Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Birds may seem to be singing randomly, but new research suggests their vocalizations may follow hidden rules similar to those that govern human language.



Over the past three decades, scientists have used birdsong as models to understand how humans acquire and transmit language.&nbsp;



Birdsong even serves as a tool for studying <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/speech-impairment" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speech disorders</a> in humans because it shares biological similarities with human speech. Unlike human subjects, birds can be studied in natural conditions without significant ethical or logistical barriers.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-sing-through-notes-and-calls">Birds sing through notes and calls</h2>



But do birds follow the same linguistic rules as we do? To explore this question, it helps to first understand how birds structure their songs.



Notes are continuous sounds separated by short pauses, while phrases are short sequences of notes that always appear together.



Calls are typically short, innate sounds, whereas songs are longer sequences of learned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-triggers-unique-prediction-zones-in-the-brain/">notes</a> or phrases. Bouts are series of similar calls or songs separated by longer rests.



But do these patterns reflect true linguistic rules? One of the best candidates is Zipf's law of abbreviation (ZLA), a principle that shows up in nearly every human language. 



ZLA predicts that frequently used words or sounds tend to be shorter, while rare ones are longer. A team of researchers, including Rebecca Lewis of the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>, set out to put ZLA to the test.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-language-pattern-in-bird-songs">Human language pattern in bird songs</h2>



The researchers developed a new method to test ZLA. They introduced an R package called ZLAvian and analyzed songs from 11 populations across seven species archived in the Bird-DB.



Overall, the results showed a weak but consistent tendency to use shorter sounds more frequently. However, at the individual population level, only one out of eleven showed strong evidence of ZLA.



Studying ZLA in birdsong presented several challenges that are absent in human language. Most <a href="https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/news/new-study-finds-where-birds-are-declining-most-some-locales-with-positive-trends" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird populations</a> use only a few note types compared to our many words, making it difficult to see clear links between sound length and frequency.



Because birds copy songs from others rather than creating them, any variations could reflect shared learning rather than something that emerged independently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixed-results-in-different-bird-species">Mixed results in different bird species</h2>



More than three decades ago, Jack P. Hailman and colleagues noticed that black-capped chickadees often produced shorter bouts of calls frequently than longer ones, but the pattern did not clearly match Zipf's Law.



Later studies showed mixed results. A 2013 study found no evidence of ZLA in common ravens, while a 2020 study of captive African penguins suggested shorter notes were more common.



More recently, some researchers found no evidence of ZLA in the calls of domesticated Java sparrows, while others reported evidence in wild house finches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-question-of-language">The bigger question of language</h2>



The challenges lead to the bigger question. Do birds really follow ZLA, or should we even expect them to? In humans, it is one of the most consistent patterns in language.



The idea of ZLA comes from the Law of Least Effort, which suggests that people naturally choose the path of least resistance to achieve a goal.&nbsp;



Interestingly, ZLA is not only applicable to spoken words but also to written symbols and texts. However, when it comes to animals - including primates, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-and-whales-got-new-backbones-for-life-in-the-water/">cetaceans</a>, bats, and even hyraxes - the evidence is unclear. Very few studies have tested whether ZLA holds true for birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-talk-can-t-be-simplified">Bird talk can’t be simplified</h2>



For humans, shortening words rarely changes their meaning - “television” and “TV” both convey the same idea. But in birdsong, the exact sound of a note can carry crucial information. 



In some species, females interpret particular notes as signals of male quality, and because these notes may be difficult to produce, even slight alterations could distort the message and affect mate choice. This sensitivity might explain why the linguistic principle of Zipf’s Law of Abbreviation (ZLA) is not consistently observed in birdsong. 



While the study found some hints of the pattern in certain species and populations, others showed no evidence at all, suggesting that if ZLA exists in birdsong, it is far less consistent than in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-generated-birdsongs-may-shed-new-light-on-human-language/">human language</a>. 



Future research with larger datasets and broader sampling will be essential to determine whether this linguistic rule truly applies to birds when they communicate.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013228" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Computational Biology</a>.



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Birds may follow a hidden pattern of human language

Birds may seem to be singing randomly, but new research...

Astronomers recorded a star merging with a black hole as it burst into a supernova. Thanks to AI-assisted technology, it was possible to study this extraordinary event as it unfolded.



In July 2023, the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) flagged an unusual cosmic flash while scanning the skies for anomalies. The explosion is now known as SN 2023zkd.&nbsp;



Further observations of its characteristics confirmed that this was no ordinary supernova.



The discovery was made by a collaborative group conducting a survey known as the Young Supernova Experiment (YSE). The team consists of scientists from the Center for Astrophysics at Harvard &amp; Smithsonian and <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rarity-in-supernova-history">A rarity in supernova history</h2>



The supernova SN 2023zkd was likely the result of a heavyweight star locked in a tight orbit with a lurking black hole companion.



Over time, the black hole’s gravity pulled out material, like gas and dust, from the star. This reduced the star’s angular momentum, bringing the star ever closer to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/free-floating-black-hole-appears-to-be-feeding-on-a-star/">black hole</a>.



In close proximity to the black hole, the star was subjected to extreme gravitational stress. Over time, it partially merged with its companion in what astronomers call an instability-induced merger - a process that can prematurely trigger a star’s explosion.



Study lead author Alexander Gagliano is a researcher at the NSF Institute for Artificial Intelligence and Fundamental Interactions.



"This discovery shows how important it is to study how massive stars interact with companions as they approach the end of their lives," Gagliano said in a <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/ai-helps-astronomers-discover-new-type-supernova" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">news release</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-detected-star-black-hole-merger">AI-detected star-black hole merger</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/">AI tools</a> are trained on thousands of light curves - graphs that show how a star’s brightness changes over time - to detect subtle signs of an outburst. One of these tools is the Lightcurve Anomaly Identification and Similarity Search (LAISS).



As the scientists were tracking SN 2023zkd’s decline, LAISS detected unusual color changes. Surprisingly, it eventually displayed two additional peaks of brightness following its detection. 



The first peak came when the explosion’s shockwave hit the thin gas the star had shed earlier. The second, delayed peak arose as the ejecta slammed into a denser, disk-shaped cloud of material around the equator of the star.



“Our machine learning system flagged SN 2023zkd months before its most unusual behavior, which gave us ample time to secure the critical observations needed to unravel this extraordinary explosion,” said Gagliano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-star-or-a-binary-supernova">Single star or a binary supernova?</h2>



At first, astronomers considered single-star explanations because some characteristics were a match. The first possible explanation was a luminous blue variable (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5620488/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LBV</a>), which is a massive, unstable star known for dramatic outbursts. 



SN 2023zkd exhibited multi-year brightening that resembled LBV behavior. But it was far too bright. Its steady, persistent brightness is not compatible with the short bursts typical of LBVs.



Similar to the LBV theory, other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-binary-star-system-d9-found-near-supermassive-black-hole-sagittarius-a-milky-way/">single-star</a> theories also crumbled under the weight of the evidence.&nbsp;



The binary merger theory - the idea that the star collided with a black hole - explained the presence of the equatorial disk of debris, as well as the persistent brightness. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-opening-the-secrets-of-the-universe">Opening the secrets of the universe</h2>



SN 2023zkd offers a preview of what’s to come as large observatories and AI work together. This study relied on data from telescopes located in various parts of the world, including the United States, Australia, and Japan.&nbsp;



“We think this might be part of a whole class of hidden explosions that AI will help us discover,” said V. Ashley Villar, an assistant professor of astronomy at Harvard University.



Future campaigns will track AI alerts using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ground-based-telescopes-detect-light-from-the-cosmic-dawn/">telescopes</a> across the spectrum. Astronomers will map stellar gas in optical, infrared, X-ray, and radio wavelengths to piece together the chain of events that cause a star to explode.



"We're now entering an era where we can automatically catch these rare events as they happen, not just after the fact," noted Gagliano. "That means we can finally start connecting the dots between how a star lives and how it dies, and that's incredibly exciting."



The study was published in the August issue of <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/adea38" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



Image Credit: Melissa Weiss/CfA



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Can black holes detonate stars? Rare supernova holds the clues

Astronomers recorded a star merging with a black hole as...

Age matters in forests. A new study tracks how the world’s trees shifted in age from 2010 to 2020 and what that means for the carbon they hold.



Forests help pull carbon dioxide from the air every year, but that help depends on how many stands are young, middle-aged, or old. A global carbon assessment found land ecosystems absorbed roughly 3.5 petagrams of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-in-the-tropics-cool-earth-more-than-anywhere-else/">carbon</a> per year in the 2010s, with wide swings from place to place.



The research was led by Simon Besnard at the <a href="https://www.gfz.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GFZ</a> Helmholtz Centre for Geosciences in Potsdam, Germany.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-trees-hold-more-carbon">Old trees hold more carbon</h2>



Young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-lagging-centuries-behind-in-climate-adaptation/">trees</a> grow fast, yet older stands hold far more carbon per acre. In the new analysis, old forests above 200 years averaged about 98 megagrams of carbon per hectare, while stands under 20 years held about 43.5.



Old stands are not carbon idle, either. Decades of research show many old growth forests keep accumulating carbon - just at steadier rates - and they store large amounts in wood and soils.



Stock and flow differ. A young stand can add carbon quickly year by year, but a large, old stand already holds a deep reservoir that took centuries to build.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-age-of-forests">Measuring the age of forests</h2>



The team used a high-resolution forest age map and paired it with satellite-based estimates of aboveground biomass to estimate aboveground carbon. They relied on the European Space Agency’s Biomass CCI v4 dataset for 2010 through 2020.



The researchers also tracked stand replacement - cases where fire or harvest removed most trees and a new cohort took over. Satellite maps of forest loss and regrowth were combined with machine-learning age estimates to pinpoint when and where these events occurred.



To link age-related forest changes with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-weaker-ocean-will-release-more-carbon-into-the-atmosphere/">atmosphere</a>, the team compared shifts in forest dynamics with atmospheric inversion estimates of net ecosystem exchange. 



This method uses measured CO₂ concentrations to infer how much carbon regional landscapes absorb or release, providing a way to connect local changes with broader carbon flux patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-trees-are-maturing">Where trees are maturing</h2>



Several regions added older forests over the decade. Europe, China, and parts of North America showed net aging, which reflects long-running reforestation and managed regrowth.



Large areas moved the other way. The Amazon, the Congo Basin, Southeast Asia, and parts of Siberia saw more young stands as disturbances replaced older cohorts.



Patterns were patchy inside countries and biomes. Some grids showed strong aging while neighbors trended younger, a sign that local fire history and logging shaped the mosaic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-younger-forests-less-carbon">Younger forests, less carbon</h2>



“We estimate a net global loss of 140 million metric tons of carbon each year from aboveground biomass,” said Besnard. The shift from older to younger stands reduced the carbon stored above ground at a planetary scale.&nbsp;



When old forests were replaced by young ones, those areas accounted for roughly 0.10 to 0.16 petagrams of the annual global loss in aboveground carbon. That was a small slice of forest area, but a large share of the stock change.



The sink can still look stronger for a few years after a big replacement event. Young stands often pull in carbon quickly, yet they start from a smaller store and do not rebuild centuries of stock on policy relevant timelines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-trees-are-irreplaceable">Old trees are irreplaceable</h2>



Secondary forests can accumulate biomass at impressive rates. A large synthesis paper in 2016 found tropical secondary forests recover a big fraction of their biomass within decades, though exact speeds vary by climate and land-use history.



High growth does not equal high storage right away. Many services linked to older, complex canopies, including deep carbon pools, take far longer to return.



Fast growing plantations can help with uptake, but uniform stands usually store less carbon and support less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> than naturally regenerating, diverse forests. That tradeoff matters when the goal is both climate mitigation and durable ecosystem function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-forest-ages-worldwide">Shifting forest ages worldwide</h2>



The study’s age maps indicate a clear global pattern. In the tropics, stand replacement shifted age classes toward younger forests, while large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climate-triggers-major-changes-in-the-temperate-rainforest/">temperate zones</a> nudged toward maturity.



In boreal regions, vast stretches kept their older structure, yet fire hotspots created younger pockets. Those pockets may grow fast, but they also highlight vulnerability to repeated burns.



Mature forests, between 81 and 200 years old, expanded in area over the decade. This expansion points to regrowth catching up in places where disturbance slowed or management favored retention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-alters-carbon-balance">Age alters carbon balance</h2>



Net ecosystem exchange can strengthen in regions where old stands were recently replaced by young ones. 



The analysis reported that for every one-percent annual increase in old to young replacement, the carbon sink trend deepened by about 34 grams of carbon per square meter per year.



That correlation does not mean replacement is a climate strategy. The apparent boost leans on legacies old stands leave behind, like fertile soils, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/buried-seeds-in-soil-help-forests-recover-faster-after-damage/">seed banks</a>, and structural remnants.



As inversion tools improve, we will get cleaner signals that separate mixed-age patches. For now, the link between age transitions and regional flux changes is strong enough to inform policy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-forests-preventing-carbon-loss">Protecting forests, preventing carbon loss</h2>



The researchers tested two simple futures out to 2050. Under business as usual, total aboveground carbon stayed roughly flat due to ongoing turnover, with losses in some regions balanced by gains in others.



Under a conservation scenario that halts stand replacement after 2030, total aboveground carbon rose by roughly 0.55 to 0.63 petagrams per year relative to 2020 levels. That gain came mostly from forests aging into mature and maturing classes.



“Forests are among our most important natural climate regulators," said Besnard. "Protecting old forests is essential to prevent further carbon losses, while careful management of younger forests can help maximize carbon uptake."



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02821-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Old-growth forests remain Earth’s strongest carbon vaults

Age matters in forests. A new study tracks how the...

Extreme heat is creeping into more of our lives every year. Summers are hotter, heat waves last longer, and nights don’t cool the way they once did. Yet many older adults don’t see heat as a threat, and even fewer prepare for it in advance. 



A new review of more than 40 studies shows that this lack of awareness could have deadly consequences.



The new research analyzed 41 studies worldwide between 2010 and 2024. Most of them - 29 in total - looked at coping strategies during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-adults-may-not-be-safe-from-heat-waves-even-inside-their-homes/">heat waves</a>, such as staying hydrated or moving to cooler spaces. Only one study focused on actual preparedness before extreme weather arrives.



“Extreme heat is not often viewed as a weather disaster like hurricanes or floods, but it should be,” said Professor Smitha Rao of <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ohio State University</a>. “It is not something that is visible, which is why it is often called the ‘silent killer.’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-issue-matters-now">Why the issue matters now</h2>



Heat doesn’t feel the same at 75 as it does at 25. As people age, their bodies lose some ability to regulate temperature. 



Medical conditions and medications can make overheating worse, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wearable-sensor-can-help-prevent-dangerous-dehydration/">dehydration</a> happens more quickly. Many older adults don’t notice the danger until it’s too late, often while at home or even during the night.



That risk is growing more urgent as older adults become one of the fastest-growing age groups. By 2050, people 65 and older will outnumber children under five. 



This demographic shift coincides with climate change bringing record-breaking heat, with 2023 and 2024 among the hottest years and temperatures still rising.



“We tend to react based on past experiences in our lives and the reality has changed,” said Professor Holly Dabelko-Schoeny. “The things that worked in the past to deal with heat waves are not going to work in this new reality.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-health-and-medications">The role of health and medications</h2>



The danger isn’t just outside. Many heat-related deaths occur in people’s own homes. Older adults and their caregivers may not realize that certain medical conditions or medications increase vulnerability. 



As bodies age, the natural ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-a-lower-heat-tolerance-than-expected/">regulate temperature</a> weakens. That means what once felt like a tolerable summer evening could now be life-threatening.



“We may not realize that our bodies’ reactions to heat changes as we age, and older adults and their caregivers may not realize that some of the medicines they are taking or medical conditions they have may make them prone to overheating,” Rao said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaps-in-service-and-policy">Gaps in service and policy</h2>



Beyond individual coping strategies, only seven studies in the review looked at how services are delivered during extreme heat. Many programs put more effort into protecting against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-extreme-cold-events-fit-climate-change-model-global-warming/">extreme cold</a> than against heat, showing how unbalanced the awareness remains. 



The fewest studies explored policies to safeguard older adults, even though that could make the biggest difference.



Changes in local policies show what’s possible. In Columbus, the Central Ohio Transit Authority now makes buses free during extreme heat events. That allows anyone, young or old, to travel without cost to cooling centers.



“It is good to see policy changes like this that are responding to what our new normal looks like,” said Marisa Sheldon, director of the Age-Friendly Innovation Center at Ohio State’s College of Social Work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-relationships">The role of relationships</h2>



Preparedness isn’t only about air conditioning or public transport. Relationships matter. In a related article in the journal Environmental Communication, researchers found that older adults’ sources of information - and the trust they place in them - are key to survival.



“One compelling finding from both studies was the importance of relationship building,” said co-author Fiona Doherty, now an assistant professor of social work at the University of Tennessee. 



“Not only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neighbors-can-help-reduce-the-health-risks-of-living-alone/">connecting neighbors</a>, but also learning what information sources older adults trust and building trust between individuals and community agencies so that community members follow expert guidance and change their behavior when necessary.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facing-the-future-of-heat">Facing the future of heat</h2>



As the world heats up, the risks for older adults grow sharper. Heat isn’t dramatic like a hurricane, but it is just as dangerous. 



Preparing homes, creating clear public policies, and building stronger community networks may save lives. 



What once worked may no longer be enough. The challenge now is to change how we think about heat - and to make sure no one is left unprepared.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000689">PLOS Climate</a>.



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Extreme heat is leaving older adults dangerously unprepared

Extreme heat is creeping into more of our lives every...

Most people think of fat as what they can see in the mirror. Yet hidden fat stored deep inside the body tells a different story. Scientists are uncovering its surprising role in how quickly our hearts age, and the findings reveal a complex picture of health that extends beyond weight alone.



Aging is the strongest risk factor for heart disease. However scientists have long puzzled over why some people’s hearts age faster than others. 



New research highlights visceral fat, the fat wrapped around organs, as a key player. Unlike fat under the skin, this invisible type can accelerate wear and tear on the heart and blood vessels.



Scientists from the Medical Research Council (<a href="https://www.ukri.org/councils/mrc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MRC</a>) Laboratory of Medical Sciences in London analyzed data from over 21,000 participants in the UK Biobank. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organ-fat-ages-hearts">Organ fat ages hearts</h2>



Using whole-body imaging and artificial intelligence, researchers compared organ scans to track how fat distribution related to heart aging. Each participant was assigned a “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-that-determines-your-heart-age-as-compared-to-your-actual-age/">heart age</a>” to show how their cardiovascular system compared with their actual age.



The findings were clear. People with more visceral adipose tissue showed signs of faster heart aging. This fat surrounds organs like the stomach, intestines, and liver, often hidden even in people who look slim.



Blood tests also revealed a link with higher inflammation, which is closely tied to premature aging. The study also showed that infiltration of fat into muscle tissue and excess liver fat added to the risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apple-vs-pear-risk">Apple vs. pear risk</h2>



The research also found that sex and body shape play a role. Men with belly fat, often described as an “apple” shape, showed stronger signs of early heart aging. Women, however, displayed a different pattern.



A “pear” shape, with fat on the hips and thighs, seemed protective against heart aging. Genetic analysis also suggested that gluteofemoral fat in women may causally reduce cardiovascular aging. Higher estrogen levels in premenopausal women added further protection, reinforcing the role of hormones.



“We have known about the apple and pear distinction in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-exercise-can-make-belly-fat-healthy/">body fat</a>, but it hasn't been clear how it leads to poor health outcomes," said Professor Declan O’Regan, who led the study. "Our research shows that "bad" fat, hidden deep around the organs, accelerates aging of the heart."



"Some types of fat could protect against aging - specifically fat around the hips and thighs in women."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bmi-misses-hidden-heart-risks">BMI misses hidden heart risks</h2>



One striking finding was that body mass index (BMI) is not a reliable measure of heart aging. People in the same BMI category often had very different fat distributions. 



For example, some higher-weight individuals carried fat in safer areas, while others had high levels of visceral fat despite appearing healthy. 



This weak link between BMI and biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-that-determines-your-heart-age-as-compared-to-your-actual-age/">aging</a> stresses the importance of advanced imaging or improved surrogate tools to identify hidden risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapies-for-heart-aging">Therapies for heart aging</h2>



The study suggests a new way to think about heart health. Being fit and active helps, but visceral fat still poses hidden risks. 



“The goal of our research is to find ways to increase healthy lifespan,” said O’Regan. “While being active is important, we found that hidden fat could still be harmful even in fit people.”



“In the future, we plan to investigate how drug therapies, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drug-ozempic-may-help-protect-the-brain-from-stroke/">GLP-1 inhibitors</a> (e.g., Ozempic), could improve not just diabetes and obesity but also target the aging effects of hidden visceral fat.”



The uploaded study also highlighted how hormones shape fat distribution. Estradiol in premenopausal women was linked to slower cardiovascular aging. 



Scientists propose that this hormone may drive fat storage to the hips and thighs, offering protective benefits. These findings support the idea that hormone replacement therapies could play a role in managing cardiovascular aging in women.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormones-and-health">Hormones and health</h2>



The British Heart Foundation, which supported the study alongside the Medical Research Council and the National Institute for Health and Care Research, emphasized the findings.



“We already know excess visceral fat around the heart and liver can lead to increased blood pressure and high cholesterol,” said Professor Bryan Williams, OBE. “It is concerning that it could also help speed up aging of the heart and blood vessels.”



“As the pattern of fat distribution typically seen in women’s bodies is linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-health-after-menopause-what-every-woman-should-know/">estrogen</a>, that hormone may be key to future therapies developed to tackle heart aging. Eating a healthier diet and becoming more active can help reduce visceral fat levels.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-lessons-on-heart-and-age">Key lessons on heart and age</h2>



This research highlights that not all fat is equal. While some fat types can help protect the heart, hidden visceral fat acts like a silent threat. 



By mapping its role in aging, scientists hope to open new pathways for treatment and prevention. For now, understanding where fat is stored may be just as important as knowing how much there is.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/eurheartj/ehaf553/8237967" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Heart Journal</a>.



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Hidden fat inside the body is secretly aging your heart

Most people think of fat as what they can see...

Bowhead whales can live more than 200 years. Tiny shrews barely make it a year. Some sea sponge species are over 15,000 years old. That gap raises a straightforward question: what’s different at the biological level? 



Instead of hunting for a single “longevity gene,” researchers looked for patterns across sets of related genes that might scale up in species with long lives.



Biologists call these sets “<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1762380/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene families</a>.” Over evolutionary time, genes sometimes duplicate. Extra copies can shift how strongly a function shows up in the body - a higher “dose” - or create room for small tweaks that help cells respond more flexibly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-lifespan-potential">Studying lifespan potential</h2>



Dr. Benjamin Padilla-Morales, from the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/research-centres/milner-centre-for-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milner Center for Evolution</a> and the University of Bath's Department of Life Sciences, was the first author. 



The study compared 46 mammalian species with high-quality, well-curated genomes. 



For each species, the team used maximum lifespan potential (MLSP), defined as the longest confirmed age any individual of that species has reached, and matched it to the sizes of thousands of gene families. 



They also accounted for traits that often track with lifespan, including body size, brain size relative to body size, how <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10634735/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long pregnancy lasts</a>, and when animals first reproduce.



This design allowed them to ask a clear question: across mammals, do certain families get larger in species that live longer, and if so, which ones?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-system-and-lifespan-potential">Immune system and lifespan potential</h2>



The strongest signal centered on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-immune-systems-have-a-fountain-of-youth-and-scientists-are-trying-to-activate-it/">immune system</a>. The gene families that tended to be larger in long-lived mammals were involved in immune surveillance and clearance.



These functions help detect threats and clear cellular debris that accumulates with age.



The immune system does more than fight infections. It also removes damaged or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/system-that-identifies-and-kills-dying-cells-before-they-harm-you-has-huge-anti-aging-potential/">“senescent” cells</a> that stop dividing and release stress signals, and it helps identify early cancer cells before they grow out of control.



As an animal ages, those jobs matter more. Expanding the families that handle them can help tissues maintain stability over many decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-size-link-plays-a-role">Brain size link plays a role</h2>



Across mammals, species with bigger brains for their body size often live longer. In this study, many of the same gene families that grow with lifespan also grow with relative brain size. 



A large brain uses substantial energy and oxygen and produces more metabolic byproducts. Extra immune and housekeeping capacity supports this load and helps keep neural tissue stable.



The link implies a shared genetic background: immune-related expansions may support both long life and the demands of a large, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fueling-the-mind-new-map-reveals-where-the-brain-gets-its-energy/">energy-hungry brain</a>.



Padilla-Morales explained that scientists have long known relative brain size is linked to longevity. He said the two traits share an evolutionary path, with larger brains offering potential behavioral advantages.



He also noted that bigger-brained species don’t just live longer because of ecological factors. Their genomes show parallel expansions in genes tied to survival and maintenance. 



“This shows that brain size and immune resilience seem to have walked hand-in-hand in the evolutionary journey toward longer lives,” Padilla-Morales explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifespan-potential-what-doesn-t-matter">Lifespan potential - what doesn't matter</h2>



Body mass itself - big versus small - did not account for the gene-family trends once other factors were included. 



Life-history timings such as gestation length and age at first reproduction didn’t drive the expansions either. 



Those traits do correlate with lifespan in general, but they weren’t behind which gene families got larger in this analysis.



The team checked a basic concern: maybe long-lived species just carry more genes overall. They do not. The pattern wasn’t a blanket “more genes everywhere.” It was specific to certain families tied to maintenance and defense.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/animals_lifespan_chart-infographic_maximum-lifespan-potential_MLSP_Scientific-Reports_1m.webp"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/animals_lifespan_chart-infographic_maximum-lifespan-potential_MLSP_1s.webp" alt="Phylogenetic distribution of life history and morphological traits (maximum lifespan potential, relative brain size, body mass, gestation time and age at sexual maturity) in mammals. A phylogenetic tree for 46 mammal species with fully sequenced genomes is shown. Bars show the relative value of each variable, including log10 values of maximum lifespan potential (MLSP, green), relative brain size (orange), body mass (purple), gestation time (pink), and age at sexual maturity (blue). See Supplementary Table 1 for raw data and silhouette species names. Credit: Scientific Reports" class="wp-image-1983103"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Phylogenetic distribution of life history and morphological traits (maximum lifespan potential, relative brain size, body mass, gestation time and age at sexual maturity) in mammals. A phylogenetic tree for 46 mammal species with fully sequenced genomes is shown. Bars show the relative value of each variable, including log10 values of maximum lifespan potential (MLSP, green), relative brain size (orange), body mass (purple), gestation time (pink), and age at sexual maturity (blue). See Supplementary Table 1 for raw data and silhouette species names. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Scientific Reports</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-and-longevity-genes">Humans and longevity genes</h2>



The researchers looked at how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-transfer-longevity-gene-hoping-to-extend-human-lifespan/">longevity-linked genes</a> behave in people. Human versions tend to be more active and produce more transcript variants - different “edits” of the same gene that yield slightly different proteins.



That diversity gives cells more ways to fine-tune responses, which fits the idea of a vigilant, flexible maintenance system.



The team compared their gene lists with earlier aging databases. The overlap wasn’t perfect, which is common, but the functions aligned. 



Prior work points to DNA damage responses, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/">inflammation control</a>, and programmed cell death (apoptosis). The expanded families in this study cluster within the same biological pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maximum-lifespan-potential-limitations">Maximum lifespan potential limitations</h2>



This is not “the cure for aging.” The results show correlations, not causes. Evolution is complicated, and a gene family can expand for one reason and later take on another role. 



Maximum lifespan potential is a record-holder measure, not an average, and records can reflect limited data or unusual individuals.



Even with those limits, the same immune-related signal shows up across dozens of species, and that deserves attention. It shifts the focus from a single switch to scaled-up maintenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-species-lifespan-research">Future of species lifespan research</h2>



Overall, the findings point to systems-level resilience. Long-lived mammals don’t rely on a magic change in metabolism. 



They tend to carry more copies of genes that help detect problems early, remove damaged cells, and keep tissues - especially the brain - stable for many years.



For anyone thinking about healthy aging, this suggests a practical target. Immune surveillance and cellular housekeeping may be as important as tweaking metabolism or chasing one-off genetic fixes. 



It’s a reminder that evolution didn’t grant immortality. It boosted the systems that prevent small problems from turning into big ones, and it did so in ways we can measure - across 46 species, using maximum lifespan potential, and with clear links to brain size and immune function.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-98786-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Why do some animals live just days while others live thousands of years? Scientists think they know

Bowhead whales can live more than 200 years. Tiny shrews...

For centuries, wolves and humans have lived in a kind of uneasy balance. Wolves roam, and ranchers try to keep their livestock safe. But over the last few decades, that balance has gotten shakier. 



As wolf populations rebound across parts of the U.S., the question keeps coming up: should hunting wolves be part of the solution?



A new study puts some numbers behind the heated debate. The research team found that while wolf hunting has some effect on livestock losses, the results are spotty at best. In fact, killing wolves barely moves the needle when it comes to protecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cattle-farming-expansion-could-expose-more-than-a-billion-cows-to-heat-stress/">cattle</a> or sheep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-modern-return-of-the-wolves">A modern return of the wolves</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-wolves-are-a-crucial-component-of-the-american-west/">Gray wolves</a> were once nearly wiped out in the lower 48 states. But thanks to the Endangered Species Act and major reintroduction efforts in the 1990s, especially in the Northern Rockies, wolves have made a comeback. 



Some states, like Idaho and Montana, now have healthy-enough populations that wolf hunting is legal under state laws.



But this comeback has also led to more wolf-livestock run-ins. When a rancher wakes up to find a dead calf or dozens of sheep gone overnight, it’s a serious blow. This is why many ranchers push for hunting as a way to control wolf numbers.



What this study shows, though, is that hunting doesn’t really do what people hope it does - at least not very well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-wolves-doesn-t-help-livestock">Hunting wolves doesn't help livestock</h2>



On average, for every wolf hunted, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/livestock-grazing-is-changing-soil-plants-and-insect-populations/">livestock</a> loss drops by two percent. That might sound like progress, but it’s a pretty weak effect. In real numbers, that works out to protecting less than one-tenth of one animal - just 0.07 livestock - for each wolf killed.



And in counties where wolves live, ranchers typically lose 3 to 4 animals per year to predation. So that bump is not exactly a game-changer.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-can-help-stabilize-wildlife-populations/">Hunting</a>, on the whole, is not removing negative impacts associated with wolves. It does have some effect on rates of livestock loss, but the effect is not particularly consistent, widespread or strong,” the authors note.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-wolves-and-livestock">Tracking wolves and livestock</h2>



This research was led by a team at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>, supported by various institutions. They pulled data from four states between 2005 and 2021 - Idaho and Montana (where hunting is legal) and Oregon and Washington (where it’s mostly not).



The researchers compared counties with and without hunting and looked at changes before and after hunting became legal. 



They also analyzed whether hunting influenced “lethal removals” - government-led efforts to take out wolves after serious attacks. The data showed no reduction in lethal removals due to hunting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ranchers-face-losses">Ranchers face losses</h2>



Even though the average livestock loss is just a few animals a year, that number can jump dramatically. One Idaho rancher reportedly lost 65 sheep in a single night. That’s devastating - not just financially, but emotionally.



“The cost can be really high to an individual rancher, even over very short time periods,” said lead author&nbsp;Leandra Merz, assistant professor at San Diego State University. “We don’t want to minimize that.”



“We're not necessarily saying that we shouldn't be hunting and I want to be clear about that, because there are other motivations for hunting. But if the goal is to reduce livestock predation and we're using hunting for that, it's not as effective as we would like.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-else-can-be-done">What else can be done?</h2>



Some nonlethal tools are showing promise. Things like “fladry” - wavy flags on fences that can be electrified - can keep wolves out. So can drones, increased human activity, and even unusual sounds. These ideas might sound strange, but they’ve worked in field tests.



However, nonlethal methods cost money, and those costs often fall on the ranchers. Hunting, by contrast, costs ranchers nothing.



That’s part of the puzzle. “We just need to be a little bit more creative in how we redistribute some of the costs and benefits,” Merz said. “I think outside of managing wildlife, we do that a lot in society.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debate-on-wolf-management">Debate on wolf management</h2>



The wolf issue isn’t just a science problem - it’s a political and emotional one. Lawsuits about wolf protections are constantly being filed and overturned. 



In 2020, wolves lost federal protection. In 2022, a court order reversed that. The back-and-forth continues.



“There are timely things happening related to wolf management, both domestically and internationally,” said Professor Neil Carter, the study's senior author. 



“Stakeholders involved in wolf management are bringing up the topic of hunting wolves and it's an imminent conversation we'll be having.”



At the center of that conversation is a key takeaway from this study: if we want to stop wolves from killing livestock, we need to question our assumptions. 



Hunting might be part of the picture, but it’s far from a fix-all. There are no easy answers - but there is room for smarter, more creative ones.



The research was supported by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. National Science Foundation</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu8945" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>



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Hunting wolves to protect livestock: Does it really work?

For centuries, wolves and humans have lived in a kind...

Few animals inspire as much fear as the black mamba, one of Africa’s most notorious snakes. But behind its deadly reputation lies a story that challenges our assumptions - and reveals the snake’s surprising role in science and conservation.



Known as Africa’s fastest and most dangerous snake, its name alone is frightening. But researchers have discovered something surprising: black mambas might be one of our best allies for tracking pollution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scales-reveal-signs-of-pollution">Scales reveal signs of pollution</h2>



Scientists recently found that black mambas carry a hidden record of pollution in their bodies - specifically, in their scales. Heavy metals like lead, arsenic, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elevated-mercury-levels-discovered-in-dolphins/">mercury</a>, and cadmium build up in their tissues over time.



This happens as the snakes eat prey - such as birds and rodents - that have already absorbed these metals from their environment.



Graham Alexander is a professor and herpetologist at the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Witwatersrand</a> in Johannesburg, South Africa. 



“Black mambas are common in the Durban area, and individuals often live in the same refuge for years,” said Professor Alexander. “If the body tissue of individuals contain high levels of heavy metals, it is a strong sign that the local environment is under threat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-green-spaces-protect-snakes">City green spaces protect snakes</h2>



The study was led by environmental chemist Professor Marc Humphries. The team collected scale samples from live snakes relocated from homes, businesses, and factories by local snake expert Nick Evans. 



The researchers also used tissue samples from snakes that had died due to road accidents or human conflict. They found a clear connection between land use and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-reveal-mercury-pollution-levels-in-national-parks/">pollution levels</a>.



“We found a clear association between land use and heavy metal exposure in black mambas," said Humphries. 



"Snakes living in connected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprising-mental-health-benefits-of-living-near-green-spaces/">green spaces</a> around the city generally had significantly lower heavy metal concentrations in their scales compared to those in more industrial and commercial areas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-test-on-black-mambas">Simple test on black mambas</h2>



Professor Humphries said it's exciting that a quick, harmless scale clipping is all that's needed to test for pollutants. "It’s safe for the snake and could be used in cities across Africa where snakes are already being relocated from homes and businesses.”



The findings suggest that cities with more green space not only help wildlife survive - but also help protect them from pollutants. 



With snakes like the black mamba acting as environmental indicators, researchers can better track toxic exposure without hurting animals or disturbing natural ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-mambas-help-ecosystems">Black mambas help ecosystems</h2>



A second study revealed something else: black mambas aren’t just top predators. They shape the ecosystems around them. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakes-use-invisible-colors-to-outsmart-predators/">snakes</a> often return to the same hideouts for years - places like termite mounds, hollow trees, and old buildings. By staying in one area, they create stability in the local food chain.



They also help control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicagos-rodents-are-evolving-with-the-city/">rodent</a> populations and even aid in the control of Rock Hyrax numbers. That is significant because rodents and hyraxes can damage crops and spread diseases.



By keeping their populations in check, black mambas contribute to public health and food security - without anyone really noticing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mamba-sightings-on-the-rise">Mamba sightings on the rise</h2>



Over the past few decades, there’s been a steady rise in mamba sightings across Durban. Nick Evans, who works with KwaZulu-Natal Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, receives between 100 and 120 calls each year for black mambas across the eThekwini Municipality.



“Humans often make their properties appealing to mambas by dumping rubbish over their fences, in their gardens, or by having messy sheds or garages that create rat-breeding grounds,” said Evans.



“Durban also has high numbers of feral cats, and mambas feed on their kittens. So there is suitable habitat and an abundance of food.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experts-urge-caution-not-killing">Experts urge caution, not killing</h2>



Despite their reputation, unprovoked bites are extremely rare. Evans estimates only three to five bites happen each year, and most are not fatal. “Almost all patients survive, unless they do not go to hospital. Some of the bites are dry bites, warning bites where no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cobra-venom-just-became-less-deadly-thanks-to-a-common-drug/">venom</a> is injected.”



Experts believe that changing how we see these snakes could help shift public attitudes from fear to understanding.



“People are understandably scared of mambas, as they are one of Africa’s most dangerous snakes, but if we treat them correctly, they can be a valuable tool to assess pollution levels,” said Professor Alexander. 



“Snakes in general can play a valuable role as biomarkers for environmental health, and should preferably be left to live in peace in their natural environments.”



Evans urges residents not to take matters into their own hands. “Attempting to kill or capture a black mamba puts you at higher risk of being bitten. Black mambas are animals that just want to be left alone, in which case, they actually pose very little risk to humans.”



He also advises <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-pet-owners-care-more-for-dogs-than-cats/">pet owners</a> to stay alert. “Please keep dogs away from all snakes, especially black mambas, should you see the snake before your dog does.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-overlooked-allies">Nature’s overlooked allies</h2>



This research is part of a growing understanding that snakes - especially big ones like the black mamba - aren’t just part of the environment. They’re essential to it. 



Ultimately, snakes serve as powerful ecological indicators. When black mambas carry high levels of heavy metals in their scales, it’s a warning sign that the environments we share with them are under threat.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749125011030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Pollution</a>.



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Black mambas carry a record of pollution in their scales

Few animals inspire as much fear as the black mamba,...

For a long time, the story of evolution has centered on chance - mutations arrive without a plan, and natural selection keeps the winners. That view isn’t wrong, but it’s incomplete.



A recent study shows that parts of evolution look orderly. Not every genetic outcome is a coin toss. Some genes tend to show up together while others stay separate. 



Those tendencies add structure to how genomes change over time, making evolution predictable to a certain extent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-pangenome">Deciphering the pangenome</h2>



Bacterial species carry two kinds of genes: a core set shared by all members and an accessory set that changes from strain to strain. The full collection is called a pangenome.



Accessory genes matter because bacteria can exchange them through horizontal gene transfer. That process spreads useful traits quickly, including resistance to antibiotics, new ways to use nutrients, and tools to handle stress.



The study was led by Professor James McInerney and Dr. Alan Beavan from the School of Life Sciences at the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/life-sciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nottingham</a>, and Dr. Maria Rosa Domingo-Sananes from <a href="https://www.ntu.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nottingham Trent University</a>.



"The implications of this research are nothing short of revolutionary," enthused Professor McInerney, the lead author of the study. 



"By demonstrating that evolution is not as random as we once thought, we've opened the door to an array of possibilities in synthetic biology, medicine, and environmental science."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-ai-to-make-gene-predictions">Using AI to make gene predictions</h2>



The researchers compiled thousands of E. coli genomes and recorded which accessory genes each strain carries. They turned this into a large presence-absence matrix, with rows for strains and columns for genes.



They trained a machine-learning method called a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/random-forest" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">random forest</a> to predict whether a gene is present based on the rest of a genome’s accessory gene profile. They trained and tested the model many times to guard against chance splits.



The model succeeded for a substantial portion of the accessory genome. It could reliably predict the presence or absence of many genes based on the broader gene pattern. 



Some genes tend to co-occur, likely because they work on connected steps of the same task. Others seldom appear together, often because they overlap in function or interfere with one another.



"We found that some gene families never turned up in a genome when a particular other gene family was already there, and on other occasions, some genes were very much dependent on a different gene family being present," explained Dr. Domingo-Sananes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-interactions-and-evolution">Gene interactions and evolution</h2>



The study does not claim that every gene is predictable. Many accessory genes still look erratic, either because local history matters or because there isn’t yet enough data to capture their rules. 



A correct forecast does not imply fate. It points to structure - constraints and tendencies - inside which change still happens.



The patterns held across different parts of the species’ family tree, supporting the idea that selection and gene-gene interactions - not just shared ancestry - shape these outcomes. 



"These interactions between genes make aspects of evolution somewhat predictable, and furthermore, we now have a tool that allows us to make those predictions," added Dr. Domingo-Sananes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-genes-and-healthcare">Evolution, genes, and healthcare</h2>



Public health teams track antibiotic resistance genes to stay ahead of infections. If certain accessory genes tend to accompany a resistance gene, tests can scan for that supporting set. 



That approach can flag trouble earlier, because partner genes may appear before the main gene becomes common.



In <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/applied-microbiology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">applied microbiology</a>, teams build strains that make medicines, recycle waste, or capture pollutants. Knowing which gene combinations tend to work well together - and which combinations tend to clash - saves time and money. 



"From this work, we can begin to explore which genes 'support' an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-fueling-antibiotic-resistance-in-our-soils/">antibiotic resistance</a> gene, for example. If we are trying to eliminate antibiotic resistance, we can target not just the focal gene but also its supporting genes," Dr. Beaven concluded.



"This approach can help synthesize new genetic constructs that may lead to new drugs or vaccines. Knowing what we now know has opened the door to many other discoveries."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-read-results">How to read results</h2>



Across many genomes, some genes keep showing up together. That’s co-occurrence, and it usually means the genes work on the same job.



Other pairs almost never share a genome. That’s mutual exclusion. They likely clash or do duplicate work. These patterns leave a fingerprint across the whole pangenome, and a computer model can learn that fingerprint.



Methods matter. Scientists group related genes into families and adjust for how closely strains are related.



They also test distant branches of the E. coli family tree. When the patterns still hold, it points to selection and real gene interactions - not just inheritance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-evolution-and-future-studies">Genes, evolution, and future studies</h2>



Practical tools can build on this framework. Diagnostic panels can add partner genes that often travel with targets of concern. 



Surveillance can watch for early warning signs in hospital isolates and wastewater. Engineering teams can map friendly and unfriendly gene pairings before they build strains.



The broader takeaway remains consistent. In bacteria, a significant slice of the accessory genome behaves in patterned ways. 



Those patterns reflect how genes interact and how selection keeps useful partnerships while avoiding costly overlaps. Evolution still surprises, but it also leaves tracks that careful analysis can read.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2304934120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Study shows evolution isn't random and can be predicted: 'nothing short of revolutionary'

For a long time, the story of evolution has centered...

Exoplanets used to be fringe objects in astronomy. Now, they are popular subjects for testing ideas about the composition of the universe.



A new study proposes that some gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-theory-suggests-dark-matter-came-from-a-hidden-mirror-worlds/">giants</a> might steadily collect dark matter in their cores until the buildup tips into a collapse that forms a tiny black hole.



Mehrdad Phoroutan-Mehr, a graduate researcher at the University of California, Riverside (<a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCR</a>), led the work with postdoctoral researcher Tara Fetherolf.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planets-help-detect-dark-matter">Planets help detect dark matter</h2>



Astronomers now have thousands of worlds to work with across many ages, sizes, and orbits. NASA’s exoplanet <a href="https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">archive</a> lists nearly 6,000 confirmed planets as of mid 2025.



Gas giants are especially handy for this kind of test. They have huge volumes and cold interiors compared with stars, which makes any extra energy source easier to notice.



The team modeled how heavy, non-annihilating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dark-matter-come-from-the-answer-may-be-surprisingly-simple/">dark matter</a> would move through a Jupiter-like world. The particles would gradually lose speed, settle into the center, and pile up.



Once that central clump passes a critical mass, gravity wins. The clump collapses into a black hole that either begins to feed on the surrounding gas or evaporates if it is small enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-planets-may-form-black-holes">How planets may form black holes</h2>



The researchers focused on the superheavy, non-annihilating case scenario because captured particles never remove themselves by destroying each other. That makes the buildup relentless.



Under those conditions, the core can collapse on observable timescales in some planets. The possibility extends to multiple collapses throughout a single planet’s lifetime if capture continues.



In plain language, if the parameters line up, a Jupiter-mass world could quietly become a Jupiter-mass black hole. The object would keep the planet’s mass but lose the planet’s bulk.



“As the central concentration of dark matter grows in gaseous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-if-it-exists-has-a-strictly-limited-lifetime-new-study-says/">planets</a>, a black hole may form and then accrete the surrounding material. Discovering a black hole with the mass of a planet would be a major breakthrough,” noted Phoroutan-Mehr.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-planet-black-holes">Signs of planet black holes</h2>



A planet that turns into a black hole would still tug its star in the same way, so radial-velocity and astrometric signals would persist. Transit dips, however, could vanish because the body shrinks far below a star-crossing silhouette.



That mismatch creates a check. If we see stellar wobbles that imply a giant planet but repeated photometry no longer shows transits, the system deserves a closer look.



Microlensing adds a different angle. A compact lens and a puffier planet of the same mass bend light nearly the same way in simple events, so single light curves will not easily separate them.



Population statistics can help. If many high-mass “planets” near the galactic center lack transits yet show dynamical signals, that pattern would be hard to blame on chance alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-telescopes-can-check">How telescopes can check</h2>



The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope’s Galactic Bulge Time-Domain <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/roman-space-telescope/galactic-bulge-time-domain-survey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survey</a> will capture tens of thousands of micro-lensing events in fields rich in dark matter. That is exactly where this model expects stronger capture and faster collapses.



Roman’s microlensing plus precise astrometry can flag planetary-mass compact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-does-not-exist-universe-27-billion-years-old-study/">objects</a> and map their distribution. If planet-mass black holes cluster where the dark matter density is higher, that would lift this idea above speculation.



There is also a thermal route. Independent work showed that dark matter annihilation could heat exoplanets, raising their infrared glow beyond what cooling alone predicts.



Small black holes could also evaporate by Hawking radiation, dumping high-energy particles into the planet or, if the particles escape, into space. Either outcome offers a potential signal, though today’s instruments lack the sensitivity to chase the faintest cases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-of-the-idea">Limits of the idea</h2>



This is not a blanket prediction that all gas giants are doomed. Many parameters must align, from the particle mass to the scattering cross section and the local dark matter density.



The absence of planet-mass black holes would be informative as well. If Jupiter-like worlds remain intact in regions where the model expects collapses, that would carve away at the allowed properties of dark matter.



The researchers also noted that multiple observational methods must be combined. No single transit, lens, or velocity signal will settle the question in isolation.



There are limitations in the physics too. Capture and drift times depend on interior temperature and density profiles, which are still debated for many planets, and even modest changes can shift the thresholds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-dark-matter">Why this matters for dark matter</h2>



The research could turn an ordinary planetary survey into a particle-physics experiment. We already collect the data while hunting for new worlds.



A confirmed planet-mass black hole would point straight at a non-annihilating, very heavy particle candidate. That would push the conversation about dark matter beyond the ranges probed by common terrestrial detectors.



Even a null result tightens the net. If transit catalogs remain full and consistent with radial-velocity and astrometric counts, those absences pin down cross sections that would have produced collapses.



The framework invites new cross-checks as the exoplanet census grows. Roman’s catalogs, plus follow-up from ground observatories and future direct-imaging missions, set the stage for a decisive test.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prd/abstract/10.1103/qkwt-kd9q" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review D</a>.



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Dark matter may turn planets into black holes

Exoplanets used to be fringe objects in astronomy. Now, they...

Aging is not equal for everyone. Some people stay healthier for longer, while others decline faster. A team from USC’s Leonard Davis School of Gerontology has uncovered one reason why: education. 



Their study shows that Americans with less schooling are aging more quickly than those with college degrees. And the gap between the two groups has almost doubled in just three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-age-is-different-from-years">Biological age is different from years</h2>



Counting birthdays only tells us how much time has gone by, but it doesn’t reveal how healthy someone truly is. Biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-puberty-linked-to-higher-long-term-aging-risks/">age</a> fills that gap by looking inside the body. 



It measures how organs work, how resilient systems remain, and how much stress or damage has built up over time. Doctors and researchers use indicators like blood pressure, kidney function, cholesterol, inflammation, and other markers to estimate it. 



This is why two people who are both 65 can look very different biologically. One may show the profile of a 55-year-old with strong organs and low disease risk, while another may resemble someone 75, with higher vulnerability to illness and disability. 



Unlike the number of years that a person has lived, biological age tells us how well or poorly a body is actually <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/womens-egg-cells-shield-dna-from-the-effects-of-aging/">aging</a>.



“Biological age gives us a clearer picture of health than chronological age,” said <a href="https://www.usc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC University</a> Professor Eileen Crimmins, the study’s senior author. “It helps us understand who is likely to stay healthy longer and who may be at higher risk for disease and disability.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-gap-in-aging-grows">Education gap in aging grows</h2>



The researchers studied adults aged 50 to 79 across two time spans: the late 1980s and early 1990s, and then 2015 through 2018. They found improvement in everyone. But the well-educated gained the most ground.



In the early years, the biological age difference between those without a high school diploma and college graduates was about one year. By the recent period, that difference reached nearly two years.



“This means that people with more education have slower biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-experimenting-with-new-approach-to-fight-and-stop-human-aging-necrosis/">aging</a> than everyone else,” said Mateo Farina, assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>. “The improvements we see in population health are not being shared equally.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-schooling-matters">Why schooling matters</h2>



Schooling sets the stage for the rest of life. It affects jobs, income, neighborhoods, and even which doctors people can see. It also ties to behavior. People with more education smoke less and exercise more.



The researchers tested whether smoking, obesity, or medication use could explain the widening gap - but education itself remained the main driver.



“Education shapes opportunities and risks throughout life,” Crimmins explained. “It’s a powerful social determinant of health, and it is leaving a mark on how fast or slow our bodies age.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-education-leads-to-faster-aging">Less education leads to faster aging</h2>



The study warns that those with less schooling will not only die sooner but also spend more years living with disease and disability. That means extra strain on families, communities, and healthcare systems.



“This isn’t just a matter of individual choice; it’s a social issue,” Farina said. “If we want to reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-can-slow-aging-right-down-to-your-dna/">health</a> disparities, we need to think about education as a public health investment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inequality-in-aging-will-keep-growing">Inequality in aging will keep growing</h2>



Even though every group studied showed some improvement in biological aging, the rate of progress was not the same. People with college degrees benefited the most, which means the advantages were not shared equally. 



Those with less education improved too, but the gains were smaller, leaving them further behind.



At the same time, obesity rates are climbing across all groups. This rise could weaken or even reverse the improvements in aging that researchers observed. 



New medical treatments and technologies may help, but if only the more educated or wealthier groups have better access to them, the gap will become even larger.



The research makes one clear point: aging is not only about individual habits or inherited genes. It is also about education and the chances that come with it - or the barriers that limit people. 



Without policies or actions that address these differences, the divide in how Americans age will continue to expand, creating an even bigger split between groups based on education.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/doi/10.1215/00703370-12175545/402044/Increasing-Educational-Inequality-in-Biological" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Demography</a>.



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Why education matters for healthy aging and longevity

Aging is not equal for everyone. Some people stay healthier...

For centuries, humanity relied on coastal landmarks and tide gauges to understand sea levels. But satellites changed everything. Since the early 1990s, orbiting instruments have provided precise, global records of ocean surface height. 



These data revealed not only how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-is-near-irreversible-climate-tipping-point/">seas</a> are rising but also how predictions from decades ago were impressively accurate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-changed-sea-level-tracking">Satellites changed sea-level tracking</h2>



Study lead author Torbjörn Törnqvist is a professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at <a href="https://tulane.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tulane University</a>.



“The ultimate test of climate projections is to compare them with what has played out since they were made, but this requires patience - it takes decades of observations,” said Törnqvist.



He noted that the team was quite amazed at how good those early projections were, especially considering how crude the models were back then, compared to what is available now.



"For anyone who questions the role of humans in changing our climate, here is some of the best proof that we have understood for decades what is really happening, and that we can make credible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-have-been-rising-longer-and-faster-than-we-realized/">projections</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-rise-differs-across-regions">Sea-level rise differs across regions</h2>



Professor Sönke Dangendorf emphasized the importance of translating global patterns into regional forecasts.



“Sea level doesn’t rise uniformly - it varies widely. Our recent study of this regional variability and the processes behind it relies heavily on data from NASA’s satellite missions and <a href="https://www.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a>’s ocean monitoring programs,” he said. 



“Continuing these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/state-of-the-climate-2024-record-heat-and-rising-seas/">efforts</a> is more important than ever, and essential for informed decision-making to benefit the people living along the coast.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-confirm-acceleration">Satellites confirm acceleration</h2>



When satellites first began tracking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-model-reveals-dramatic-swings-in-ancient-sea-levels/">sea</a> levels in the early 1990s, they showed an average increase of about one eighth of an inch per year. It was only later that scientists confirmed this pace was speeding up. 



By October 2024, NASA researchers announced that the rate of rise had doubled over three decades. That moment offered the perfect opportunity to compare real-world changes against projections made nearly thirty years earlier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-close-call-with-predictions">Close call with predictions</h2>



In 1996, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its assessment report, just as satellite monitoring began. 



The report projected about 8 centimeters of sea-level rise over 30 years. The actual outcome was 9 centimeters, nearly identical.



However, the models underestimated melting ice sheets by over 2 centimeters. Back then, the destabilizing effects of warming ocean waters on Antarctic ice were poorly understood. Greenland’s ice was also flowing into the ocean faster than anticipated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-components-of-sea-level-rise">Components of sea-level rise</h2>



The study shows that thermal expansion of seawater and melting of smaller glaciers were predicted fairly well. But contributions from Greenland and Antarctica were treated as negligible. 



In reality, these ice sheets accounted for nearly a quarter of observed sea-level rise. Another overlooked factor was groundwater depletion, which transferred more water to oceans than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ignoring-ice-sheets-caused-errors">Ignoring ice-sheets caused errors</h2>



Early IPCC reports assumed that the dynamic behavior of ice sheets could be ignored for decades. This assumption proved incorrect. Later assessments that excluded dynamic ice flow produced unrealistically low projections. 



Once dynamic ice loss was included, estimates increased significantly. Modern assessments now highlight the “deep uncertainty” surrounding possible ice-sheet disintegration, which could drive sea levels far higher than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-models-were-surprisingly-accurate">Past models were surprisingly accurate </h2>



Thermal expansion was slightly overestimated, which balanced out the underestimated role of ice sheets. 



This created projections that, by chance, matched reality more closely than their flawed assumptions should have allowed.



Still, the overall accuracy offers confidence in today’s more advanced models, especially since early reports successfully predicted atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-climate-projections">Future climate projections</h2>



Predictions made in the 1990s have proven largely accurate, but the greatest challenges still lie ahead. 



Ongoing uncertainty about ice sheets and human emissions makes continuous monitoring vital for helping coastal societies prepare for what lies ahead.



"Given the advances in both resolution and process understanding since the 1990s, the early success of the IPCC-SAR projection gives considerable confidence to climate projections for the future," wrote the researchers.



"Meanwhile, the importance of continued monitoring of all relevant components of the climate system by key agencies cannot be understated."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025EF006533" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Sea levels are rising as predicted - with bigger risks ahead

For centuries, humanity relied on coastal landmarks and tide gauges...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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