cephalopods are already such interesting creatures, and there are so many things we’re still learning about them, especially in neuroscience,” said Gabby Coffing, a doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.uoregon.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oregon</a>. 



“This is just showing one more interesting thing about them: They have really ancient sex chromosomes.”



The findings, published in the journal Current Biology, provide new insights into the genetic history of octopuses and their relatives. Understanding this ancient sex determination system could help scientists uncover more about how these intelligent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-octopus-day-the-intelligent-creatures-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-determination-varies-across-species">Sex determination varies across species</h2>



Sex determination is not the same for all animals. While humans and most mammals rely on the X/Y chromosome system, other species follow different methods. 



In turtles, sex depends on the temperature at which the eggs incubate. Some fish determine sex using a single gene rather than a whole chromosome. 



Even in humans, sex chromosomes are not always straightforward. Gene mutations or extra sex chromosomes can lead to biological variations that do not fit into a simple male or female category.



Cephalopods have long posed a challenge for genetic research. They are not standard laboratory animals like mice or fruit flies, making it difficult for scientists to study their genetics in depth. 



Although researchers have sequenced the genomes of some octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, they still struggle to link specific genes to particular traits. The discovery of an octopus sex chromosome marks a major breakthrough in understanding how these animals develop and reproduce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-sex-chromosome-in-female-octopuses">Unique sex chromosome in female octopuses</h2>



The research team at the University of Oregon made an unexpected discovery when sequencing the DNA of a female California two-spot octopus. 



Among its 30 chromosomes, one stood out because it contained only half the usual amount of genetic material. This anomaly had not appeared in previous studies of male octopus DNA.



“This particular chromosome had half the amount of sequencing data, which indicated there was only one copy,” Coffing explained. “Then as we explored that more, we reached the conclusion that we must have stumbled upon a sex chromosome.”



This finding suggested that female octopuses carry a unique chromosome that males do not. The scientists needed to confirm their discovery by comparing it with data from other cephalopods. 



If this chromosome appeared in multiple species, it would indicate an ancient and consistent pattern of sex determination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-chromosome-exists-in-other-cephalopods">Sex chromosome exists in other cephalopods</h2>



The team analyzed genomic data from other octopus species and found similar evidence of this unique chromosome. 



The experts also detected the sex chromosome in squid, a species that diverged from octopuses between 248 and 455 million years ago. More surprisingly, they identified traces of it in the nautilus, a mollusk that split from the octopus lineage approximately 480 million years ago.



“This indicates that their common ancestor had this similar sex determination system,” Coffing said.



Most sex chromosomes change rapidly over time because they play a crucial role in reproduction. However, this cephalopod sex chromosome appears to have remained stable for hundreds of millions of years. 



This suggests that octopuses and their relatives have relied on this system without significant evolutionary changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-ancient-sex-chromosomes">Comparing ancient sex chromosomes</h2>



While the octopus sex chromosome is one of the oldest known, other ancient sex chromosomes exist in nature. 



Some plants, like mosses and liverworts, evolved their sex chromosomes early in Earth’s history. Insects also have sex chromosomes that date back about 450 million years, though these have changed considerably over time.



The discovery in octopuses challenges the idea that sex chromosomes always evolve quickly. It suggests that some systems remain stable if they continue to work effectively over long periods. Cephalopods seem to have found a genetic formula for sex determination that has stood the test of time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-the-missing-w-chromosome">Mystery of the missing W chromosome</h2>



One question remains unanswered: how exactly does the sex determination system work in octopuses? Scientists initially suspected that octopuses might have a system similar to birds and butterflies, where males have two identical chromosomes (ZZ) and females have one of each (ZW).



Kern and his team searched for a W chromosome in female octopuses but didn't find one. This leaves open the possibility that octopuses follow a different system in which males have two copies of a single chromosome (ZZ), while females have only one (Z).



Researchers still need more evidence to confirm how octopus sex chromosomes function. While this study has solved one piece of the puzzle, many questions remain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-the-octopus">Secrets of the octopus </h2>



Octopuses continue to be one of the most enigmatic creatures in the ocean. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a>, problem-solving skills, and unique genetics set them apart from most other animals. 



The discovery of an ancient sex chromosome adds another layer to their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary story</a>. For now, researchers know that this octopus sex chromosome has been around for nearly half a billion years. However, the exact mechanics of how it works remain uncertain.



As scientists continue to explore cephalopod genetics, they will uncover more about how these fascinating animals developed their extraordinary traits.



The octopus has revealed one of its secrets, but it still holds on to many more.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00005-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Sex chromosome discovered in octopuses is 480 million years old

Octopuses have long fascinated scientists with their intelligence, camouflage abilities,...

For a long time, researchers believed that only humans could recognize when someone else lacked information. This ability, known as "theory of mind," allows people to communicate, teach, and cooperate in complex ways. Many thought that animals, including apes, did not share this skill.



However, new research from Johns Hopkins University challenges that idea. The experts found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> actively pointed out hidden treats to humans who did not know where they were.



This seemingly simple action suggests that apes understand when others lack information and take steps to help them.



The findings, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, provide the clearest evidence yet that apes can track ignorance in others. This discovery offers insight into the shared cognitive abilities of humans and great apes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-share-cognitive-abilities-with-humans">Apes share cognitive abilities with humans</h2>



Study co-author Chris Krupenye is an assistant professor of psychological and brain sciences at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins</a>.



“The ability to sense gaps in one another’s knowledge is at the heart of our most sophisticated social behaviors, central to the ways we cooperate, communicate, and work together strategically,” said Professor Krupenye. 



He explained that this cognitive ability forms the basis for skills like language and teaching, both of which are considered uniquely human. The study suggests that these abilities may have evolved millions of years ago, long before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a> emerged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-ape-intelligence">Testing ape intelligence </h2>



In collaboration with Luke Townrow, a Johns Hopkins PhD student, Professor Krupenye worked with three male bonobos to explore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-use-gestures-similar-to-human-body-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a>’ understanding of others’ knowledge.



The apes - Nyota, 25; Kanzi, 43; and Teco, 13 - live at Ape Initiative, a research and education nonprofit.



The experiment was designed to test whether the apes could recognize when a human lacked information. One bonobo sat across a table from Townrow. Another person placed a treat (a grape or a Cheerio) under one of three cups.



Sometimes, Townrow could see where the treat was placed. Other times, he could not. The bonobo could only get the treat if Townrow found it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-anticipate-what-humans-know">Apes anticipate what humans know</h2>



Townrow always asked the same question: “Where’s the grape?” and then waited for ten seconds. If he had seen where the treat was hidden, the bonobo usually remained still, waiting for him to retrieve it.



But when Townrow did not see the treat being hidden, the bonobo reacted differently. Instead of waiting, it quickly pointed to the correct cup. Some bonobos even pointed multiple times, making sure their message was clear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-and-repeated-gestures">Clear and repeated gestures</h2>



“Their fingers would point right through the mesh - it was clear what they were trying to communicate,” said Professor Krupenye.



One of the apes, Kanzi, reacted especially strongly. He was highly food-motivated and would tap repeatedly to ensure Townrow noticed his pointing. His eagerness highlighted the urgency with which the apes tried to share information.



This reaction supports previous observations from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild</a>. Researchers have seen chimpanzees vocalize to warn others of danger when a group member appears unaware of a threat, such as a nearby snake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-gaps-in-knowledge">Recognizing gaps in knowledge</h2>



“We predicted that if apes are really tracking ignorance, when their partners lacked knowledge, they would be pointing more often and more quickly, and that’s exactly what they did,” Krupenye said.



The ability to recognize when someone lacks knowledge suggests that apes can hold two different perspectives at the same time. They know where the treat is, but apes also recognize that their human partner does not.



This cognitive skill is fundamental in human social interactions. People adjust their communication based on what they believe others know or do not know. The findings suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/playful-teasing-among-apes-suggests-that-humor-has-ancient-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a> share this ability at a basic level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-have-advanced-mental-abilities">Apes have advanced mental abilities</h2>



“There are debates in the field about the capabilities of primates, and for us, it was exciting to confirm that they really do have these rich capacities that some people have denied them,” Krupenye said.



By demonstrating that apes can track others' ignorance, the study provides new evidence that great apes possess more advanced mental abilities than previously believed. This research could reshape how scientists view the evolution of human intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-apes-change-human-beliefs">Can apes change human beliefs?</h2>



The next step is to investigate why apes behave this way. Are they simply trying to influence their partner’s behavior, or do they understand that they are changing someone else’s thoughts?



“What we’ve shown here is that apes will communicate with a partner to change their behavior, but a key open question for further research is whether apes are also pointing to change their partner’s mental state or their beliefs," said Townrow.



Future studies will explore whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-learned-to-walk-from-an-ancestor-called-lufengpithecus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> communicate to correct others’ misunderstandings or simply to achieve a goal. Either way, the findings suggest that the roots of human social intelligence stretch back millions of years.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2412450122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Apes can tell when humans don’t know something

For a long time, researchers believed that only humans could...

Earth is changing faster than many people realize, and more voices are calling for urgent responses to climate-related threats. 



Many health professionals see daily reminders of how shifting temperatures and extreme weather can harm public well-being. One approach gaining traction is the use of satellite and space-based data to map environmental risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-climate-threats-with-satellites">Monitoring climate threats with satellites</h2>



“The space sector has been in the forefront of innovation, taking on challenges often thought to be impossible and also against all odds,” said Dr. Farhan Asrar, a physician and researcher affiliated with the University of Toronto.



Dr. Asrar's work highlights how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nisar-the-satellite-that-will-change-how-we-see-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space technologies</a> can address some of the biggest climate threats.



"Space-based tools, including remote sensing data and technologies, offer unique insights that can strengthen climate resilience, support sustainable policies, and enable real-time monitoring to address the escalating global environmental challenges," wrote Dr. Asrar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-air-quality-with-satellites">Tracking air quality with satellites</h2>



Poor air quality is a growing issue connected to asthma, heart disease, and other conditions. Nearly 99% of the global population breathes air that does not meet recommended <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/climate-change-and-health" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">standards</a>.



Space agencies maintain satellites that collect real-time climate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthcare-satellite-will-reveal-the-climate-effects-of-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">information</a> on pollutants, temperatures, and greenhouse gases. 



This gives health professionals the opportunity to see emerging patterns before they become full-blown emergencies.



By pairing satellite observations with patient data, governments and care providers can gauge which communities are at the highest risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-climate-driven-disease-risks">Predicting climate-driven disease risks</h2>



Climate change extends the range of <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/vector-borne-diseases" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vector-borne diseases</a>, as higher temperatures allow mosquitoes and other carriers thrive in new areas. Satellite imagery can track the environmental factors - like water and vegetation - that help these vectors multiply.



When integrated with ground-based health data, satellite imagery can help pinpoint potential outbreaks of infectious diseases such as malaria or dengue. Public health officials can use the information to strategize interventions in advance.



Past analyses of remote sensing data supported <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/data-and-policy/article/examining-the-value-of-satellite-data-in-halting-transmission-of-polio-in-nigeria-a-socioeconomic-analysis/73EF7CA1DEEEEDA0292C068246D27217" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaccine distribution</a> for threats like polio, highlighting the practical benefits of combining space observations with epidemiological expertise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-climate-disaster-response">Improving climate disaster response</h2>



Extreme weather events are becoming <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10962247.2021.1942319#abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more frequent</a>, and early warning systems can save lives by guiding evacuation plans. Satellites monitor hurricanes, floods, and wildfires, providing insights that local teams can act on.



“The <a href="https://disasterscharter.org/about-the-charter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Disaster Charter</a> I referred to, it provides free satellite images when a disaster arises to support the relief efforts and it has been activated over 900 times, providing satellite images to all even to countries who do not have any satellites of their own,” noted Dr. Asrar.&nbsp;



This resource, along with platforms like the United Nations Platform for Space-based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response (<a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/un-spider/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UN-SPIDER</a>), provide critical assistance to regions with limited access to advanced technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-global-health-crises">Addressing global health crises</h2>



Many experts emphasize the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/one-health/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Health</a> approach, which recognizes the links between human, animal, and environmental health. 



Public health leaders who appreciate these connections can use space data to track deforestation, water quality, and changing temperatures that affect both ecosystems and our own well-being.



“My <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S266727822400083X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> in finding innovative solutions (using space-based technologies to address climate change and related global health crises) has shown me that it is crucial to collaborate with others, and also to have an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approach, thus it is bringing together expertise from various perspectives and experiences to address a challenge,” said Dr. Asrar.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-time-climate-monitoring-with-satellites">Real-time climate monitoring with satellites </h2>



As more space missions launch, an influx of <a href="https://climate.esa.int/en/odp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> will help us track shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-mission-will-closely-monitor-changes-on-earths-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental patterns</a> in near-real time.



Scientists plan to refine these tools by integrating real-time climate monitoring, predictive modeling, and health data analytics, allowing health professionals to anticipate and respond more swiftly to weather-related disasters and disease outbreaks. 



By enhancing early warning systems and resource allocation strategies, these improvements can help mitigate the health impacts of extreme heat, hurricanes, floods, and the spread of climate-sensitive diseases.



Advocates emphasize that blending satellite-derived climate data with on-the-ground knowledge from local communities, healthcare workers, and policymakers provides a more comprehensive understanding of risks. 



The research is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S266727822400083X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Climate Change and Health</a>.



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Satellites might be the unlikely heroes in the climate crisis

Earth is changing faster than many people realize, and more...

A new computer model will allow experts to identify specific immune cells that battle tumors in patients with lung cancer.



The research team has demonstrated that their three-gene “MANAscore” computer model can identify the cells targeted by immune checkpoint inhibitor therapies.



The model has also played a significant role in explaining the differences in patient responses to immunotherapy.



"Mutation-associated neoantigens (MANAs) are a target of antitumor T-cell immunity. Sensitive, simple, and standardized assays are needed to assess the repertoire of functional MANA-specific T cells in oncology," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-activating-tumor-destroying-cells">Activating tumor-destroying cells</h2>



Study senior author Dr. Kellie Smith is an associate professor of oncology at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a>.



“We have developed a way to identify the cells directly targeted by immune checkpoint inhibitors, and if we can identify them, we can study them. If we can study them, that means we can identify better biomarkers and better targets for combination immunotherapy,” said Dr. Smith.



Immunotherapies, such as PD-1 inhibitors, are becoming increasingly useful in treating various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-linked-to-32-cancer-types-that-could-drive-40-of-cases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">types of cancer</a>. They function by activating tumor-destroying immune cells - known as T cells - that are rendered inactive by the protein PD-1. 



PD-1 inhibitors re-activate the T cells, thereby fortifying the patient's immune system to fight cancer more effectively.



However, these therapies don't work for everyone, and scientists must understand why so they can develop more effective treatments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-elusive-immune-cells">Identifying elusive immune cells </h2>



Study co-author Dr. Zhen Zeng is a bioinformatics research associate at the John Hopkins Kimmel Cancer Center.



“Tumor-active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-cells-could-be-used-to-slow-down-or-even-reverse-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T cells</a> are very important to a patient’s response to therapy, but they are difficult to find,” explained Dr. Zeng.



Dr. Smith assisted in the development of a technology known as MANAFEST (Mutation-Associated NeoAntigen Functional Expansion of Specific T Cells), which was first introduced in 2018.



The team combined MANAFEST with single-cell sequencing to identify these elusive immune cells in six patients with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-bans-could-help-prevent-1-2-million-lung-cancer-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lung cancer</a>. 



This process, which spanned several years and cost millions of dollars, showed that immunotherapy-activated immune cells share a common gene expression profile. The study laid the groundwork for the MANAscore model.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simplifying-the-identification-process">Simplifying the identification process</h2>



“Our model allows us to skip a time-consuming and expensive process to identify the cells targeted by immunotherapy, and will help us identify what distinguishes who will respond to these therapies,” explained Dr. Smith.



“We’re not the first to come up with one of these models, but what sets ours apart is that it uses only three genes, while the most commonly used model requires more than 200 genes. Ours is simpler and easier to use."



The team also discerned significant differences in the T cells activated in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cancer-research-ai-will-change-the-way-we-see-tumors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tumors</a> of patients who respond to immune checkpoint therapy compared to those who don’t. 



Responding patients possess a higher proportion of stem-like memory T cells, which act as a reservoir for new cells and can develop into many effective anti-tumor cells, Dr. Zeng noted. 



While this may explain the differences in patent responses, more research is required to validate these findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionizing-cancer-treatments">Revolutionizing cancer treatments </h2>



Currently, the team is focused on developing a clinical test that employs multispectral immunofluorescence panels to identify the three-gene signature of immune therapy responding T cells.



“We hope to translate our three-gene signature into a biomarker that clinicians can use to guide cancer care,” said Dr. Smith.



Using the new model, experts can also study the spatial data to understand whether interactions between tumor-targeting T cells and other types of immune cells affect clinical outcomes.



This work could potentially revolutionize cancer care, making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/better-cancer-tests-produce-better-cancer-treatments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatments</a> more personalized and effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-reach-of-cancer-immunotherapy">Expanding the reach of cancer immunotherapy</h2>



Beyond lung cancer, researchers believe the MANAscore model could be applied to other cancers treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors. 



By refining the model and expanding its use, scientists aim to develop a universal tool for identifying responsive immune cells across different cancer types. 



Ultimately, this research could lead to broader applications in precision oncology, making immunotherapy more effective for a wider range of patients.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6072595/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Computer model can identify tumor-fighting immune cells

A new computer model will allow experts to identify specific...

Asteroids occasionally wander close to the Earth, raising alarms for scientists who keep their eyes on the sky. These rocky bodies vary in size and trajectory, and some can pose a real risk if they come too close.



Experts recently identified asteroid 2024 YR4, spotted on December 27, 2024, and they note a small chance of it <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/planetarydefense/2025/01/29/nasa-shares-observations-of-recently-identified-near-earth-asteroid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impacting Earth</a> on December 22, 2032.



It ranges from about 130 feet to 330 feet across, enough to cause severe harm to one region if it collides with our planet.



This assessment is shared by <a href="https://www.iafastro.org/biographie/richard-moissl.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Richard Moissl</a> from ESA’s Planetary Defence Office. His team has been analyzing the object’s path since early January to ensure no important detail slips through the cracks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-assessment-of-asteroid-2024-yr4">Risk assessment of asteroid 2024 YR4</h2>



Astronomers from NASA-funded <a href="https://atlas.fallingstar.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System</a> station in Chile used automated warning systems to learn that this object has about a 1.2% probability of a collision. 



Independent calculations by <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA’s Center for Near-Earth Object Studies</a> match these findings, which helps confirm the current hazard level.



Observers have placed the asteroid at Level 3 on the <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/sentry/torino_scale.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Torino Impact Hazard Scale</a>, meaning it deserves added attention from researchers and everyday folks alike. Once more data rolls in, that probability might drop, which is common in cases like this.



Researchers are also watching the asteroid’s path as it moves farther away from Earth. Its elongated orbit, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/eccentric-orbit" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eccentric</a>, makes it tricky to pin down its exact route.



A body spanning over 130 feet can trigger local destruction if it slams into Earth. Historical <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/maps.13370">records</a> show that objects of this class impact our planet roughly every few thousand years.



A risk above 1% prompts action at national and global levels. If the object is bigger than about 165 feet and could hit within the next five decades, that raises red flags.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-asteroid-2024-yr4">Tracking asteroid 2024 YR4</h2>



The International Asteroid Warning Network (<a href="https://iawn.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IAWN</a>) is a critical group for tracking and studying cosmic debris. They share information across multiple nations and advise policymakers on how to respond if the threat sticks around.



<a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>, which is part of this global network, has begun coordinating more observations to narrow down the asteroid’s path. They gather telescope data and feed it into risk assessment models for better clarity.



Plans are already in place for advanced telescope sessions in the coming months. The European Southern Observatory’s <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Very Large Telescope</a> in Chile will join the effort, capturing highly detailed images before the asteroid fades from view.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-fade-and-comeback">Potential fade and comeback</h2>



Observers know that 2024 YR4 could become too dim to track for several years. If that happens, Earth-based telescopes might not see it again until 2028.



During that dim phase, the asteroid might remain on ESA’s risk list. Once it swings back into a spot suitable for tracking, experts can gather more precise observations.



Any leftover uncertainty will not vanish until measurements confirm it poses no danger. Patience and well-planned follow-up sessions help the scientific community stay vigilant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-is-in-charge-of-this">Who is in charge of this?</h2>



Two groups keep an eye on near-Earth objects that exceed a specific chance of striking Earth. The first, IAWN, coordinates worldwide detection and heads up possible warning strategies.



The second, Space Mission Planning Advisory Group (<a href="https://sdg.esa.int/activity/space-mission-planning-advisory-group-smpag-4311" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMPAG</a>), is chaired by ESA itself. They discuss spacecraft-based measures that might be used to adjust or deflect an asteroid if the odds do not fall to a safe level.



Upcoming meetings in Vienna will review current data on 2024 YR4. If numbers remain above the 1% threshold, SMPAG could advise the UN and outline possible mission scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-asteroids-is-tricky">Tracking asteroids is tricky</h2>



Size and path are only part of the puzzle. The asteroid’s angle relative to Earth means astronomers have to gather data while the object is nearly a straight shot away.



Small shifts can create big differences in long-term projections. This is why repeated tracking throughout the year is vital.



As Earth orbits the Sun and the asteroid edges further away, brightness steadily decreases. New instruments with higher sensitivity are vital to continue refining predictions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-approaches">Collaborative approaches</h2>



ESA and NASA encourage widespread engagement from both professional and amateur observers. Backyard telescopes can supply valuable brightness measurements that contribute to large-scale calculations.



In many prior cases, the risk of impact has fallen to zero after solid data came in. Time and extra sets of eyes have a powerful effect on reducing false alarms.



IAWN’s role in funneling these observations is central to making sure all participants see the same data. Data consistency reduces guesswork and leads to better insights for any future steps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-odds-big-impact">Small odds, big impact</h2>



A probability of around 1.2% might seem low. Yet even a small chance can’t be ignored when dealing with massive space rocks that could threaten populated areas.



Scientists hope that additional observations will cut that percentage closer to zero. Monitoring remains essential until the numbers drop definitively.



Geologic records remind us that impacts have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-chicxulub-caused-dinosaurs-extinction-event-traced-to-origin-kuiper-belt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shaped Earth’s history</a>. A collision of any significant size is rare, but it’s best not to leave things to chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-asteroid-2024-yr4">Preparing for asteroid 2024 YR4</h2>



Astronomers will soon switch to more powerful telescopes to track 2024 YR4 as it dims. They aim to collect enough measurements to refine orbital calculations and ease public concerns.



SMPAG’s meeting next week will focus on next steps if the risk level remains the same. By staying informed and ready, experts can spring into action if needed.



Governments may look to these groups for guidance on how to protect citizens. Meanwhile, curiosity and caution steer each new observation session.



Confidence grows with every updated data point. New angles and vantage points offer a clearer look at what might lie ahead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steady-vigilance">Steady vigilance</h2>



Dr. Moissl and his colleagues stay on alert for any changes in the asteroid’s path. Near-Earth objects can be unpredictable, so preparedness is key.



Many are optimistic that more data will cut down the current uncertainty. However, official procedures are in place in case the threat persists.



People worldwide may not notice the faint object, but scientists are keeping watch. Once it reappears in 2028, fresh observations could settle the question of its impact risk.



Our knowledge of space threats has advanced in recent years. Researchers now respond more quickly and share their findings across borders.



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NASA: Asteroid 2024 YR4 has a chance of hitting Earth, scientists actively monitoring

Asteroids occasionally wander close to the Earth, raising alarms for...

Urban environments are complex ecosystems where pollution, weather patterns, and human activities constantly interact. Among the many factors shaping urban climates, airborne particles play a crucial role in influencing cloud formation and radiation balance. 



These particles affect how sunlight is absorbed or reflected, how clouds develop, and even how precipitation forms.



Traditionally, scientific research has focused on primary particles - those emitted directly from vehicle exhaust, industrial processes, and other sources. However, new particles formed through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-air-pollution-forms-may-help-us-prevent-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric reactions</a> have received far less attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-climate-regulation">Impact on climate regulation</h2>



Despite their invisible presence, these secondary particles significantly impact climate regulation. Recent findings suggest that scientists may have underestimated their role in urban climate systems.



A study published in the journal One Earth provides strong evidence that new particles in urban areas influence atmospheric processes in ways that were previously overlooked. This new understanding could reshape approaches to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-deaths-in-india-linked-to-air-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality management</a> and climate mitigation strategies.



"To accurately assess the climate effects of particles, we need comprehensive long-term vertical observations," noted Academician Markku Kulmala from the Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR) at the University of Helsinki.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-urban-particles-matter-for-climate">Why urban particles matter for climate</h2>



Urban air pollution is a well-documented problem, but most studies have primarily focused on what happens at ground level. 



The formation of new particles occurs in the atmosphere itself, driven by chemical reactions between pollutants and natural compounds. These newly formed particles can grow in size and eventually influence cloud development, which in turn affects local and regional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-impacts-brain-development-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climates</a>.



Cities produce a variety of gaseous emissions that act as precursors for particle formation. When these gases mix with atmospheric compounds, they create new particles that rise and spread through different layers of the atmosphere. 



The extent to which these particles impact climate has remained uncertain due to the difficulty of measuring them at various altitudes.



Recognizing this gap, researchers have turned to advanced monitoring methods to capture the full picture of urban particle behavior. By shifting the focus from ground-based observations to a more comprehensive vertical analysis, they have uncovered new insights into how particle formation varies at different heights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-altitude-in-particle-formation">Role of altitude in particle formation</h2>



The researchers conducted their study using a 325-meter meteorological tower in Beijing, one of the tallest atmospheric research platforms in the world. 



This tower allowed the team to measure particle formation at multiple heights, providing a clearer understanding of how these processes differ at various atmospheric levels.



The findings revealed that particle formation is far more pronounced at higher altitudes than previously assumed. Factors such as increased sulfuric acid concentration and higher relative humidity contribute to particle growth in the upper layers of the urban atmosphere. 



This suggests that air pollution dynamics in cities are far more layered and complex than traditional ground-level measurements have shown. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-full-picture-of-urban-particle-dynamics">Full picture of urban particle dynamics </h2>



“The enhanced particle formation aloft suggests that while ground-level measurements provide valuable insights, they may not capture the full picture of particle dynamics, particularly in densely populated urban areas,” said study lead author Wei Du.



By analyzing particles at different heights, researchers discovered that elevated regions of the atmosphere serve as active zones for new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-air-quality-trends-revealed-in-new-images/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particle formation</a>. 



These findings suggest that policymakers and scientists must consider vertical air movement when assessing air pollution and climate impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-particles-and-cloud-formation">Urban particles and cloud formation</h2>



Clouds play a crucial role in regulating Earth’s climate by reflecting sunlight and distributing moisture. 



The process of cloud formation depends on cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), which provide surfaces for water vapor to condense into droplets. Many of these nuclei originate from newly formed particles in the atmosphere.



When gaseous emissions rise and interact with chemicals at higher altitudes, they contribute to the growth of these tiny particles. As they increase in size, they become more effective at attracting water vapor and forming clouds. 



The study found that the impact of new particles on CCN has been underestimated by around 20%, highlighting the need for more accurate climate models that include vertical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-air-pollution-impacts-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particle behavior</a>.



The ability of these particles to influence cloud formation means they also affect temperature regulation and precipitation patterns. This has wide-ranging implications for urban climates, which are already experiencing shifts due to increasing pollution and global climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-urban-climate-policy">Implications for urban climate policy</h2>



The study’s findings go beyond scientific discovery and have important real-world applications. Cities around the world are grappling with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/135-million-people-died-prematurely-due-to-pm25-air-pollution/">air pollution</a> and climate-related challenges, making it essential to develop policies that address the full complexity of atmospheric processes.



By understanding how new particles behave at different altitudes, urban planners and policymakers can create more effective strategies to manage pollution and mitigate climate impacts.



“As cities continue to grapple with air pollution and climate challenges, understanding the vertical profiles of atmospheric processes can help develop more effective strategies to mitigate their impacts on both climate and public health,” noted Wei Du.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-collaborative-approach">A collaborative approach</h2>



This study represents a collaborative effort between leading institutions, including the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a> and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. 



Scientists from multiple disciplines contributed to the research, highlighting the importance of international cooperation in addressing climate challenges.



“The Beijing 325 m Meteorological Tower is a unique research platform for atmospheric and climate science in megacities. We are pleased to collaborate with international partners to address climate change together,” said Yele Sun, professor at the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-climate-research">Expanding climate research</h2>



By expanding the scope of climate research to include vertical measurements, scientists are gaining a more complete understanding of how urban atmospheric particles behave and influence climate. 



These insights can shape future climate policies, helping cities adapt to environmental changes while improving air quality for millions of people.



As research continues, long-term monitoring will be key to refining climate models and identifying more effective solutions for pollution control. 



This study marks an important step in that direction, emphasizing the need to look beyond ground-level observations and consider the full atmospheric picture.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/one-earth/fulltext/S2590-3322(24)00599-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Earth</a>.



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Climate effects of particles in urban air have been underestimated

Urban environments are complex ecosystems where pollution, weather patterns, and...

Bowel cancer affects many individuals and often leads to serious health complications or death. Doctors have been seeking new approaches that can target the disease more precisely, and one recent finding has stirred a lot of interest.



Experts at the <a href="https://www.crick.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Francis Crick Institute</a> and the <a href="https://www.bci.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Barts Cancer Institute</a> in London have identified a protein called CD74 that might show which patients with bowel cancer could respond to certain immune-based treatments. This finding comes from <a href="https://www.bci.qmul.ac.uk/staff/professor-francesca-ciccarelli/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Francesca Ciccarelli</a>, who leads the <a href="https://www.crick.ac.uk/research/labs/francesca-ciccarelli" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cancer Systems Biology Laboratory</a> at the Crick Institute and teaches Cancer Genomics at the Barts Cancer Institute, <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-bowel-cancer">Understanding bowel cancer</h2>



Bowel cancer involves cells in the large intestine that begin to multiply and invade surrounding tissues. These cells sometimes have a faulty DNA repair mechanism, which can make them more sensitive to specific drugs.



Doctors have used immunotherapy to boost a person’s immune cells so that they can fight these tumors more effectively. Some patients see improved outcomes with these treatments. Others show little benefit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-cells-linked-to-treatment">Immune cells linked to treatment</h2>



Certain types of white blood cells, including <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/t-cell" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T cells</a>, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9905317/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NK cells</a>, and <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/macrophage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">macrophages</a>, are known to be crucial in guarding the body against threats. They can release chemical signals that push tumors toward a more vulnerable state. Researchers noticed that, in bowel cancer patients who do well on<a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/immunotherapy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> immunotherapy</a>, these immune cells often gather in key areas near the tumor. That closeness appears to create an environment that allows treatment to work more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spotlight-on-cd74">Spotlight on CD74</h2>



Scientists have <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3016099/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observed</a> that CD74 can help forecast how a tumor might respond to immune-based therapies. 



When these critical immune cells are active, they can encourage tumor cells and macrophages to produce more of this protein.



Investigators suspect that, by measuring its levels, doctors may be able to identify patients who are likely to see a benefit from immunotherapy drugs.



“Our work suggests that testing for CD74 levels - which indicate that the immune system is able to fight the tumour - could widen access to immunotherapy. This could revolutionise treatment for a significant fraction of people with the proficient bowel cancer subtype,” stated Professor Ciccarelli.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cd74-matters">Why CD74 matters</h2>



Researchers have long known that CD74 can trigger <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2900717/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival pathways</a> in certain cells. In healthy tissue, that can help maintain normal function.&nbsp;



Within tumors, though, it may influence how cancer cells interact with the immune system. The more that is understood about how CD74 operates, the more scientists can strategize about effective treatments.



Immunotherapy requires a strong collaboration between cancer cells and the immune system. The presence of CD74 might indicate that the tumor and immune cells are exchanging signals effectively.&nbsp;



This exchange is believed to be part of a chain reaction that encourages a more favorable outcome for some patients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-care">Implications for future care</h2>



“Immunotherapy drugs can be hugely successful for people with bowel cancer, but currently most patients cannot be prescribed these drugs and, even when patients are eligible, we don’t know in advance who will respond,” noted Professor Ciccarelli.



A practical test that measures CD74 might open the door for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/972#:~:text=The%20invariant%20chain%20CD74%20protein,Cells%20by%20Upregulating%20MIF%2DCD74." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wider use</a> of immunotherapy in people who were once considered unsuitable. This could spare many individuals the frustration of trying treatments that may not work for them. 



It could also invite a more personalized approach, where doctors design a plan guided by each patient’s unique tumor traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cd74-and-other-cancers">CD74 and other cancers</h2>



Investigators have <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10399710/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shown</a> that CD74 can also appear when other types of cancer are present, including those affecting the pancreas and breast tissue.



More studies may reveal whether this protein holds similar value in predicting immunotherapy response for these particular cancers.



Some experts are already exploring whether the link between CD74 and the immune system goes beyond its role in bowel tumors. 



If so, future therapies might combine several strategies aimed at boosting immune cell effectiveness while harnessing what this protein tells us about tumor behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-steps-toward-a-test">Practical steps toward a test</h2>



The research team is collaborating with partners to develop a reliable method of detecting CD74 levels in clinical samples. 



A simple test would be far easier to adopt than extensive genetic screening or more invasive procedures. This move could fast-track the clinical use of immunotherapy in cases where doctors once dismissed it.



Patients who test for elevated CD74 may soon be candidates for drugs that were never an option before. Those with low levels might be spared unnecessary side effects and directed toward different medical avenues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Many questions remain about how doctors will incorporate CD74 testing into everyday practice. Specialists anticipate more clinical trials that confirm the reliability and accuracy of this indicator. 



Over time, findings from these trials might refine the best ways to use immunotherapy or combine it with other treatments.



Hope is rising that personalized medicine could be closer than once imagined. A single protein test may hold the key to better survival odds and fewer disappointments in the fight against bowel cancer.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1535610824004835?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cancer Cell</a>.



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This protein discovery may change the treatment of colon cancer

Bowel cancer affects many individuals and often leads to serious...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



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Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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