In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

The endangered "corpse flower" (Amorphophallus titanum) faces pressure from habitat loss, climate change, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-use-wildfires-and-drought-as-an-opening-to-move-in/">invasive species</a>. Unfortunately, a new study reveals that there is yet another threat: incomplete and inconsistent historical records.



Without properly documented plant ancestry and breeding history, horticulturists cannot make informed decisions about pollination. 



This lack of information has led to inbreeding in collections worldwide, which degrades the gene pool and jeopardizes the plant's long-term survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-scent-that-draws-crowds">The scent that draws crowds</h2>



The corpse flower gets its name from the distinctive stench it emits. To attract pollinators (like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beetle-diversity-is-influenced-by-energy-stored-in-dead-wood/">carrion beetles</a> and flesh flies), the plant relies on an overpowering odor that smells like decaying flesh. 



Visitors to botanic gardens line up when this specimen is about to bloom, eager to see - and smell - the giant spadix and brief flower display.



"Usually, you have to get close to a flower to be able to smell it," said Olivia Murrell, lead researcher and first author of the study. "That is not true for the corpse flower. The second you walk into its greenhouse, its smell smacks you across the face." 



When in bloom, the plant also generates heat which disperses the infamous aroma even more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-complex-living-collections">Managing complex living collections</h2>



Because corpse flower seeds cannot tolerate drying and seed banking, they are carefully maintained as full-sized specimens. 



Botanic gardens and research facilities maintain these plants in "living collections," which is a delicate and complex undertaking.



These institutions work under unpredictable conditions because corpse flowers bloom only rarely and for a very short time - just 24 to 48 hours. 



Adding to this challenge is the bloom timing: female flowers open first, and by the time the male flowers mature, the female flowers are no longer viable.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> and the <a href="https://www.chicagobotanic.org/">Chicago Botanic Garden</a> set out to understand why the species continues to show declining genetic health in captivity, despite dedicated care.



They discovered that inconsistent data transfer between institutions has muddled the plants' genetic histories. When a corpse flower moves to a new site, its records often don't travel along with it. 



This haphazard approach leads to unintended pollination events, such as using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-can-actually-change-the-weather/">pollen</a> from a closely related plant or the same plant's previous bloom, which can lead to inbreeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incomplete-corpse-flower-records">Incomplete corpse flower records</h2>



Murrell and her colleagues discovered that the difficulties facing corpse flowers are partly due to missing or inconsistent data.



The team gathered information on nearly 1,200 corpse flowers across 111 different institutions worldwide. They received handwritten notes, spreadsheets, email text, and other varied record formats. 



Ideally, a plant's file should list its parentage, origin, health status, and significant events such as pollination or propagation.



Unfortunately, these details were often absent or fragmented. Many gardens did not record which plant's pollen was used for fertilization. When a plant was transferred, a file might never arrive with it. 



The result is that 24% of the surveyed plants were confirmed clones, while 27% were crosses between close relatives. 



Additional genetic testing on a sample of 65 plants confirmed low overall diversity and a high degree of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inbreeding-can-actually-be-beneficial-for-some-species-in-the-long-run/">inbreeding</a>.



This troubling data reveals that the problem involves more than a few isolated individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corpse-flowers-and-genetic-diversity">Corpse flowers and genetic diversity</h2>



"There are many risks associated with low genetic diversity," Murrell said. "Generally speaking, inbred plants might not produce as much pollen or might die right after they flower."



In some cases, none of the offspring from an inbred plant survive because they are albino seedlings with no chlorophyll. 



Even if a plant appears healthy, a population dominated by inbred specimens has limited defenses against pests, disease, and environmental change.



According to recent figures published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10531">Biodiversity and Conservation</a>, only 162 individuals are estimated to remain in the wild. 



With such diminished numbers, robust, genetically varied captive populations have grown increasingly important.



The complications of inbreeding are magnified by the corpse flower's challenging reproductive biology. Because female and male flowers do not bloom simultaneously, pollen is often stored or collected from available sources, including closely related genetic lines. 



With each new reproductive event, the overall diversity narrows and pushes the species closer to a genetic bottleneck that could threaten its survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-focus-on-sharing-data">More focus on sharing data</h2>



Recognizing the need for better management, Murrell and her co-authors propose several remedies. They urge institutions to document the plant origins and parentage, standardize data collection practices, track parent plants across gardens, and ensure that documentation follows all relocated plants. 



Adopting a consistent recordkeeping language is also critical. Gardeners, scientists, and conservationists must share data without confusion.



Murrell emphasizes that the clock is ticking for Amorphophallus titanum. Natural habitats in Sumatra continue to degrade, and the species' wild numbers are dwindling. 



Success in botanic collections may be the only hope for restoring the corpse flower to its natural range.



By reducing inbreeding and expanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/">genetic diversity</a>, gardens, and research facilities can offer a lifeline for this captivating plant. 



However, even the most well-intentioned efforts will fall short without a greater commitment to reliable recordkeeping.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/aob/advance-article/doi/10.1093/aob/mcaf038/8104011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Botany</a>.



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Smells like trouble: Popular 'corpse flower' is headed towards extinction

The endangered "corpse flower" (Amorphophallus titanum) faces pressure from habitat...

In an age of rising political polarization, many experts champion the power of dialogue. They suggest that if we just listen more empathetically, we might bridge divides, shift attitudes, and change minds. 



Listening, it’s said, opens the door to understanding. But what if that door doesn’t actually lead anywhere?



A new study challenges this familiar idea. While high-quality, nonjudgmental listening does improve how people <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-people-are-born-to-enjoy-music-more-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feel</a> during conversations - reducing defensiveness and enhancing their opinion of the speaker - it doesn't make persuasive messages more effective.



In fact, the research reveals that the content of the message, especially when delivered as a powerful personal story, does all the persuasive heavy lifting.



The study, led by Dr. Roni Porat of the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>, calls for a rethink of how we approach difficult conversations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-listening-to-the-test">Putting listening to the test</h2>



This study didn't just rely on lab experiments or theoretical arguments. Instead, it used a large-scale, real-world field experiment involving nearly 1,500 participants from across the United States. 



These participants joined 10-minute video conversations with trained canvassers. The topic of discussion was in-state college tuition for undocumented immigrants, which is a current and deeply polarizing issue.



The researchers set up two distinct elements in each conversation. In some cases, the canvasser shared a persuasive, personal narrative about an undocumented immigrant. 



In others, they did not. Separately, some canvassers practiced high-quality, nonjudgmental listening - actively reflecting participants’ views without judgment - while others canvassers took a more neutral, disengaged approach.



This randomized structure allowed researchers to tease apart the effects of message content and delivery style. After each conversation, they measured participants’ attitudes toward immigration policy, both immediately and again five weeks later. 



The goal was to understand not only the short-term reaction but also whether any change lasted over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personal-stories-change-minds-not-listening">Personal stories change minds, not listening</h2>



The results were striking. Personal stories significantly and durably changed participants’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/darkness-in-cities-could-heal-people-and-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">opinions</a>. They reduced prejudice and shifted policy views in favor of undocumented immigrants. This persuasive impact endured for weeks. 



But the addition of high-quality listening did not make the narratives more effective. Empathy improved the listener’s image but failed to deepen the persuasive effect.



“This challenges a foundational assumption in how we approach dialogue across divides,” said Dr. Porat. “While listening has clear interpersonal value, its role in changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fueling-the-mind-new-map-reveals-where-the-brain-gets-its-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minds</a> may be more limited than previously thought.”



In conversations where no personal story was shared, listening alone did not produce significant shifts in opinion. The persuasive engine, it turns out, was the story itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-feels-good-but-minds-stay-firm">Listening feels good but minds stay firm</h2>



For decades, scholars and practitioners have argued that empathetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-health-may-literally-be-a-state-of-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">listening</a> is essential in difficult conversations. They believed it promotes cognitive processing, eases emotional defenses, and builds trust - all key ingredients for persuasion. But empirical testing of this idea has been scarce.



This research fills that gap. It shows that while listening may support cognitive engagement and improve interpersonal dynamics, it does not amplify persuasion when paired with a strong narrative. 



That challenges one of the central assumptions in many dialogue programs, political canvassing strategies, and conflict mediation efforts.



The researchers also highlighted that listening improved how participants perceived the speaker. They felt heard, respected, and more open emotionally. Yet, these improved feelings did not translate into changed beliefs. 



The study suggests that those hoping to shift opinions on contentious issues may want to focus more on what they say rather than how empathically they say it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-we-persuade-across-divides">Rethinking how we persuade across divides</h2>



The implications of this study are wide-reaching. Activists, campaigners, and educators often rely on both storytelling and empathetic listening to shift deeply held <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-the-secret-to-keeping-your-brain-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">views</a>. 



This research suggests that while listening might help build relationships, it is not enough on its own - or even as a booster - to change minds.



Sharing compelling personal stories remains one of the most effective tools for persuasion. They tap into empathy, humanize complex issues, and make abstract policies relatable. But adding high-quality listening to these stories did not enhance their persuasive power.



That does not mean we should abandon listening. The study affirms its interpersonal benefits. People feel more respected and less threatened when they are truly heard. This can create the kind of environment in which civil conversation becomes possible. It just may not be the game-changer for persuasion that many believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listen-to-connect-not-change-minds">Listen to connect, not change minds</h2>



The takeaway is not to stop listening, but to better understand its limits. When we want to influence beliefs, especially on political or moral issues, message <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-is-constantly-making-predictions-about-the-world-and-your-place-in-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">content</a> appears to matter far more than delivery style. That’s a powerful insight for anyone trying to reach across divides.



The study makes it clear: if the goal is to connect, listen well. If the goal is to persuade, tell a powerful story.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2421982122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Being a 'good listener' won't help you change another person's mind

In an age of rising political polarization, many experts champion...

Rotting fruit, filled with the smell of fermentation, has long attracted fruit flies by the dozens. These small insects, especially Drosophila melanogaster - commonly known as the vinegar or pomace fly - are regular visitors to compost bins and grocery store produce sections in warm weather. 



But scientists have now uncovered a surprising reason why fruit flies flock to the scent of alcohol: it boosts their mating success.



In a new study, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> investigated the effects on fruit flies and discovered that males who consume alcohol become more attractive to females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-flies-alcohol-and-mating-success">Fruit flies, alcohol, and mating success</h2>



The alcohol, particularly methanol, enhances the production of sex pheromones, which are chemical signals used to attract mates.&nbsp;



“In our experiments, we show a direct and positive effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-americans-now-link-alcohol-consumption-to-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol consumption</a> on the mating success of male flies,” said Ian Keesey, the study’s first author. 



“This in turn makes alcoholic males more attractive to females and ensures a higher mating success rate, whereas the success of drunken male humans with females is likely to be questionable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-attraction-and-danger">Balancing attraction and danger</h2>



While humans are well aware of the risks of excessive alcohol consumption, how it affects insects like the vinegar fly has remained less clear. 



To understand the biological and behavioral effects of alcohol in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a>, the research team focused on how the insects perceive and respond to alcohol-laden environments, particularly the smell of fermenting fruit.



The study found that unpaired male flies showed a greater attraction to alcohol, drawn by the smell of fermentation. 



However, the flies had to walk a fine line: while a low level of alcohol was beneficial - enhancing pheromone production and increasing their chances with females - high concentrations posed serious risks. That’s where the brain’s internal risk assessment system comes into play.



“What is unique about our results is that we found not just one, but three neural circuits that we were able to show actually balance each other in terms of this risk assessment, that is, attraction and aversion,” Keesey explained. 



“This means that the flies have a control mechanism that allows them to get all the benefits of alcohol consumption without risking alcohol intoxication.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-detection-by-fruit-flies">Alcohol detection by fruit flies</h2>



The researchers discovered that alcohol detection in fruit flies is managed by a trio of neural circuits. Two of these respond to ethanol and methanol and promote attraction to the smell, guiding flies to optimal alcohol concentrations where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-shark-mating-behaviors-observed-for-the-first-time-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating</a> benefits are highest.&nbsp;



But when alcohol levels spike - especially methanol, which can be toxic - a third pathway kicks in and triggers a repulsion response. This biological balancing act helps the flies gain advantages from moderate alcohol exposure without succumbing to the dangers of overindulgence.



“That different neural pathways with opposite valence for the same odor are combined to balance attraction and aversion based on physiological state is a rarity,” Keesey noted. 



He conducted the research during his time at the Max Planck Institute and is now an assistant professor at the University of Nebraska at Lincoln.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-brains-to-behavior">From brains to behavior </h2>



To unravel this complex behavioral response, the team combined a wide range of techniques. They used imaging technologies to observe real-time brain activity in fruit flies as they encountered alcohol-laden environments, alongside chemical analyses of odors typically found in decaying fruit. 



Behavioral experiments tracked how flies reacted to different concentrations of alcohol, how attractive they found various smells, and how successful they were in mating.



“The study provides one of the first comprehensive explanations of alcohol attraction in a model organism, from chemistry to ecology and from brain to behavior and vice versa,” said Bill Hansson, who leads the Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology at the Max Planck Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-for-more-than-flies">A model for more than flies</h2>



The findings not only offer insights into fly behavior but also serve as a reminder of the value of understanding animals in their natural context. 



Fruit flies have long been used as model organisms in scientific research, particularly in genetics and neuroscience. Yet this study underscores how ecological factors - like the smell of fermenting fruit in their natural habitats - can shape behavior and even brain function.



“It also shows how important it is to consider the natural behavior and ecology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drunk-animals-may-explain-humans-love-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> models when using them to study physiological and behavioral processes,” noted Hansson.



The research helps explain why fruit flies seem irresistibly drawn to our kitchen compost and overripe bananas. For them, it’s not just the smell of a potential meal - it’s a cue for reproductive opportunity, carefully balanced by a neural system that can tell when enough is enough.



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Alcohol makes fruit flies look sexy and boosts mating success

Rotting fruit, filled with the smell of fermentation, has long...

When we talk about climate solutions, we often look up - to the canopy of trees that pull carbon from the air. But there’s something unexpected happening below. The logs and branches that tumble into forest streams are quietly locking away carbon, too.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a> have discovered that large dead trees in upland streams store impressive amounts of carbon. In fact, the amount of carbon stored in this submerged wood is increasing over time.



The study was focused on forested headwaters in the northeastern United States. The researchers also found that big, old trees along streambanks play an important role in feeding this natural carbon reserve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-climate-solution">A natural climate solution</h2>



“We know that about 20% of global annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a> come from land use and deforestation,” said study co-author Dr. William Keeton, professor at the University of Vermont.



“But we can also use forests and other land cover as what we call a natural climate solution - finding ways to sequester and store more carbon in vegetation.”



Dr. Keeton had long suspected that fallen logs lying in water were storing carbon, but the scale of it surprised even him.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dead-trees-store-a-lot-of-carbon">Dead trees store a lot of carbon </h2>



Stephen Peters-Collaer is the study’s lead author and a graduate student at the University of Vermont’s Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-microclimates-impact-bird-species-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Old-growth forests</a> stored four to five times more carbon in the wood lying in the streams than mature forests did,” said Peters-Collaer.



“And in mature forests, this in-stream, dead-wood carbon pool is about 50% to 60% larger than that stored in downed wood in an area of equivalent size on the forest floor.”



The research showed that while streams take up much less space than the forest floor, they hold an outsize share of carbon - especially when they’re filled with large pieces of wood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-storage-isn-t-well-quantified">Carbon storage isn't well-quantified</h2>



“One of the reasons that we were interested in this question is because there’s been increasing realization in recent years that wood in streams, lakes and other aquatic systems stores carbon, but that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a> wasn’t well-quantified,” said Peters-Collaer.



To get answers, the team studied streams in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire and old-growth forests in New York’s Adirondack State Park. 



These field sites have long research histories, providing the team with important background and context for their data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dead-trees-boost-carbon-storage">Dead trees boost carbon storage </h2>



The researchers focused on large woody debris - logs and branches that fall from nearby trees into streams. 



These oversized pieces tend to decompose more slowly, especially when submerged. Their large volume and relatively small surface area make it harder for decomposers to break them down, meaning they can store carbon for much longer.



The logs also do more than sit still. In small upland streams, they often stretch all the way across, creating natural dams. These structures trap additional wood, leaves, and organic debris - boosting the amount of carbon held in place even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-streams-big-role">Small streams, big role</h2>



Although they may look minor on a map, headwater streams make up about 70% of total river miles. And because they’re usually in upland areas, they tend to be less disturbed by development.



This means that the streams offer a surprisingly stable and effective place for carbon storage - if the right conditions are met.



Taken together, the findings suggest that fallen wood in forest streams may be a more significant piece of the global carbon budget than previously thought. 



Peters-Collaer explained that researchers hadn’t measured this carbon pool in detail before, especially when comparing old-growth to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mature-forests-play-a-surprising-role-in-climate-mitigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mature forests</a>. 



Dr. Keeton believes that part of the oversight comes from how scientists typically work. “Scientists will often study either the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-is-the-climate-impacting-aquatic-life-in-mountain-streams/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">streams</a> or the forest, but not both, or they won’t look at the relationships between them.”



“The connection between stream and forest is not static but dynamic. One of our major messages is that we must take a long view, and we must think of these as dynamic systems.”



The study points to a quiet but important insight. The story of carbon storage doesn’t stop when trees die - it just flows in a new direction.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10021-025-00965-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosystems</a>.



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Dead trees in forest streams hold more carbon than expected

When we talk about climate solutions, we often look up...

New research has found that most dogs across the United States display at least one behavior that could be problematic.&nbsp;



According to the study, led by Texas A&amp;M’s College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (<a href="https://vetmed.tamu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VMBS</a>), more than 99 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> scored moderate to severe in at least one area. Fear and anxiety, aggression, and attachment behaviors emerged as the most common challenges.



“Overall, 99.12 percent of dogs had at least one response of moderate to severe in an area of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-canine-cognitive-code-everyday-dog-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>,” said study author Bonnie Beaver, a professor in the VMBS’ Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences.&nbsp;



“The majority of responses suggest dogs do not have a lot of problems, and the problem behaviors that do exist are relatively minor. Owners may not see them as issues worth addressing, but almost any dog owner will encounter a behavior that is at least inconvenient.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-dog-aging-project">Insights from the Dog Aging Project</h2>



This research relied on data from the&nbsp;Dog Aging Project&nbsp;(<a href="https://dogagingproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DAP</a>), a large-scale initiative gathering information from tens of thousands of companion&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-owners-ages-and-beliefs-influence-their-pet-food-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog owners</a>. 



The DAP aims to track how dogs age and what helps them lead healthy lives. Participants answer questions about their pets’ health and daily habits, including 28 items related to behavior. Each question has a scoring scale of zero to four, with higher numbers indicating more serious concerns.



“The questions used in the study are not intended to be a diagnosis, and many behaviors overlap into different categories,” Beaver explained. 



“For example, anxiety and separation are often related behaviors, but questions about them were put into separate categories. Dogs may act aggressively out of fear, but again the questions about each were in separate categories. So, a fear-biting dog may not be obvious in the results.”



While the findings suggest most dogs have at least some minor issues, Beaver emphasized that a better understanding of canine behavior could prevent small problems from escalating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problem-behavior-is-often-overlooked">Problem behavior is often overlooked </h2>



Behavior is an essential consideration for anyone who owns or works with dogs. 



“Some studies report that only 50 percent of veterinarians ask questions about behavior during appointments, and owners may not think to ask the veterinarian about something they don’t like. This has to change, so we don’t end up missing half of the problems,” Beaver noted.



The same goes for dog owners who may hesitate to consult a veterinarian unless the behavior is highly disruptive or has become dangerous. 



“For dog owners, it’s important to learn to read your dog’s body language and talk to your local veterinarian if there is any type of behavior happening that bothers you,” Beaver noted. "They can help you identify the cause and find a solution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-owners-tolerate-different-behaviors">Dog owners tolerate different behaviors</h2>



Different owners have different tolerance levels for canine behaviors. What one person considers bothersome might not even register as a concern for someone else.&nbsp;&nbsp;Beaver illustrated this point by recalling a case.&nbsp;



“As an example, I once saw a miniature poodle that came in for a problem with barking. In the patient’s history, I found out that the dog would routinely urinate on a Persian rug, but that behavior didn’t bother the owner as much as the barking,” said Beaver.



To gain a comprehensive picture of a dog’s behaviors, Beaver suggests that veterinarians ask questions in several ways. Appointments may be short, and owners might overlook or forget to mention specific incidents, especially if they happened weeks or months ago.&nbsp;



“Giving owners a questionnaire before asking in-person questions can help give them time to think, which will increase the chance that they tell you about behavior problems,” she noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-dogs-become-dangerous">When dogs become dangerous</h2>



Minor issues are one thing; truly dangerous behaviors raise the stakes considerably. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-you-control-your-dogs-aggression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aggression</a> - whether manifesting as growling, snapping, or biting - can stem from fear, frustration, or defensive instincts. 



“Aggression is a normal behavior in animals and it happens for a reason,” Beaver said. "So, you need to consider why the dog is behaving that way. Is it fearful? Is it being threatened by a little kid getting too close, somebody staring in its eyes, by a bigger dog coming toward it, or by a stranger approaching?"



"As veterinarians, we’ve got to look at the context in which a behavior happens to try and appreciate what might be going on in the animal’s mind.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-problem-behaviors-in-dogs">Recognizing problem behaviors in dogs</h2>



Recognizing fear signs, such as crouching, trembling, or avoidance, can help owners intervene before their dog escalates to aggression. “Animals think. But they probably don’t think like we do," noted Beaver.



In households with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/family-dogs-boost-physical-activity-levels-among-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children</a>, the need for vigilance is even greater. According to Professor Beaver, the people most often bitten are children under the age of 7.



“If you have children and a dog, be sure that they are only together under supervision. Do not allow your kids to climb all over the dog or pull its hair and ears. And teach your kids not to approach a dog - even their own family dog - unless they are with a parent.”



By staying aware of a dog’s emotional signals and seeking help from veterinarians or qualified trainers, owners can address minor concerns early and prevent them from becoming significant problems. 



The hope is that by shining a light on the behavioral patterns present in nearly every dog, both medical professionals and families can work together to foster safer, happier relationships between people and pets.



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More than 99% of dogs in the U.S. have a behavior problem

New research has found that most dogs across the United...

Bowhead whales glide under drifting ice and are rarely seen for more than a few precious moments. They support the Arctic ecosystem in ways that still leave many questions open.



Researchers from various institutions have studied these creatures using tracking devices. Their efforts have given fresh insights into how bowhead <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-in-hot-water-will-climate-change-disrupt-their-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> might organize their days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-follow-daily-dive-pattern">Whales follow daily dive pattern</h2>



Researchers <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prresearch/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.033174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">found</a> a 24-hour submersion rhythm in these Arctic giants. 



Part of this pattern involves staying nearer to the surface at night and submerging more deeply in the afternoon, which aligns with prey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-transport-nutrients-across-entire-ocean-basins-in-their-urine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a>.



Evidence also indicates that a couple of whales even stayed in step with each other for long stretches, though they were far apart. The synchronicity suggests these animals may keep in touch across wide distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-and-language-like-patterns">Whales and language-like patterns</h2>



Studies on other whale species highlight a language-like efficiency in their vocalizations. A <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.ads6014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2025 survey</a> of 16 different whales shows that 11 display <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34415939/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Menzerath’s law</a>, sometimes at levels exceeding human speech as noted by <a href="https://masonyoungblood.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mason Youngblood</a>.



In many instances, whales shorten certain sounds as they grow more frequent, revealing a principle akin to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027717301166" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zipf’s law of abbreviation</a>. This suggests these marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-patterns-in-whale-songs-predict-ecosystem-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> may prize concise signaling to save time and energy while in deep waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-in-cold-seas">Social bonds in cold seas</h2>



Communication can help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-predicts-whale-movements-to-reduce-deadly-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> handle long winters, where ice quickly seals over the surface. By fine-tuning vocal signals, they may share feeding updates and coordinate activities.



Some scientists hypothesize that these calls also reflect group identity. Research has <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-80220-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shown</a> that bowhead whales may share complex song structures within clusters of animals, with variability that could help maintain social bonds or signal individual identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-immediate-horizon">Beyond the immediate horizon</h2>



Sound travels more efficiently in water than in air. Unlike land mammals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-poop-is-a-natural-fertilizer-that-keeps-the-ocean-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> make long-distance calls that can hold the group together, preserve social ties, and perhaps alert others to predators or scarce food.



Those bursts of coordinated behavior might be driven by something as simple as a subtle change in sunlight. Or they might be triggered by learned calls that unify individuals across a giant body of water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-the-whale-patterns">Interpreting the whale patterns</h2>



The concept of “<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.ads6014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language-like</a>” efficiency gained traction after observers noticed that more frequent calls become shorter. This aligns with findings in other animals, from songbirds to some dolphins.



Earlier <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7237478/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> in human linguistics showed that pressure to communicate efficiently leads to patterns where common words shrink in length. The same dynamic may appear among bowheads if it delivers benefits for social bonding or survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-patterns-may-show-intelligence">Whale patterns may show intelligence</h2>



Some experts believe that bigger brains in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> might allow them to juggle complex tasks like adjusting calls to remain hidden from predators. Others think the calls mainly track seasonal rhythms.



A few listeners hypothesize that these calls double as an internal group code. The more they chat, the more they refine this code, balancing effort and clarity each day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-studying-hidden-giants">Challenges in studying hidden giants</h2>



Harsh conditions up north force scientists to rely on specialized tags and instruments, which often detach after days or weeks. The partial data leaves questions about how many whales adopt these behaviors.



In addition, tag-based approaches can’t always capture acoustic evidence of calls echoing through the water. To confirm direct exchanges, it’s crucial to record whale sounds around the clock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-new-approaches">Clues from new approaches</h2>



Automated analysis now helps scientists map subtle features in whale calls. One approach uses something called time-delay embedding, which treats each submersion sequence as a system that oscillates based on oxygen need and feeding opportunities.



Another technique relies on sorting out short and long calls while factoring in how frequently certain notes occur. That fine detail offers a glimpse into how whales might structure their signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-to-next">Where to next?</h2>



Additional tagging campaigns could confirm how these animals interact when far apart. Extended acoustic logging might catch continuous call exchanges over several days, tying them to submersion cycles.



With climate warming driving changes in the Arctic, tracking whales becomes urgent. Understanding their day-to-day cycles can reveal how they adapt to thinning ice, shifting predator presence, and new shipping routes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



Bowhead whales remain vital for ocean systems, recycling nutrients across large stretches of frigid water. The more we learn about their daily routines, the clearer it becomes that these mammals might be engaging in subtle social maneuvers.



Many remain optimistic that ongoing research will shine more light on the functions of their calls. This may unlock deeper questions about how they stay connected across miles of cold, silent sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-hope-for-whale-science">Fresh hope for whale science</h2>



Some observers see these findings as a way to improve safeguards. Studying whale calls helps officials design better protected zones or manage ship traffic with minimal disturbance.



As more data surfaces, voices are growing louder to preserve these creatures’ habitats. Protecting them means preserving an entire northern network of relationships and connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glance-at-tomorrow">A glance at tomorrow</h2>



Continued analysis might show that synchronized submersions happen more often than anyone realized. The whales appear to embrace these cycles for strategic feeding and possibly group cohesion.



Work in other regions will test whether the same patterns arise in different populations. If repeated, this will indicate that large whales around the globe rely on similar efficient signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-patterns-spark-global-curiosity">Whale patterns spark global curiosity</h2>



Many scientists now argue that whales and other marine mammals approach language-like complexity in their calls. Observations linking such patterns to big brains, long lifespans, and social groupings may reshape how we see marine life.



Biologists remain cautious about drawing direct parallels to human speech. Still, efficiency laws like Menzerath’s and Zipf’s keep appearing, and nudge us to rethink the uniqueness of linguistic structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-coordinate-more-than-we-knew">Whales coordinate more than we knew</h2>



Research in these frigid waters has uncovered a daily schedule that whales follow, along with surprising signs of unity across distances. The presence of repeated call patterns also raises the possibility of thoughtful coordination.



Whether they do this for mating, security, or general companionship is still uncertain. Yet these insights open a new window into their hidden daily lives.



This study was led by Associate Professor Evgeny A. Podolskiy at the&nbsp;Arctic Research Center, <a href="https://www.arc.hokudai.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokkaido University</a>; Professor Jonas Teilmann at the&nbsp;<a href="https://ecos.au.dk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ecoscience</a>, <a href="https://ecos.au.dk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>; and Professor Mads Peter Heide-Jørgensen at the&nbsp;Department of Birds and Mammals, Greenland Institute of <a href="https://natur.gl/about-us/dpt-mammals-and-birds/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural Resources</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.033174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Research</a>.



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Bowhead whales somehow dive in synchrony across the ocean regardless of distance

Bowhead whales glide under drifting ice and are rarely seen...

Saccharin, a common artificial sweetener, may soon play a new medical role. Recent research shows it can destroy some of the world’s most dangerous bacteria.



"Antibiotic resistance is one of the major threats to modern medicine," said Professor Ronan McCarthy, who led the study at <a href="https://www.brunel.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brunel University London</a>.



"Procedures such as tooth extractions and cancer treatment often rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanoplastics-can-alter-the-course-of-antibiotics-within-our-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotics</a> to prevent or treat infection. But doctors are increasingly facing cases where the drugs no longer work."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deadly-pathogens-are-becoming-resistant">Deadly pathogens are becoming resistant</h2>



Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) caused 1.27 million deaths in 2019. Nearly five million deaths involved resistant infections. 



The most dangerous bacteria include Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, both of which thrive in hospital settings.



The World Health Organization lists them among its highest-priority threats. These bacteria often infect those with weakened immune systems and resist most antibiotics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-sweetener-destroys-bacteria">How the sweetener destroys bacteria</h2>



"In exciting work led by our team, we've identified a novel antimicrobial - saccharin," Professor McCarthy said. "Saccharin breaks the walls of bacterial pathogens, causing them to distort and eventually burst, killing the bacteria."



This physical breakdown lets antibiotics enter the bacteria more easily. As a result, saccharin helps conventional drugs work better.



Saccharin has been used in food for over a century. It is considered safe for human consumption. Until now, though, little was known about the sweetener's direct impact on bacteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-chaos-inside-bacterial-cells">DNA chaos: Inside bacterial cells</h2>



The study reveals saccharin disrupts more than bacterial walls. It also messes with DNA inside bacterial cells. Treated bacteria grow long and thin, unable to divide. Their DNA starts replicating out of control, especially away from the usual origin points.



Normally, DNA replication in bacteria starts at a site called the ori and ends at the ter. After saccharin treatment, the researchers observed far more ori and ter points than expected. This suggests multiple rounds of replication continue unchecked.



This DNA chaos may stem from saccharin triggering DNA repair processes. These repair systems start replication from damaged spots instead of the usual starting site. As a result, DNA builds up rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweetener-weakens-bacteria-s-defense">Sweetener weakens bacteria's defense</h2>



Saccharin also changes how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-lead-the-way-in-developing-new-antibiotics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> maintain their outer layers. The sweetener disrupts proteins and pathways involved in making and protecting the cell envelope. This weakens the bacteria's defense, making them easier to kill.



The researchers found that saccharin caused bacteria to form strange bulges. These bulges eventually burst, killing the cell. This effect mimics what happens when bacteria are exposed to powerful β-lactam antibiotics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biofilms-and-resistant-strains">Biofilms and resistant strains</h2>



Bacteria often form biofilms - sticky layers that protect them from antibiotics. Saccharin prevents bacteria from forming these biofilms and can also break down ones that already exist. It even worked on polymicrobial biofilms, which are tougher to treat.



Saccharin increased how well antibiotics entered resistant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cigarette-waste-fuels-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> like A. baumannii. When researchers combined saccharin with carbapenem antibiotics, the treatment became far more effective. Drug-resistant bacteria showed reduced resistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saccharin-can-treat-wounds">Saccharin can treat wounds</h2>



To test real-world use, scientists embedded saccharin into hydrogels. These hydrogels were applied to burn wounds in a lab model using pig skin. The saccharin-infused gel outperformed silver-based wound dressings, cutting down bacterial infections significantly.



"Artificial sweeteners are found in many diet and sugar-free foods. We discovered that the same sweeteners you have with your coffee or in a 'sugar-free' drink could make some of the world's most dangerous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-antibiotic-found-in-soil-has-potential-to-fight-superbugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> easier to treat," said Professor McCarthy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fight-against-antibiotic-resistance">The fight against antibiotic resistance </h2>



The world may soon face a future where antibiotics no longer cure infections. This is because bacteria are changing and becoming stronger due to the heavy use of antibiotics in both medicine and farming. 



When antibiotics are used too often, bacteria learn how to fight back, making treatments less effective. At the same time, scientists aren’t discovering many new antibiotics to replace the ones that are failing. This means common infections could become serious or even deadly again. 



Without new solutions, the growing problem of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-could-cause-a-health-crisis-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic</a> resistance puts millions of lives at risk and makes routine treatments more dangerous.



"This has created a dangerous situation," said Professor McCarthy. "We urgently need new drugs to treat resistant infections - and saccharin could represent a new therapeutic approach with exciting promise."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.1038/s44321-025-00219-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMBO Molecular Medicine</a>.



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Common sweetener can destroy some of the most dangerous bacteria

Saccharin, a common artificial sweetener, may soon play a new...

The Isle of Skye is known for its rugged cliffs, sweeping shorelines, and traces of ancient life. It was also once home to massive dinosaurs, roaming and playing and leaving their footprints behind in lagoonal sands.



Thanks to a new discovery, we now know even more about these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric wanderers</a> and the ancient world they inhabited.



A team of researchers, led by Tone Blakesley from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a>, has uncovered a stunning collection of 131 fossilized footprints. 



These tracks, preserved at a site called Prince Charles’s Point, reveal the quiet activity of dinosaurs over 167 million years ago.



For paleontologists, it’s a window into a time and place that is rarely captured in such detail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-footprints-show-ancient-lagoon-life">Dinosaur footprints show ancient lagoon life</h2>



These footprints come from the Middle Jurassic period, a time of significant evolutionary change. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dinosaurs</a> had diversified, and new body plans were emerging across the globe. 



Yet fossil evidence from this era remains rare. The Isle of Skye stands out as one of the few places offering such rich Middle Jurassic traces.



The tracks were left in a subtropical lagoon environment, once filled with shallow water and lined with soft, rippled sand. 



The site is now part of an intertidal zone, where erosion helped expose these long-hidden marks. Wind, tide, and sediment had conspired to protect them for millions of years.



Researchers used drones to document the site in detail, mapping trackways across multiple layers of sediment. Their analysis identified patterns in the size, shape, and direction of the tracks.



The footprints range from 25 to 60 centimeters in length (about 10 to 24 inches), and they fall into distinct types that correspond with different kinds of dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theropods-on-the-move">Theropods on the move</h2>



Many of the footprints belonged to theropods - meat-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> that walked on two legs. These include morphotype-1a, a group of large, tridactyl (three-toed) tracks showing distinct toe pads and claw impressions.



These tracks likely came from Megalosaurus-sized animals, with estimated body lengths of between 5 and 7 meters (about 16 to 23 feet). The spacing between steps suggests slow, deliberate movements.



Smaller tridactyl prints, such as those made by individuals of morphotype-1d, could have come from juvenile theropods or a different species that was smaller.



These prints retain the same general structure as the larger ones but show slight variations in toe angle and pad shape. Researchers believe they could represent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-extinction-influenced-fruit-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early members</a> of the megalosaurid group or other similar carnivores known from U.K. fossils.



What sets this site apart is the abundance of theropod tracks compared to previous Skye discoveries. Their higher frequency suggests they may have preferred this lagoon environment or used it more frequently than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauropods-leave-their-gentle-imprint">Sauropods leave their gentle imprint</h2>



Alongside the sharper, clawed tracks of the theropods are larger, rounder impressions. 



These sauropod footprints resemble massive tyre prints. The animals that made them walked on all fours, leaving both manus (front foot) and pes (rear foot) prints in rhythmic patterns.



The trackways stretch across several meters, sometimes exceeding 12 meters (39 feet) in length. These giants moved slowly and their footfalls were spaced widely apart, indicating their enormous size and weight.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dinosaurs_megalosaurs_sauropods_footprints_graphic_credit-PLoSONE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dinosaurs_megalosaurs_sauropods_footprints_graphic_credit-PLoSONE_1s.webp" alt="Textured orthophotos, outlines, contour maps, and DEMs are respectively represented for: (A-D) PC-TH-4-29, (F-H) PC-TH-4-28, and (I-L) PC-TH-4-26. The tracks likely represent worn surface tracks with morphotype-1a configurations (i.e., longer digit iv than ii) and low ~ 1.2 mesaxony. (M) Selected tracks, indicated by red boxes, in context to the rest of the trackway sequence. Due to present-day erosion, track margin definitions gradually decline across the sequence. Credit: PLoS ONE" class="wp-image-1964552"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Textured orthophotos, outlines, contour maps, and DEMs are respectively represented for: (A-D) PC-TH-4-29, (F-H) PC-TH-4-28, and (I-L) PC-TH-4-26. The tracks likely represent worn surface tracks with morphotype-1a configurations (i.e., longer digit iv than ii) and low ~ 1.2 mesaxony. (M) Selected tracks, indicated by red boxes, in context to the rest of the trackway sequence. Due to present-day erosion, track margin definitions gradually decline across the sequence. Click image to enlarge. Credit: PLoS ONE</figcaption></figure>



The shallow depth of the impressions suggests that the substrate was soft but not waterlogged, which is perfect for preserving such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traces</a>.



Early interpretations of these prints led to debate. Some thought they might be natural depressions or made by fish activity. But the regular spacing and anatomical fit have now confirmed their origin. 



These sauropod tracks likely belong to early neosauropods, such as Cetiosaurus, which is already known from nearby fossil sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-show-dinosaurs-walked-alone">Footprints show dinosaurs walked alone</h2>



One of the most curious aspects of the site is the apparent lack of direction. 



The dinosaurs weren’t marching in herds or following a leader. Instead, their tracks crisscross and overlap, suggesting solitary movement. Researchers describe this as “milling behavior,” where animals walked aimlessly or returned repeatedly to the same location.



The trackways do not show signs of interaction. Theropods and sauropods seem to have passed through at different times. 



This absence of coordinated travel supports a view of dinosaurs as more independent in their behavior, especially in these wetland settings.



The study site also lacks any prints from stegosaurs or ornithopods. This absence may reflect environmental differences or simply a preservation gap. 



The idea that only sauropods and theropods used this lagoon is plausible, but more evidence is needed in order to be sure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-and-ecological-importance">Historical and ecological importance</h2>



The researchers highlight a compelling overlap between historical significance and dinosaur footprints. Prince Charles’s Point is not only a rich fossil bed but also a key location in Scottish history.



“The footprints at Prince Charles's Point provide fascinating insight into the behaviors and environmental distributions of meat-eating theropods and plant-eating, long-necked sauropods during an important time in their evolution,“ Tone Blakesley and colleagues noted.



“On Skye, these dinosaurs clearly preferred shallowly submerged lagoonal environments over subaerially exposed mudflats. Intriguingly, the site also has some historical significance, as a place on Skye where Bonnie Prince Charlie landed and hid during his flight across Scotland following the Battle of Culloden.”



This dual legacy - one of fleeing royalty and ancient reptiles - gives the site a rare kind of depth. The stone remembers more than one kind of footstep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drone-technology-and-sediment-clues">Drone technology and sediment clues</h2>



Drone imaging played a crucial role in documenting the site. It allowed scientists to trace the orientation and depth of trackways from above. 



The aerial view revealed patterns that might have gone unnoticed from ground level. When the patterns were combined with on-site sediment analysis, the team could interpret how these footprints were formed and preserved.



Ripple marks across the site show the influence of water currents. However, dinosaur movements didn’t follow these ripples. That means the animals weren’t swimming or walking along shorelines. 



Instead, they wandered freely, and were unaffected by the flow. This supports the idea that they used the area casually rather than for migration or feeding.



The sediment itself offers more insight. Layers above the footprints contain finer material, suggesting occasional floods or rising tides. These conditions helped seal and protect the prints from erosion, locking their shapes in time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-film-features-the-dinosaur-footprints">Film features the dinosaur footprints </h2>



To bring the discovery to life, Tone Blakesley produced a feature-length documentary. The film explores how the site was found, what the footprints reveal, and why they matter. 



It captures the beauty of the Isle of Skye and the precision of scientific fieldwork. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ERQIEH7Epes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">You can watch the documentary here</a>.



This find doesn't just inform our understanding of dinosaur movement. It adds texture to a global picture of Middle Jurassic life. 



In a period where skeletal fossils remain rare, footprints tell a living story of ancient Scotland - one muddy step at a time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319862" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Footprints reveal ancient playground for giant Jurassic dinosaurs

The Isle of Skye is known for its rugged cliffs,...

Beekeepers across the United States are sounding the alarm. Last year, they lost over 55% of their managed colonies - the highest loss rate recorded since tracking began in 2011.This level of loss is not sustainable.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, working with international partners, have studied a new method that could help beekeepers breed healthier, more resilient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bee colonies</a>. 



The team tested a novel tool called the UBeeO assay, designed to measure bees' natural ability to spot and remove sick or dying young. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-growing-problem-for-beekeepers">A growing problem for beekeepers</h2>



"Beekeepers are losing bees at a rate that they say is unsustainable," said Samantha Alger, director of the Vermont Bee Lab at the University of Vermont and lead author of the study.



"In the '80s, beekeepers lost colonies 10–12% of the time … but now it's like 30–50%. Imagine that happening to someone who's a cattle farmer or a pig farmer every year."



While beekeepers have found ways to keep overall populations steady by raising new bees, it comes at a high cost - both in resources and in risk to wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>.



When pathogens from managed hives spread to native bee populations, the health of entire ecosystems can be affected.



Alger and her team work directly with beekeepers to breed stronger, disease-resistant honey bee colonies. One focus of their efforts is helping beekeepers select for hygienic behavior - the ability of bees to detect and remove unhealthy brood from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smart-sensors-help-beekeepers-monitor-hive-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hive</a>.



"It's definitely more desirable for a beekeeper to have bees that are better adapted at taking care of their diseases themselves, rather than using chemical treatments and interventions to try to reduce these pathogen loads, which, of course, may have negative impacts on the bees," noted Alger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-test-to-measure-bee-colony-hygiene">A test to measure bee colony hygiene</h2>



"Now the trick is, how does a beekeeper identify a colony that is really hygienic? And there's various tests that you can perform for that and this UBeeO is sort of a novel way of testing for it."



The UBeeO tool, developed by researchers at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, simulates the natural cues that honey bees use to detect sick brood. 



Instead of freezing brood cells, as traditional tests do, UBeeO uses synthetic pheromones that mimic the scent of diseased or dying bees.



"UBeeO has been known to identify colonies that are able to better resist <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-gives-up-on-efforts-to-eradicate-varroa-mites-which-are-wiping-out-bee-colonies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Varroa mites</a>, but it had not been used to look at other pests or pathogens," said Alger. "We found this new assay could be used to identify colonies that are resistant to these other stressors."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-bees-take-action">What makes bees take action</h2>



In a typical hive, each egg laid by the queen grows into a larva, which is fed and sealed into a wax cell by nurse bees. 



If something goes wrong - if the larva dies or becomes infected - nurse bees can uncap the cell and remove it. This hygienic behavior helps stop the spread of disease.



"Other folks have identified death pheromones, these compounds that are associated with death," said Kaira Wagoner, a research scientist at UNC Greensboro and co-author of the study.



"The famous biologist E.O. Wilson was one of the first to do this. He found oleic acid was emitted from dead ants. The same thing has been found with bees, and it's just likely a stronger signal - it's growing as the dead brood is basically decomposing in the cell. The signals that are coming out of an unhealthy brood are different and very likely more subtle than those death pheromones."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-more-selective-bee-colony-test">A more selective bee colony test</h2>



Unlike the freeze-kill test that uses liquid nitrogen to create dead brood, the UBeeO test simulates what bees would naturally encounter.



"Rather than using liquid nitrogen to kill the developing pupae or larvae, you are using a blend of synthetic pheromones that mimics the same chemicals that are emitted by dying or diseased brood," explained Alger.



"So rather than testing the bees' ability to identify dead brood, you are testing the bees' ability to identify diseased brood, which means that this test is a little bit more selective and realistic to what bees experience."



Wagoner began developing UBeeO during her doctoral studies and went on to co-found Optera, a company focused on bringing the test to beekeepers. Since becoming available in 2024, the test has been tried in over ten countries.



"It's a really young technology," said Wagoner. "We've now tested it in over 10 different countries, and there are breeding programs in at least five now, so there's a lot more data to come."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-colony-test-scores">Bee colony test scores</h2>



To examine how well UBeeO works, scientists used it in three regions - Vermont, North Carolina, and Australia.



The bee colony test is simple: synthetic pheromones are sprayed onto a patch of brood cells, and after two hours, researchers check how many cells the bees have uncapped.



This response is scored as the UBeeO percentage. Higher scores mean more cells were inspected, which usually indicates better hygienic behavior. 



The results showed that colonies with higher UBeeO scores tended to have lower levels of disease, including fungal infections like chalkbrood and parasites like Varroa mites.



"What we found, at least with this Australian dataset, is they only needed to achieve a 13% response on the UBeeO test to be really pretty resistant to chalkbrood. In contrast, colonies need to achieve a response of 55 or 60% on the UBeeO test to be resistant to mites," explained Wagoner.



"The honey bee responsiveness largely depends on how virulent or how harmful the specific disease is to the brood. Chalkbrood kills the brood, so the bees don't have to be as sensitive to detect it."



The Varroa mite poses a greater challenge. These tiny invaders reproduce inside sealed cells and feed on developing bees. 



If the nurse bees don't intervene, the mites are released into the colony, spreading disease and weakening the hive. By uncapping these cells early, bees can interrupt the mite’s life cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-colonies-without-chemicals">Smarter colonies without chemicals</h2>



Interestingly, the UBeeO test also detected colonies that were more resistant to Vairimorpha (formerly known as Nosema). This is a disease that affects adult bees, not brood. That raises new questions about how hygienic behavior might influence adult bee health.



"In the case of Vairimorpha, what they're doing is kind of the mystery," said Alger. "There might be other behaviors that hygienic colonies are performing aside of what we know."



As researchers continue to explore these questions, the hope is that tools like UBeeO will make it easier for beekeepers to raise stronger, more self-sufficient bees - and reduce their reliance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-beekeeping-is-equally-productive-as-methods-using-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical treatments</a>.



For a profession facing some of the steepest challenges in agriculture today, that help can’t come soon enough.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bee-science/articles/10.3389/frbee.2025.1509871/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Bee Science</a>.



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Science is giving beekeepers a better way to fight colony collapse

Beekeepers across the United States are sounding the alarm. Last...

The deep blue sky, the glowing moon, the hypnotic swirls - Vincent van Gogh’s “The Starry Night” remains one of the most recognizable paintings in the world. 



It invites awe and interpretation, blending emotion with abstraction. For over a century, people have tried to explain its magic.



Some view it as a window into van Gogh’s troubled mind. Others see a poetic depiction of nature’s grandeur. More recently, however, some physicists saw something else - a possible connection to fluid turbulence.



This surprising scientific claim stirred both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-new-details-about-centuries-old-painting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fascination and debate</a>. Could an artist from the 19th century have intuitively captured a concept that physicists only formalized in the 20th? 



A 2024 paper suggested exactly that. But not everyone agrees.



In fact, leading experts in fluid mechanics say the science behind that interpretation does not hold up. While the painting’s beauty remains unquestioned, its connection to turbulence theory might not be as real as it seems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-theory-meets-the-starry-night">Modern theory meets "The Starry Night"</h2>



In June 1889, van Gogh painted “The Starry Night” while residing at an asylum in southern France. He looked out at the pre-dawn sky and transformed what he saw into a <a href="https://portfolio.newschool.edu/rivej935/2024/11/07/in-depth-research-vicent-van-gogh-the-starry-night/?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">masterpiece</a>.



Today, the painting lives at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Its swirls and curls have inspired poets, painters, and now - physicists.



A <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pof/article-abstract/36/9/095140/3312767/Hidden-turbulence-in-van-Gogh-s-The-Starry-Night?redirectedFrom=fulltext">study</a> published in Physics of Fluids claimed that the painting’s swirling sky resembled patterns found in real turbulent flows. Specifically, the paper argued that van Gogh’s eddies followed Kolmogorov’s theory of turbulence.



This theory, created by Soviet mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov, describes how energy moves through swirling fluids like air or water. 



According to the paper, “[van Gogh] was able to reproduce not only the size of whirls/eddies, but also their relative distance and intensity in his <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/painting-with-light-project-makes-air-pollution-visible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">painting</a>.”



The idea fascinated many. Was van Gogh unknowingly visualizing chaos in a scientifically accurate way?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starry-night-turbulence-claim-is-wrong">Starry Night turbulence claim is wrong</h2>



Not so fast, say Mohamed Gad-el-Hak of <a href="https://www.vcu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Commonwealth University</a> and James J. Riley of the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>.



These two experts in turbulence and fluid mechanics studied the painting too. Their conclusion? The original analysis is deeply flawed. Their own paper, published in the Journal of Turbulence, presents a detailed rebuttal.



“The Kolmogorov theory, which is named for the 20th-century Soviet mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov, is perhaps the most famous theory in turbulence research,” said Gad-el-Hak. 



This theory applies to how velocity behaves in fluids - how fast the particles move and interact. But that’s not all.



Later, researchers like Alexander Obukhov and Stanley Corrsin expanded the theory to cover scalar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-played-a-spiritual-role-in-prehistoric-cave-art/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">properties</a> - things like pressure, temperature, and fluid density. These properties, however, must be measurable within the flow.



Both Gad-el-Hak and Riley studied under Corrsin at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a>. Their background gave them a clear understanding of what the theory requires and how it works in real-world systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starry-night-has-no-real-data">Starry Night has no real data </h2>



The biggest issue lies in what the painting lacks. “Our foundational objection … is that there is no identifiable, measurable scalar fluid property in the painting that can be used to apply the theory of Obukhov and Corrsin,” Riley explained.



In other words, “The Starry Night” is a visual work. It contains no real data. There is no way to measure air pressure, temperature, or any other property that turbulence theory needs.



Even more, the paper assumes an atmospheric flow field behind the painting. But Gad-el-Hak and Riley argue that this imagined flow does not match the conditions required by Kolmogorov’s framework. 



“The atmospheric flow field assumed does not even closely satisfy the assumptions required of the theory,” Riley added. 



So while the swirls may appear turbulent, they lack the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acoustic-echoes-may-have-inspired-prehistoric-rock-art/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientific foundation</a> to truly represent turbulence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-van-gogh-s-genius-is-artistic-not-scientific">Van Gogh’s genius is artistic, not scientific</h2>



Gad-el-Hak and Riley don’t dismiss the painting’s brilliance. In fact, they admire it deeply. But they urge people to separate science from symbolism. 



“The painting is fascinating and very abstract,” they wrote, “and in fact this is an element of what makes it such an iconic work of art.”



Van Gogh’s swirling skies stir emotion. They may even remind viewers of natural forces like wind or water. But the beauty lies in suggestion, not simulation. 



There is no hidden physics waiting to be decoded. Instead, there is an artist who poured his mind onto canvas in ways that defy simple explanation.



Science and art often intersect, but not every brushstroke needs a formula. “The Starry Night” remains a masterpiece - not because it mimics turbulence, but because it captures something deeper, something purely human.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14685248.2025.2477244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Turbulence</a>. 



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Claim: Van Gogh’s 'The Starry Night' does not follow real science rules

The deep blue sky, the glowing moon, the hypnotic swirls...

Earth,Core,Structure.,Elements,Of,This,3d,Image,Furnished,By

A recent study has overturned a foundational assumption about Earth’s early geological evolution by showing that the planet’s very first crust, formed around 4.5 billion years ago, already exhibited chemical traits remarkably similar to those of our current continents.&nbsp;



This discovery challenges widely held beliefs that the unique “fingerprints” of modern continental&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crust</a>&nbsp;could only have emerged once plate tectonics was fully underway. 



Instead, the research indicates that these signatures were in place from the outset, prompting scientists to rethink the timing and mechanisms behind Earth’s first stable landmasses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-traits-of-earth-s-early-crust">Chemical traits of Earth's early crust</h2>



The research team was led by Professor Simon Turner from Macquarie University’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/faculty-of-science-and-engineering" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Faculty of Science and Engineering</a>, collaborating with experts from institutions in Australia, the UK, and France.&nbsp;



Geological theory has long held that subduction zones - where tectonic plates slide beneath one another - were essential to generating the low-niobium anomaly characteristic of continental rocks.



However, Turner and his colleagues discovered that these chemical trait markers can be explained by processes predating plate tectonics. 



“Scientists have long thought that tectonic plates needed to dive beneath each other to create the chemical fingerprint we see in continents,” Turner said. 



“Our research shows this fingerprint existed in Earth’s very first crust, the protocrust - meaning those theories need to be reconsidered.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-niobium-and-early-earth">Niobium and early Earth</h2>



Central to this study is the observation that niobium in early Earth conditions likely behaved as a siderophile, or metal-loving, element. 



Because the planet’s surface was covered by a molten ocean during the Hadean eon (roughly 4.5 to 4.0 billion years ago), conditions were highly reducing.



Under those circumstances, niobium would have been attracted to metal and sunk into the newly forming core. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/early-earth_continental-crust-rocks_chemical-composition_credit-Macquarie-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/early-earth_continental-crust-rocks_chemical-composition_credit-Macquarie-University_1s.webp" alt="Continental clues: Modern continental rocks carry chemical signatures from the very start of our planet's history, challenging current theories about plate tectonics. Credit: Morris McLennan, Macquarie University" class="wp-image-1964543"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Continental clues: Modern continental rocks carry chemical signatures from the very start of our planet's history, challenging current theories about plate tectonics. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Morris McLennan, Macquarie University</figcaption></figure>



This would naturally explain how the earliest crust developed the distinctive low-niobium signature that characterizes modern continents, without requiring subduction processes to drive it. 



“I realized there might be a connection between early core formation, high siderophile element patterns, and the infamous negative niobium anomaly observed in continental crust,” Turner explained, referring to the consistent chemical imprint found in nearly all continental rocks, regardless of their age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-meteor-impacts">The role of meteor impacts</h2>



The findings suggest that well before tectonic plates began shifting and colliding, Earth’s nascent crust was already imbued with chemical traits that traditionally were thought to arise from subduction-driven recycling.&nbsp;



By using mathematical models to simulate early Earth’s molten surface and core formation, the researchers demonstrated how the protocrust could have naturally become chemically akin to what we see in today’s continents.&nbsp;



“This early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crust</a> was reshaped and made richer in silica thanks to a combination of meteor impacts, chunks of crust peeling off, and the beginning of plate movements,” Turner said.



The study posits that these combined forces carved out thicker zones in some parts of Earth’s surface, laying the groundwork for what would become the first proto-continents.



One of the striking aspects of this scenario is the role of meteor impacts. During the Hadean eon, Earth faced intense bombardment from comets and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-how-an-asteroid-strike-would-change-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroids</a>, which not only disrupted the crust but may have intermittently triggered localized plate-like processes.&nbsp;



It is possible that around 3.8 billion years ago, as meteor bombardment subsided and the solar system became more orderly, plate tectonics entered a phase of more continuous operation. 



Before that, it likely occurred sporadically, forming and destroying patches of crust without establishing the global network of colliding and diverging plates known today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-timelines-for-plate-tectonics">Shifting timelines for plate tectonics</h2>



The implication of this research is that Earth’s earliest stable crustal fragments were not mere oceanic slabs but had already acquired the distinctive chemical trait signatures found in continental rocks.



This insight alters how geologists trace the onset of plate tectonics by highlighting that the creation of low-niobium rocks might not directly pin down the age of subduction zones, since the relevant chemical anomalies apparently existed before subduction was a consistent global mechanism.



In a broader cosmic context, these findings may also reshape how scientists view the formation of continents on other&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocky planets</a>. 



If Earth’s continents developed their core chemical traits and features so early, driven by partial melting, core formation, and repeated violent impacts, then other planets with similar conditions could also form continental structures sooner than previously assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-earth-s-crust">Future research on Earth's crust</h2>



Looking ahead, the researchers plan to refine their models and search for additional geological records that support or challenge the new narrative. 



Direct evidence from the Hadean eon is notoriously rare because rocks that old are often re-melted or transformed by later geological events.



Yet tiny minerals such as zircons have survived, and future studies might glean further clues about this formative period in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-history-of-earth-in-exactly-2000-words/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s history</a>.&nbsp;



By recalibrating the timeline of continental emergence, this research paves the way for a richer and more complex picture of how Earth became a planet capable of hosting life and how similar transformations might be possible elsewhere in the cosmos.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08719-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Discovery about Earth's first continental crust rewrites geological history

A recent study has overturned a foundational assumption about Earth’s...

The forest holds many wonders - towering trees, elusive animals and, sometimes, plants that seem plucked from myth. Deep in a hill dipterocarp forest in eastern Peninsular Malaysia, scientists have discovered one such marvel: a new species from the mysterious fairy lantern genus, Thismia.



Hidden beneath <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-fungi-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dense vegetation</a> and largely invisible to the casual hiker, this species represents both a scientific breakthrough and a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> warning.



The discovery was made in Terengganu’s Chemerong Forest Eco Park, a mountainous region known more for waterfalls and trails than rare plants. On the edge of a mountaineering path, something extraordinary emerged from the soil - a glowing flower with a strange structure and a name now etched into Malaysian botanical history: Thismia aliasii.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-world-of-thismia">Unveiling the world of Thismia</h2>



The genus Thismia is a botanical enigma. These plants are mycoheterotrophic, meaning they cannot perform photosynthesis but depend on fungi for nutrition.



In fact, this is a symbiotic relationship involving plants that parasitize fungi in the soil. This underground network links them to nearby trees, forming a delicate chain of dependency. Without sunlight, leaves, or green stems, these unusual plants remain hidden for most of the year, only revealing themselves when they flower.



These flowers are not ordinary. They often resemble small lanterns or otherworldly structures, and are adapted to attract specific pollinating insects. Small flies, especially fungus gnats, act as pollinators, being lured by the plant’s architecture and scent.



This system is highly specialized, making Thismia species incredibly vulnerable to change. Thismia aliasii joins this unique lineage with features that have astonished researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-moment-of-chance-and-recognition">A moment of chance and recognition</h2>



The journey to identify Thismia aliasii began in 2019. Mohamad Alias Shakri, a researcher from the Terengganu Forestry Department, spotted the strange plant during a field expedition.



"The discovery of Thismia aliasii is very interesting as it was found in a mountainous region known for its natural beauty. The discovery was made on the edge of a popular mountaineering trail but, remarkably, the species was first recognised by Alias," the author noted.



“It was not easy to obtain specimens for further study as its habitat is on the mountain and COVID time delayed search efforts. Fortunately, targeted field work to find this plant was successful with the support of NAGAO."



What began as an accidental sighting turned into a focused mission to locate and study the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-heliconia-species-are-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a>. The pandemic made fieldwork difficult, but the team persisted. Eventually, enough data was gathered to confirm that the plant represented a species new to science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thismia-aliasii-is-endangered">Thismia aliasii is endangered</h2>



In the study, published in the open-access journal PhytoKeys, Thismia aliasii was provisionally classified as Critically Endangered (CR) under the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>. 



Only five individuals were documented across multiple surveys. Such low numbers raise immediate alarm about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>’ future.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fairy-lantern-plant_new-species_Thismia-aliasii_credit-Siti-Munirah_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fairy-lantern-plant_new-species_Thismia-aliasii_credit-Siti-Munirah_1s.webp" alt="Newly discovered fairy lantern species, Thismia aliasii can't photosynthesize. Credit: Siti Munirah" class="wp-image-1964533"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Newly discovered fairy lantern species, Thismia aliasii can't photosynthesize. Click to enlarge. Credit: Siti Munirah</figcaption></figure>



The biggest threat to Thismia aliasii is its own location. Chemerong Forest is a popular destination for hikers, and foot traffic disturbs the leaf litter and soil layers on which the plant depends.



Unlike tall trees or shrubs, these small organisms can’t withstand repeated damage or shifting microhabitats. If nothing changes to improve their chances of survival, their extinction could happen unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-terengganu-is-a-sanctuary-for-rare-flora">Terengganu is a sanctuary for rare flora</h2>



The discovery of Thismia aliasii cements Terengganu’s position as a global hotspot for Thismia diversity. 



To date, 13 species of the genus have been recorded in the state, including six found nowhere else in the world. This concentration of diversity signals a unique evolutionary history that has unfolded beneath the forest canopy.



Such richness also carries <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responsibility</a>. Local conservation policies must now take into account these less-visible species. Their survival depends not only on preserving large tracts of land but also on managing how people move through the area.



Public awareness, trail regulations, and scientific monitoring all become essential parts of the solution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-window-into-life-hidden-from-sight">Window into life hidden from sight</h2>



Thismia aliasii is more than a new entry in a scientific journal. It is a reminder of the unseen lives that flourish in the shadows of the forest. These plants evolved without light, adapting in ways that few other organisms have. They challenge our understanding of survival and symbiosis.



Yet their fragility is just as instructive. A few careless footsteps could destroy a species that took millions of years to evolve.



Their presence urges us to rethink conservation - not as a matter of grand landscapes alone, but as a responsibility that includes even the smallest flowers that are buried in leaf litter, waiting to be seen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-team-behind-the-discovery">Team behind the discovery</h2>



The study was led by Siti-Munirah Mat Yunoh of the <a href="https://www.frim.gov.my/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Research Institute Malaysia</a> and Mohamad Alias Shakri of the <a href="https://trgforestry.terengganu.gov.my/index.php?lang=my" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Terengganu Forestry Department</a>. 



Their research received funding under the 12th Malaysian Plan from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Sustainability. Additional support came from the <a href="https://www.nagaofoundation.or.jp/e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagao Research Grant</a>, which has backed numerous biodiversity studies in Southeast Asia.



Without this backing, the expedition may not have resumed after initial delays. Financial and institutional support remains key to discovering and documenting species before they disappear.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://phytokeys.pensoft.net/article/136085/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PhytoKeys</a>.



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Newly discovered fairy lantern species can't photosynthesize

The forest holds many wonders - towering trees, elusive animals...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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