Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Nothing sets the tone of your day better than breakfast. It is far more than just a meal; it's a base for your body's vibrancy and long-term wellness.



While&nbsp;everyone&nbsp;knows&nbsp;that a good breakfast&nbsp;gives&nbsp;you&nbsp;the energy you need to conquer the day, most people don't&nbsp;know that the quality of breakfast&nbsp;consumed might&nbsp;be&nbsp;the key to&nbsp;combating cardiovascular disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-a-healthy-breakfast">The power of a healthy breakfast</h2>



In a recent study, experts at the <a href="http://Hospital del Mar Research Institute +34 933 16 04 00 https://g.co/kgs/ZjWpvfE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hospital del Mar Research Institute</a> investigated the link between breakfast quality and heart health.



The researchers tracked 383 participants in the PREDIMED-Plus project. The goal was to examine the impact of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-can-lead-to-longer-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean diet</a> coupled with physical activity on heart disease - compared to the impact of dietary recommendations alone.



"Breakfast is a pivotal meal because it breaks the longest fasting time in the day. According to dietary recommendations, an adequate breakfast provides 20–25% of energy intake," wrote the study authors. 



"Skipping breakfast has been associated to higher prevalence of obesity, risk of diabetes, and metabolic conditions. On the contrary, eating breakfast has been associated with a better quality of the whole diet."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research </h2>



The study was focused on two primary aspects. First, the researchers considered the energy derived from breakfast as a proportion of the daily total energy intake. Here, they differentiated between an adequate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-caloric-restriction-help-you-live-longer-its-complicated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calorie intake</a> (20-30% of the total daily intake) and other levels.



Second, the effects of consuming a high-quality breakfast with a perfect balance of proteins, fats, fiber, and other key nutrients were analyzed.



The findings revealed that a proper breakfast, packed with high-quality food and adequate energy, considerably reduces cardiovascular risk factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakfast-energy-intake-and-heart-disease">Breakfast energy intake and heart disease</h2>



The three-year-long study was focused on participants aged between 55 and 75 who were all overweight or obese. 



The researchers accounted for several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular</a> risk factors. These included weight, waist circumference (an indicator of abdominal obesity), lipid profile, cholesterol and triglyceride levels, blood pressure, and diabetes indicators.



The study revealed that participants who consumed 20-30% of their daily energy intake at breakfast showed promising health outcomes. They had a more favorable body weight evolution compared to those who consumed more or less energy in the morning.



These participants ended the study with a 2-3.5% lower body mass index and a 2-4% smaller waist circumference. Plus, their triglyceride levels were significantly lower (9-18% reduction), and their HDL cholesterol levels were commendably high (4-8.5% increase).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakfast-quality-why-it-matters">Breakfast quality: Why it matters</h2>



While adequate energy intake plays a crucial role, the quality of breakfast also counts when it comes to heart health.



Those who had a high-quality breakfast ended up with a waist circumference that was 1.5% smaller, with 4% lower triglycerides, and an increase of 3% in HDL cholesterol levels.



A good breakfast should be rich in protein, beneficial fats, fiber, and essential minerals like potassium and iron, while keeping the added sugars and saturated fats at bay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maintaining-better-health-with-breakfast">Maintaining better health with breakfast</h2>



Álvaro Hernáez, a key researcher at the Hospital del Mar Research Institute, emphasized the importance of breakfast in maintaining health.



“Breakfast is the most important meal of the day, but what and how you eat it matters. Eating controlled amounts - not too much or too little - and ensuring good nutritional composition is crucial," said Hernáez.



"Our data show that quality is associated with better cardiovascular risk factor outcomes. It's as important to have breakfast as it is to have a quality one.”



Additionally, Dr. Montse Fitó noted that both energy adequacy and quality have a role in preventing cardiovascular risk.



“We have confirmed that dietary recommendations about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diet-quality-briefly-improved-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food quality</a> have been effective in improving risk factor evolution over time in adults at high cardiovascular risk,”&nbsp;said Dr. Fitó.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-toward-healthy-aging">A step toward healthy aging</h2>



“Promoting healthy breakfast habits can contribute to healthy aging by reducing the risk of metabolic syndrome and associated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic diseases</a>, thereby improving quality of life,” concluded Karla-Alejandra Pérez-Vega.



Having a good breakfast won't just power you through the morning, but will also arm you against health risks.



This is especially important for adults who are at high cardiovascular risk. So, the next time you plan your breakfast, remember to choose quality and control quantity. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1279770724004949" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Nutrition Health &amp; Aging</a>.



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Breakfast: A delicious way to start your day and combat heart disease at the same time

Nothing sets the tone of your day better than breakfast....

Woman,Wearing,Brainwave,Scanning,Headset,Sits,In,A,Chair,In

It has been known for nearly 20 years that slow, synchronous electrical waves in the brain during deep sleep support the formation of memories. However, the reason for this has remained unclear. 



Now, a team of researchers from <a href="https://www.charite.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin</a> have found an explanation. According to the study, the slow waves make the neocortex, the location of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-our-brain-form-long-term-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-term memory</a>, especially receptive to information.&nbsp;



The findings could help to optimize the treatment approaches that are intended to support memory formation from outside.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-waves-and-memory-consolidation">Slow waves and memory consolidation</h2>



How do permanent memories form? Experts believe that while we <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cleaning-the-brain-neurons-flush-out-waste-while-we-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>, our brains replay the events of the day, moving information from the location of short-term memory, the hippocampus, to the long-term memory located in the neocortex.&nbsp;



“Slow waves” are especially key to this process: slow, synchronous oscillations of electrical voltage in the cortex that occur during the deep sleep phase.&nbsp;



They can be measured using an electroencephalogram (EEG). The waves originate when the electrical voltage in many neurons rises and falls simultaneously once per second.



“We’ve known for many years that these voltage fluctuations contribute to the formation of memory,” explained senior author Jörg Geiger, the director of the Institute of Neurophysiology at Charité.&nbsp;



“When slow-wave sleep is artificially augmented from outside, memory improves. But what we didn’t know until now was what exactly is happening inside the brain when this occurs, because it is extremely difficult to study the flows of information inside the human brain.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-waves-enhance-synaptic-connections">Slow waves enhance synaptic connections</h2>



Geiger and his team have now used intact human brain tissue, which is extremely rare, to clarify the processes that are very likely to underlie the formation of memory during deep sleep.&nbsp;



According to their findings, the slow electrical waves influence the strength of synaptic connections between the neurons in the neocortex – and thus their receptivity.



For their study, the team of researchers investigated intact neocortical tissue samples taken from 45 patients who had undergone neurosurgery to treat epilepsy or a brain tumor at Charité, the <a href="https://evkb.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evangelisches Klinikum Bethel (EvKB) hospital</a>, or the <a href="https://www.uke.de/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf </a>(UKE).&nbsp;



The researchers simulated the voltage fluctuations typical of slow brain waves during deep sleep in the tissue and then measured the nerve cells’ response. To achieve this, they used glass micropipettes positioned precisely down to the nanometer.&nbsp;



To “listen in” on the communications among multiple nerve cells connected through the tissue, they used up to ten “pipette feelers” at once – an extra-large number for this method, which is known as the multipatch technique.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimizing-timing-for-memory-formation">Optimizing timing for memory formation</h2>



The experts discovered that the synaptic connections between neurons in the neocortex are maximally enhanced at a very specific point in time during the voltage fluctuations.&nbsp;



“The synapses work most efficiently immediately after the voltage rises from low to high,” explained lead author Franz Xaver Mittermaier, a researcher at the Institute of Neurophysiology at Charité.



“During that brief time window, the cortex can be thought of as having been placed in a state of elevated readiness. If the brain plays back a memory at exactly this time, it is transferred to long-term memory especially effectively. So, slow-wave sleep evidently supports <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory formation</a> by making the neocortex particularly receptive for many short periods of time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-memory-improvement">Implications for memory improvement</h2>



This newfound understanding could have important practical applications. With the knowledge of precisely when the neocortex is most receptive, scientists and clinicians may be able to refine techniques that stimulate slow-wave activity.&nbsp;



Such stimulation can be achieved using subtle electrical impulses (transcranial electrostimulation) or through acoustic cues timed to slow waves during deep sleep.&nbsp;



“Right now, though, these stimulation approaches are being optimized through trial and error, which is a laborious and time-consuming process,” Geiger said.



Armed with these fresh insights, researchers can now work toward a more targeted development of external stimuli to enhance memory formation.&nbsp;



For people with mild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-mild-covid-can-cause-prolonged-cognitive-impairment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive impairment</a> or age-related memory decline, carefully timed interventions during deep sleep might strengthen or restore certain aspects of memory. This line of inquiry can also guide future studies into conditions where deep sleep or slow-wave activity is disrupted, such as in patients with neurodegenerative disorders.



In essence, this research clarifies a long-standing mystery: how deep sleep’s slow waves aid in consolidating memories.&nbsp;



By illuminating the precise timing and mechanism by which the neocortex becomes primed to receive and integrate information from the hippocampus, the study stands to refine therapeutic strategies aimed at improving memory function and potentially help those facing cognitive challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53901-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Deep sleep: How slow brain waves boost memory formation

It has been known for nearly 20 years that slow,...

In an effort to protect sensitive fish species, many recreational fisheries have adopted catch-and-release practices, where fish are returned to the water after being caught.&nbsp;



However, excessive fishing pressure may influence the behavior of target species and jeopardize the sustainability of fisheries.&nbsp;



An international team of biologists, co-led by the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> and the <a href="https://www.usf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of South Florida</a>, along with conservationists and industry partners in Seychelles, set out to determine if this is the case.&nbsp;



The study revealed that a prized sport fish, the giant trevally, is susceptible to high fishing pressure.&nbsp;



This conclusion emerges from a “natural experiment” during the COVID-19-induced closure of the fishery, carrying significant implications for managing the species across the Indian and Pacific oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaboration-for-sustainable-fishing-practices">Collaboration for sustainable fishing practices</h2>



Study senior author Andy Danylchuk is a professor of fish conservation at UMass Amherst.&nbsp;



“A few years ago, both the <a href="http://www.islandconservationseychelles.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Island Conservation Society</a>, which promotes conservation in the Seychelles Islands, and the Alphonse Fishing Company (now known as Blue Safari Seychelles Fly Fishing), a flyfishing guide service located in the Seychelles, approached my group concerned about the sustainability of sportfishing in the Seychelles,” explained Danylchuk.



“It was the perfect convergence of a research question that my team cares deeply about - how recreational <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> can be a sustainable part of the ‘blue economy’- brought to us by stakeholders looking to implement policies and management guided by science.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unintended-consequences-of-sport-fishing-nbsp">Unintended consequences of sport fishing&nbsp;</h2>



Unlike harvest-oriented recreational fishing, which directly affects population numbers, catch-and-release sport fishing is intended to minimize mortality - theoretically leaving more fish in the water for future anglers.&nbsp;



However, this method can have unforeseen effects. These include increased mortality from hooking fish in critical areas like the gills, post-release predation, altered movements, and “hook shyness.”&nbsp;



Hook shyness occurs when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> become accustomed to being targeted and subsequently avoid lures or flies, potentially reducing catch rates. This behavioral change is particularly concerning for the giant trevally, a highly sought-after species that attracts anglers willing to spend significant amounts for a memorable catch.&nbsp;



Declining catch rates due to hook shyness could disappoint anglers and negatively impact the local tourism industry. In some cases, local guides might resort to baiting fish with chum to lure them closer, exacerbating behavioral and movement alterations in giant trevally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-sustainability-through-natural-experiments">Investigating sustainability through natural experiments</h2>



Study lead author Lucas Griffin completed this research as part of a post-doctoral fellowship at UMass Amherst. Griffin is now an assistant professor of marine biology at the University of South Florida.&nbsp;



“The Island Conservation Society and the Alphonse Fishing Company wanted to know whether or not the current fishing practices for giant trevally in the Alphonse Group of islands in the Seychelles was sustainable,” said Griffin.&nbsp;



“And so, we’ve been working with them on a series of studies to assess just that.”



The research team utilized acoustic telemetry - implanting transmitters in giant trevally and placing receivers throughout the coastal environment to track individual movements - and a mark-and-recapture program, which involved collaborating with anglers to implant microchips in fish.&nbsp;



These methods allowed the team to monitor how often and where individual fish were caught and released.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-once-in-a-lifetime-natural-experiment">Once-in-a-lifetime natural experiment</h2>



Originally, the researchers planned to conduct short-term closures of various fishing spots to observe giant trevally behavior under natural conditions.&nbsp;



However, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-lockdown-linked-to-dramatic-changes-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a> pandemic led to an almost two-year shutdown of recreational fishing in the Seychelles, providing an unprecedented natural experiment.&nbsp;



“It’s strange to say, but the pandemic created a once-in-a-lifetime natural experiment,” Griffin remarked. “The entire fishery shut down, so we could really see how giant trevally live in the total absence of fishing pressure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fish-respond-to-increased-pressure">How fish respond to increased pressure</h2>



The study found that while giant trevally can adjust their behaviors and movement patterns in response to fishing pressure, they did not significantly alter their behavior during the short-term closures or the extended COVID-19 shutdown.&nbsp;



Over time, however, there is evidence that increased fishing pressure may lead to hook shyness, with some groups of giant trevally shifting their home ranges away from prime fishing spots.&nbsp;



Conversely, the mark-and-recapture data indicated a substantial population of giant trevally, with new individuals entering the fishery potentially offsetting the effects of hook shyness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-fishery-health-and-angler-satisfaction">Balancing fishery health and angler satisfaction</h2>



Overall, the evidence suggests that while giant trevally exhibit resilience to the immediate impacts of catch-and-release, sustained fishing pressure can influence their behavior in ways that may reduce catch rates and affect the angling experience.&nbsp;



Maintaining a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-plays-critical-role-ecosystem-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy ecosystem</a> and ensuring high populations of giant trevally could enhance their resilience to angling pressures.



“We are part of the ecology of these fish,” Griffin said. “If we want to be catching more of them, we may need to consider limiting the number of anglers that target them in any given location.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-fisheries-management">Implications for fisheries management</h2>



The findings highlight the necessity of integrating scientific research with fisheries management practices to ensure the long-term sustainability of sport fishing.&nbsp;



By understanding the behavioral responses of target species like the giant trevally, stakeholders can develop informed strategies that balance conservation efforts with economic benefits from tourism and sport fishing.&nbsp;



This study underscores the importance of adaptive management approaches that consider both ecological dynamics and human interests in recreational fishing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-the-sustainability-of-sport-fisheries">Enhancing the sustainability of sport fisheries</h2>



Moving forward, the research team plans to continue monitoring giant trevally populations and behaviors, particularly in relation to varying levels of fishing pressure.&nbsp;



Further studies will aim to refine management practices to mitigate the unintended consequences of catch-and-release fishing and enhance the sustainability of sport fisheries.&nbsp;



By encouraging collaboration between scientists, conservationists, and industry partners, the team aims to promote practices that support both the health of fish populations and the livelihoods of communities dependent on recreational fishing.



This comprehensive approach ensures that sport fishing remains a viable and sustainable activity, preserving the giant trevally and other sensitive species for future generations of anglers and maintaining the ecological integrity of coastal regions.



The study is published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2023-0329" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences</a>,&nbsp;



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The hidden consequences of catch-and-release sport fishing

In an effort to protect sensitive fish species, many recreational...

The pursuit of fairness has long intrigued philosophers and scientists alike. Do humans hold a unique sense of fairness, or do animals share this trait? 



For years, researchers have debated whether behaviors like jealousy are exclusive to humans or are prevalent among animals as well. A new study from the UC Berkeley sheds new light on this age-old question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-animal-fairness">Rethinking animal fairness</h2>



Using data from 23 studies, the researchers conducted a meta-analysis involving over 60,000 observations across 18 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> species.



This effort, described as the “largest empirical investigation of non-human inequity aversion to date,” examined the concept of fairness as perceived by animals.



“We can’t make the claim that animals experience jealousy based on this data,” said Oded Ritov, a fourth-year Ph.D. candidate in UC Berkeley’s <a href="https://psychology.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Psychology</a>. 



“If there is an effect, it’s very weak and might show up in very specific settings. But it’s nothing like what we see in humans in terms of our deep-seated sense of fairness.”



The findings&nbsp;challenge widely held assumptions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-animal-rights-day-2024-honoring-animals-with-justice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal behavior</a>. According to Ritov, the evidence suggests that what might appear as inequity aversion in animals could instead stem from unmet expectations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-fairness-key-to-complex-societies">Human fairness: Key to complex societies</h2>



Humanity’s deep-rooted sense of fairness has played a vital role in building shelters, sharing resources, and developing complex societies. 



This trait, known as “inequity aversion,” refers to our dislike of unequal resource distribution. Psychologists argue that this inclination influences how we judge fairness in everyday scenarios.



For example, consider siblings squabbling over toys. When one receives a seemingly better toy, the other might protest - not just out of envy, but because the distribution feels unfair. This intrinsic reaction is a hallmark of human fairness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-debate-over-animal-fairness">The debate over animal fairness</h2>



The debate over <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-characters-boost-social-and-emotional-skills-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> fairness gained traction after primatologist Frans de Waal’s landmark study. In a now-famous video, capuchin monkeys reacted strongly when given unequal rewards. 



Monkeys receiving cucumber slices appeared content until they noticed others receiving grapes. One monkey, upon receiving a piece of cucumber while another enjoyed a grape, flung the cucumber away in protest.



This behavior was widely interpreted as evidence of inequity aversion. De Waal and others suggested that animals, like humans, dislike unfair treatment. Similar behaviors have been reported in corvids, dogs, and even mice. However, Ritov’s analysis offers a different perspective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expectations-and-disappointment">Expectations and disappointment </h2>



Ritov’s study highlights potential issues in prior research, including small sample sizes and a replication crisis that undermines broader scientific conclusions. 



“We thought it’d be a valuable contribution to try to pull together as much data as we can on this question and see what kind of pattern emerges with the larger dataset,” Ritov explained.



The emerging pattern suggests that animals’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-and-possibly-even-insects-have-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a> may not reflect jealousy or fairness concerns at all. Instead, these behaviors might stem from unmet expectations.



For instance, in follow-up studies, monkeys reacted with similar outrage when grapes were placed in an empty cage, where no other monkey was present. This finding indicates that the animals’ behavior was less about comparison and more about their own unfulfilled anticipation.



“We think that the rejections are a form of social protest,” Ritov said. “But what animals are protesting isn’t receiving less than someone else. Rather, it seems like they’re protesting the human not treating them as well as they could.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-and-animals-a-shared-frustration">Humans and animals: A shared frustration?</h2>



While the study stops short of equating animal behaviors with human fairness, it does point to a shared frustration with unmet expectations. 



This insight deepens our understanding of animal cognition and its differences from human behavior.



Animals may not resent inequity per se, but they do respond strongly to perceived mistreatment - a reaction that, while distinct, resonates with human experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-humans-unique">What makes humans unique</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-way-you-send-emojis-shows-your-attachment-style/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human</a> inequity aversion stands out for its complexity and depth. Unlike animals, humans possess the cognitive ability to weigh fairness against social, cultural, and ethical norms. 



These layers of reasoning underpin our ability to build and maintain societies where fairness plays a crucial role. Ritov’s work highlights how these traits differentiate us from other species, even as we continue to seek parallels in the animal kingdom.



The study’s findings remind us of the importance of questioning assumptions and interpreting behaviors with care. 



Understanding what truly makes us human requires peeling back the layers of evolution and culture - and sometimes re-evaluating what we thought we knew about our closest animal counterparts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1452" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Animals care more about unmet expectations than fairness

The pursuit of fairness has long intrigued philosophers and scientists...

Do you remember when cigarettes and sodas were the most popular items in convenience stores, advertised everywhere and consumed by almost everybody?



Things have changed massively over time. 



Cigarette smoking, once deemed cool and fashionable, saw a massive reversal in perception following extensive campaigns that educated the public about its health implications. 



There were also tax hikes on cigarettes, and increased information about the addictive and harmful nature of nicotine.



This propelled a massive decline in smoking rates which drove cigarette usage to an all-time low, especially among younger members of the population.



It seems that unhealthy, sugar-sweetened beverages appear to be treading a similar path, suggests recent research from <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-the-tide-against-soda-and-sugary-drinks">Turning the tide against soda and sugary drinks</h2>



Fast forward to the present and Berkeley has become the first city to impose a soda tax.



Coupled with recent tax hikes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-are-consuming-more-sugary-drinks-than-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sugar-sweetened drinks</a> across the Bay Area, these initiatives have contributed significantly to declining sales and brought about a considerable shift in social norms and attitudes regarding the healthfulness of sweet drinks, according to Kristine A. Madsen, a professor at UC Berkeley’s School of Public Health.



In a relatively short period, taxes and extensive media coverage have significantly shaped the public's views on sugary beverages, including sodas, some juices, and sports drinks. 



This change in perception could have far-reaching implications for public health endeavors overall.



“Social norms are really powerful. The significant shift we saw in how people are thinking about sugary drinks demonstrates what else we could do,” Madsen said. 



“We could reimagine a healthier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-meat-and-dairy-alternatives-will-dramatically-transform-the-global-food-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food system</a>. It starts with people thinking, ‘Why drink so much soda?’ But what if we also said, ‘Why isn’t most of the food in our grocery stores food that makes us healthy?'”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-perception">The power of perception</h2>



Madsen, along with colleagues from <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Francisco</a> and <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>, utilized surveys from over 9,000 individuals living in lower-income neighborhoods in Berkeley, Oakland, San Francisco, and Richmond.



They examined year-to-year trends in people's perception of sugar-sweetened beverages using data from 2016 to 2019, and 2021. 



The objective was to gauge how the four <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sugar-drink-taxes-dramatically-improve-overall-health-in-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">taxes</a> might have influenced the social norms surrounding these beverages.



These norms, although invisible, influence our actions and behaviors powerfully, impacting our choices regarding food and drinks, our clothing, and our habits.



The researchers identified a 28% decline in the social acceptability of consuming sugar-sweetened beverages. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-what-the-neighbors-drink">Watching what the neighbors drink</h2>



In locations like Oakland, attitudes towards <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elevated-levels-of-toxic-metals-detected-in-popular-drinks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sports drinks</a> consumption changed for the better after the tax increase, compared to other cities. 



The healthfulness of sugar-sweetened fruit drinks also saw a decline in perception in San Francisco.



Changes in social norms resulted in people believing that their neighbors were reducing their consumption of these sugary beverages, which in turn influenced their own consumption choices.



This research aligns with previous studies from UC Berkeley that examine changing consumption patterns following the implementation of the nation's first soda tax. 



These studies herald the decline in soda consumption, a tilt towards healthier choices like water, and a sharp decline in the general consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leveraging-taxation-and-media-to-drive-healthier-choices">Leveraging taxation and media to drive healthier choices</h2>



Notably, the tax imposition on sugary beverages, although levied on distributors, ultimately trickles down to the consumer's pocket and serves as a significant communication medium about health.



Researchers identified over 700 media stories concerning these taxes during the study period, which likely played a considerable role in driving public awareness and norms.



Madsen highlights the importance of including such measures in future public health interventions. Similar strategies contributed to curbing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cigarette-smoking-among-teens-has-declined-dramatically/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cigarette smoking</a>, and they seem to be working with sugary drinks as well.



Our individual actions can bring about significant environmental changes. “If we change our behaviors, the environment follows,” Madsen said. 



“While policy really matters and is incredibly important, we as individuals have to advocate for a healthier food system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soda-s-decline-a-model-for-future-health-campaigns">Soda’s decline: A model for future health campaigns</h2>



The decline in soda consumption, which has been driven by targeted taxes and public awareness campaigns, provides a blueprint for tackling other health challenges.



Similar strategies could be employed to address issues like processed food consumption and over-reliance on high-calorie snacks. 



By coupling policy changes with effective media messaging, society can continue to shift norms and promote healthier lifestyles.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-024-20781-6">BMC Public Health</a>.



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Soda taxes actually work, improving both health and mindset

Do you remember when cigarettes and sodas were the most...

Our friendships do more than just make us feel good; they can have profound impacts on our physical and mental health. 



A recent survey from the University of Michigan National Poll on Healthy Aging highlights the significant role friends play in the lives of older adults. 



The analysis also sheds light on challenges faced by those with physical or mental health issues, emphasizing the importance of fostering social connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-friendships">Importance of friendships</h2>



According to the poll, 90% of adults aged 50 and older have at least one close <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-theory-enemy-of-my-enemy-is-my-friend-proven-by-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friend</a>, and 75% feel they have enough close friends. Notably, 70% of those with close friends said they could count on them for support in discussing health concerns.



“With growing understanding of the importance of social connection for older adults, it’s important to explore the relationship between friendship and health, and identify those who might benefit most from efforts to support more interaction,” noted Dr. Sarah Patterson from the U-M <a href="https://isr.umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Social Research</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-challenges-and-social-isolation">Health challenges and social isolation</h2>



The poll revealed that adults in poor physical or mental health face significant barriers in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-moms-meddle-friend-disapproval-worsens-teen-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maintaining friendships</a>. 



Among participants who rated their mental health as fair or poor, 20% reported having no close friends, compared to 18% of those in fair or poor physical health. Additionally, 47% of those with fair or poor mental health said they lacked enough close friends.



Older adults in poorer health were more likely to find it harder to make new friends. This challenge emphasizes the importance of targeted efforts to help this group stay socially connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-support-and-healthier-lifestyles">Emotional support and healthier lifestyles </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/friends-family-members-and-guardians-dogs-are-more-than-just-pets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Friends</a> often play a critical role in encouraging healthier lifestyles and providing emotional support. Key findings from the poll include:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Emotional support: 79% of those with at least one close friend said they could turn to them for emotional support.</li>



<li>Healthy lifestyle encouragement: 50% reported a friend had encouraged healthier choices like better eating or exercise in the past year.</li>



<li>Health advocacy: 35% said a close friend had urged them to get a symptom checked by a healthcare professional.</li>



<li>Care during illness: 32% had a friend who helped them when they were sick or injured.</li>
</ul>



“When health care providers see older adults, we should also ask about their social support network, including close friends, especially for those with more serious health conditions,” noted Poll director Dr. Jeffrey Kullgren.



He added that 15% of respondents with close friends had a friend accompany them to a healthcare appointment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-age-and-generational-connections">Gender, age, and generational connections</h2>



The poll revealed gender and age differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-mammals-live-depends-more-on-climate-than-human-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social connections</a>. Men were more likely than women to report having no close friends. Adults aged 50 to 64 also reported fewer close friends compared to those aged 65 and older.



Despite these differences, 46% of older adults with close friends said they have friendships spanning generations, with friends at least 15 years younger or older.



Older adults who experienced loneliness or isolation were more likely to lack close friends. Those feeling isolated or lacking companionship at least occasionally were significantly more likely to report having no close friends compared to those who hardly ever felt isolated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-friends-for-better-health">Making friends for better health</h2>



The poll found that many older adults struggle to maintain or build friendships as they age:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>42% said making new friends is harder now than in the past, with higher percentages among those in fair or poor mental (65%) or physical health (55%).</li>



<li>34% said maintaining friendships has become more challenging, with rates even higher among those in fair or poor mental (61%) or physical health (47%).</li>



<li>28% expressed a desire for more contact with their close friends, particularly those in poorer health.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-friendships-in-promoting-health">The role of friendships in promoting health</h2>



The poll’s findings are based on a nationally representative survey conducted by NORC at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> in August 2024. 



The study included 3,486 U.S. adults aged 50 and older, with 1,174 respondents from Michigan. The results provide valuable insights into the critical role friendships play in promoting health and well-being among older adults.



“This poll underscores the vital role friendships play in the health and well-being of older adults. Strong social connections can encourage healthier choices, provide emotional support, and help older adults navigate health challenges, particularly for those at greater risk of isolation,” noted Indira Venkat, Senior Vice President of Research at <a href="https://www.aarp.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AARP</a>.



The University of Michigan <a href="https://www.healthyagingpoll.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Poll on Healthy Aging</a> highlights the profound impact of friendships on the lives of older adults. For those with physical or mental health challenges, promoting and maintaining connections can significantly improve quality of life.



These findings emphasize the importance of supporting older adults in building and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-power-of-diversity-in-friendships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maintaining social networks</a>, which are vital for emotional and physical health.



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How friendships improve your health as you age

Our friendships do more than just make us feel good;...

Imagine a world where glasses tumbling off tables or crashing to the floor were no longer met with the familiar sound of shattering but instead with a harmless bounce.



In this world, your smartphone screen remains unscathed, even after a clumsy accident.



While it may sound too good to be true, the latest discoveries from Tohoku University researchers are bringing us one step closer to this extraordinary reality. 



The research offers fascinating insights into the science of glass durability and reshapes our understanding of this common yet remarkable material.



With these advances, everyday mishaps might soon become minor inconveniences instead of costly repairs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-atomic-motion">Secrets of atomic motion</h2>



In an article published in the journal Acta Materialia, a multi-institutional team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tohoku University</a> shared novel results from their study on atomic movements in glass.



The experts revealed that the curious dance of atoms within the glass is key to its ability to resist breakage.



“Glass, while strong, is prone to breaking when stress exceeds its tolerance, but interestingly, the movement of atoms and molecules within glass can relax internal stress, making the material more resistant to fractures," explained Makina Saito, an associate professor at Tohoku University’s Graduate School of Science.



Apparently, the process of atoms "jumping" into nearby empty spaces is what bolsters a glass's resilience - a phenomenon that has puzzled scientists for the longest time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synchronized-atomic-dance">Synchronized atomic dance</h2>



In order to uncover these secrets of atomic motion, the team used innovative synchrotron radiation experiments and astute computer simulations. This allowed the researchers to observe the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossible-quantum-effects-observed-atoms-positioned-closely-together/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior of atoms</a> within glass on an incredibly precise timescale.



The experts found that once atoms jump into nearby empty spaces, the surrounding group of atoms moves collectively to fill the void like a well-choreographed ballet, which maintains structural integrity.



This synchronized atomic dance acts as a pressure-relief valve, dissipating internal stress and significantly reducing the chance of the glass fracturing under external force or impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-the-future-of-glass-related-industries">Shaping the future of glass-related industries</h2>



These breakthrough insights have the potential to transform industries that rely heavily on the robustness of glass materials.



"Our results have far-reaching implications for industries such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smaller-more-powerful-wireless-devices-are-on-the-horizon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumer electronics</a>, construction, and automotive manufacturing, where break-resistant glass is essential," commented Saito.



The team from Tohoku University isn't stopping here. They aim to investigate whether similar atomic mechanisms operate in other types of glass.



Their ultimate mission? To set up universal norms for designing glasses with superior impact resistance, potentially revolutionizing the applications of this common, yet unique material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-toward-sustainable-glass-materials">A step toward sustainable glass materials</h2>



This discovery could play a pivotal role in advancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whats-the-most-sustainable-packaging-the-answer-will-surprise-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable material</a> science. 



Glass is already a widely used, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-recycling-day-creating-a-healthier-planet-for-all/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recyclable</a> material, but enhancing its durability could significantly reduce waste from broken items such as phone screens, windows, and household objects. 



By creating materials that last longer and require less frequent replacement, researchers are contributing to a future with reduced environmental impact and resource consumption. 



Additionally, fewer replacements mean a reduction in energy and raw materials needed for manufacturing, further lessening the ecological footprint. 



This innovation could also inspire sustainable practices across industries that rely on glass, amplifying its impact on global sustainability goals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broadening-horizons-in-material-science">Broadening horizons in material science</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond glass, touching on a wide array of materials and industries.



The techniques used to analyze atomic motion could inspire breakthroughs in other materials, such as ceramics or polymers, where enhancing stress resistance and durability is a priority for both performance and safety.



Additionally, understanding atomic behavior in glass might influence the design of advanced materials that are tailored for demanding environments, including aerospace, defense, and medical applications.



For example, durable glass could be utilized in spacecraft windows to offer enhanced safety during extreme conditions. It could be used to produce bulletproof shields that provide greater reliability, or even surgical tools that combine resilience with precision.



These advances could redefine the boundaries of material science, opening the door to innovations that were previously thought unattainable, while expanding their applications across industries and improving everyday <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neuromorphic-computing-where-ai-meets-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technologies</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359645424008851?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acta Materiala</a>.



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The secret to shatterproof glass lies in its atomic behavior

Imagine a world where glasses tumbling off tables or crashing...

Mosasaurs are extinct marine reptiles that hold a remarkable place in the history of vertebrate paleontology. Their discovery in 1766 near Maastricht, Netherlands, laid the foundation for studying fossilized backboned animals.



Palaeontologist Michael Polcyn, a leading expert on mosasaurs, has presented the most comprehensive research to date on their early evolution and ecology. On December 16, Polcyn will receive his PhD from Utrecht University for his extensive studies into these fascinating marine reptiles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-mosasaurs">Evolution of mosasaurs</h2>



"Mosasaurs are a textbook example of macroevolution, the emergence of new and distinct groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-have-emerged-as-major-source-of-methane-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, above the level of species," Polcyn explained.



"Although they have been studied for centuries, new discoveries, novel research approaches, and the application of technology, are still teaching us about their relationships and behaviors, some of which continues to surprise us."



"For example, through the use of detailed comparative anatomy aided by micro-CT scanning technology, we have gained a much better understanding of what group of lizards mosasaurs likely evolved from."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-ancient-mysteries">A new look at ancient mysteries</h2>



Polcyn used state-of-the-art imaging technologies, such as micro-CT scans, to study the braincase structures of mosasaurs.



These tools not only clarified the evolutionary relationships of mosasaurs but also resolved debates around problematic fossil taxa. This approach provided a better understanding of their origins and evolutionary adaptations.



"This study not only addressed the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jormungandr-24-foot-lizard-is-a-new-link-in-mosasaur-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of the group, but also explored small- and large-scale aspects of their feeding biology," said Polcyn.



A notable highlight of his work involves a specimen found in Angola, which contained the remains of three other mosasaurs in its stomach, including one from the same species.



This extraordinary discovery represented the first known instance of cannibalism in mosasaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosasaurs-adapting-to-life-in-the-sea">Mosasaurs adapting to life in the sea</h2>



Mosasaurs evolved from a group of lizards that ventured into the oceans around 100 million years ago. Over 34 million years, they adapted to a wide range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pseudosuchians-ancient-crocodile-like-reptile-discovered-brazil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine environments</a>, occupying diverse ecological niches. 



Alongside many other species, mosasaurs were wiped out 66 million years ago during the mass extinction caused by a meteorite impact.



Despite extensive fossil records from their later evolutionary stages, little is known about the early history of mosasaurs. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-discoveries-and-historical-specimens">New discoveries and historical specimens </h2>



"A relatively large number of fossils are known from the second half of the evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australian-dragons-reveal-new-clues-about-the-mysteries-of-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> of mosasaurs, allowing a good understanding of the relationships among those species, which have been classified into four major groups," Polcyn noted. 



"Much less is known about their early evolutionary history, and how those major groups are related to one another, their origins, and the origin of mosasaurs as a whole."



To address these gaps, the team from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> leveraged advanced imaging techniques to analyze both new discoveries and historical specimens. 



The findings resolved a long-standing scientific debate. Polcyn concluded that mosasaurs are more closely related to monitor lizards than to snakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosasaurs-feeding-behavior-and-cannibalism">Mosasaurs' feeding behavior and cannibalism </h2>



The feeding habits of mosasaurs were also a focal point of Polcyn’s research. The Angola specimen containing three mosasaurs highlights a unique aspect of their predatory behavior. 



"Whether that mosasaur was a scavenger or actively hunted its prey cannot be said with certainty; however, we do have the first documented example of cannibalism in mosasaurs," Polcyn explained. His findings also reveal how mosasaurs processed prey and the relationship between predator and prey sizes.



Polcyn’s dissertation includes a comprehensive study of mosasaur feeding behavior over a period spanning 92 to 66 million years. 



By analyzing a vast global dataset, he uncovered patterns of foraging area segregation and feeding diversity. These insights illuminate how mosasaurs divided resources and evolved their dietary strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-of-discovery">A legacy of discovery</h2>



Michael Polcyn’s research not only enhances our understanding of mosasaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-triassic-fossil-gondwanax-paraisensis-may-rewrite-history-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> but also highlights the value of integrating advanced technology with paleontological studies. 



His findings continue to reshape our understanding of these ancient marine predators, offering a deeper glimpse into their complex lives and ecological roles.



As new discoveries emerge, the legacy of mosasaurs serves as a testament to the dynamic nature of paleontology. Their story reminds us how ancient ecosystems still hold untapped secrets waiting to be uncovered.



Image Credit: Andrey Atuchin



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Mosasaurs had fierce survival strategies including cannibalism

Mosasaurs are extinct marine reptiles that hold a remarkable place...

Common murres, resembling flying penguins, thrive in coastal ecosystems, where they dive into the ocean for fish and nest in large colonies along cliffs. Despite their robust appearance, these seabirds face immense threats from warming ocean conditions.



A new study, led by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, sheds light on the devastating effects of marine heat waves on common murres in Alaska.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-counting-murre-carcasses">Counting murre carcasses</h2>



The University of Washington's Coastal Observation and Seabird Survey Team (<a href="https://coasst.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COASST</a>), a citizen science initiative, played a vital role in uncovering the crisis. 



Coastal residents trained by COASST documented alarming numbers of murre carcasses on beaches. In 2020, COASST and other observers reported a mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-sea-ice-makes-it-harder-for-seabirds-to-find-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mortality event</a>, identifying over 62,000 murre carcasses along the West Coast and Alaska. 



In some areas, carcass counts exceeded normal levels by more than 1,000 times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-heat-waves-on-common-murres">Impact of heat waves on common murres</h2>



The 2020 study, while highlighting the severity of the event, did not determine the total loss following the 2014-2016 marine heat wave known as "the blob." 



The new study fills that gap. By analyzing data from 13 murre colonies surveyed between 2008 and 2022, researchers estimate that 4 million common murres - half of Alaska’s population - died.



In the Gulf of Alaska, colony sizes declined by 50%, while colonies in the eastern Bering Sea saw a staggering 75% decline. The rate of recovery currently remains unknown.



“This study shows clear and surprisingly long-lasting impacts of a marine heat wave on a top marine predator species,” said Julia Parrish, a UW professor of aquatic and fishery sciences and co-author of the study. 



“Importantly, the effect of the heat wave wasn’t via thermal stress on the birds, but rather shifts in the food web leaving murres suddenly and fatally without enough <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabirds-have-highly-sensitive-beaks-to-locate-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-blob-and-its-aftermath">"Warm blob" and its aftermath</h2>



The "warm blob," a patch of unusually warm water spanning from California to Alaska, disrupted ecosystems during its peak from late 2014 through 2016. 



It caused decreased ocean productivity, which led to food shortages for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-sharks-are-abandoning-their-homes-due-to-ocean-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine predators</a>, including seabirds. Analysis of murre carcasses confirmed starvation as the primary cause of death during the mass die-off.



Before the heat wave, Alaska housed about 8 million common murres, roughly a quarter of the global population. The murre population in Alaska has since halved in size.



Unlike previous, smaller die-offs, where murres rebounded, they do not appear to be recovering after this event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-intensifies-marine-heat">Climate change intensifies marine heat</h2>



The “warm blob” represents one of the most extreme marine heat waves recorded, but similar events are becoming more frequent due to climate change. 



A 2023 study, led by many of the same authors, revealed that even a 1°C increase in sea surface temperature over six months triggers seabird mass mortality events.



"Whether the warming comes from a heat wave, El Niño, Arctic sea ice loss or other forces, the message is clear: warmer water means massive ecosystem change and widespread impacts on seabirds," Parrish stated.



“The frequency and intensity of marine bird mortality events is ticking up in lockstep with ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-are-struggling-to-survive-as-sea-ice-vanishes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-troubling-lack-of-recovery">Troubling lack of recovery</h2>



The persistence of Alaska’s murre population decline highlights a critical challenge. 



The 2023 study suggested seabird populations typically need at least three years to recover from a marine heat wave. However, seven years after “the blob,” Alaska’s murres show no signs of bouncing back.



"We may now be at a tipping point of ecosystem rearrangement where recovery back to pre-die-off abundance is not possible," Parrish warned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-common-murres-from-heat-waves">Saving common murres from heat waves</h2>



This study highlights the devastating and lasting impacts of marine heat waves on common murres and other marine species. 



With ocean warming intensifying under climate change, the frequency of such events will likely increase. Understanding these changes can inform conservation efforts and mitigate future impacts on vulnerable species.



Furthermore, coordinated global efforts are essential to address climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/south-africa-will-bomb-invasive-mice-eating-seabirds-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">safeguard marine ecosystems</a> for future generations.



Co-authors of the study include Brie Drummond and Jared Laufenberg from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, John Piatt from the World Puffin Congress, and Martin Renner of Tern Again Consulting.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq4330" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Millions of Alaska's seabirds starved to death after intense heat wave

Common murres, resembling flying penguins, thrive in coastal ecosystems, where...

It's fascinating to think about how our brains work. This squishy, soft organ tucked away in our skulls holds the reins of our thoughts, decisions, and knowledge. Despite how much our brains can do, there is still so much we don’t understand about them or their intelligence.



Jonas Thiele and Dr. Kirsten Hilger, who lead the "Networks of Behavior and Cognition" group at Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (JMU), are working to unlock the secrets of the brain.



The team's recent study offers remarkable insights into intelligence and brain connectivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-intelligence-from-brain-connections">Predicting intelligence from brain connections</h2>



The study utilized data from the <a href="https://www.humanconnectome.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human Connectome Project</a>, a large-scale U.S.-based data-sharing initiative. Over 800 participants underwent fMRI scans, which measure changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain activity</a> both at rest and while performing tasks. 



The researchers focused on brain connectivity - the communication strength between different brain regions - to predict individual intelligence scores.



"Many studies predicting intelligence from brain connections have been published in the last years and they also achieve quite good predictive performance," said Dr. Hilger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fundamental-brain-processes-and-intelligence">Fundamental brain processes and intelligence </h2>



However, she noted that such predictions lack deeper meaning, as they fall short of matching the accuracy of traditional intelligence tests.



"We therefore intended to move away from the pure prediction of intelligence scores and instead better understand the fundamental processes in the brain. We hope that this will give us a better understanding of the neural code of individual differences in intelligence."



Dr. Hilger encourages her peers to make it a priority to improve the conceptual understanding of human cognition, emphasizing interpretability in future studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-types-of-intelligence">Three types of intelligence</h2>



The study categorized intelligence into three distinct types:



<ol start="1" class="wp-block-list">
<li>Fluid intelligence: This involves solving logical problems, recognizing patterns, and processing new information independent of prior knowledge or learned skills.</li>



<li>Crystallized intelligence: This includes knowledge and skills acquired through life, such as general knowledge, experience, and language comprehension.</li>



<li>General intelligence: A combination of fluid and crystallized intelligence.</li>
</ol>



The team achieved the best predictive performance with general intelligence, followed by crystallized and fluid intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-connections-and-intelligence">Brain connections and intelligence</h2>



The <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JMU</a> researchers explored various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-a-brain-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain connections</a> based on theoretical considerations and randomly selected connections. 



A crucial finding emerged: the distribution and number of connections across the brain were more significant predictors of intelligence than the specific regions connected.



"The interchangeability of the selected connections suggests that intelligence is a global property of the whole brain," said Dr. Hilger. 



"We were able to predict intelligence not just from a specific set of brain connections, but from different combinations of connections distributed throughout the brain."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-established-theories">Challenging established theories</h2>



Traditional intelligence theories often emphasize specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> regions, such as the prefrontal cortex. However, this study’s findings suggest that additional brain regions’ connections also play a critical role. 



"The connections of brain regions proposed in the most popular neurocognitive models of intelligence produced better results than randomly selected connections. However, the results were even better when complementary connections were added," explained Dr. Hilger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-path-to-future-discoveries">Path to future discoveries</h2>



The study’s results show that intelligence involves more complex and widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-creativity-start-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain connectivity</a> than previously understood. These findings pave the way for future research into unexplored aspects of intelligence.



As Dr. Hilger emphasized, moving beyond predictive performance to deeper explanations is essential for advancing our understanding of human cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiple-factors-that-influence-intelligence">Multiple factors that influence intelligence</h2>



Some studies suggest that genetics play a significant role in intelligence, with heritability estimates ranging from 50% to 80% in adults. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-impacts-brain-development-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental factors</a>, such as nutrition, education, and social interactions, also significantly impact intellectual development.



Studies have shown that bilingual individuals often exhibit better cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Additionally, sleep quality directly affects cognitive functions like memory and decision-making. 



Emotional intelligence, which involves understanding and managing emotions, is another critical aspect that contributes to overall success in personal and professional life. 



Advanced imaging techniques have also revealed that higher intelligence is often associated with efficient neural networks rather than sheer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-movies-illuminate-our-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain activity</a>. These findings continue to shape our understanding of intelligence, demonstrating its multifaceted nature.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/3/12/pgae519/7915712" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Every part of the brain works together to support intelligence

It's fascinating to think about how our brains work. This...

Saltwater intrusion, a process where seawater infiltrates freshwater aquifers near coastlines, poses a growing threat to water supplies, ecosystems, and infrastructure.&nbsp;



According to a study led by researchers at <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL), by the year 2100, three-quarters of the world’s coastal areas are likely to experience saltwater intrusion.



This is due to the combined effects of climate change, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-sea-levels-spiked-dramatically-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a> and reduced groundwater recharge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disruption-of-the-natural-balance">Disruption of the natural balance</h2>



Under normal circumstances, coastal aquifers maintain a balance between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a> flowing from land and seawater pressing inland. Rainfall replenishes these freshwater reserves, pushing the saltwater back toward the ocean, while ocean pressure exerts a counterforce.&nbsp;



In the transition zone where the two meet, a mix of freshwater and saltwater exists, but the equilibrium keeps saltwater from encroaching further inland.



Climate change is altering this delicate balance. Sea level rise, driven by global warming, is causing coastlines to shift inland, increasing the pressure of seawater on freshwater aquifers.&nbsp;



At the same time, reduced rainfall and warmer weather patterns are slowing the recharge of freshwater, weakening its ability to counteract the saltwater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-projected-impact-of-saltwater-intrusion-nbsp">Projected impact of saltwater intrusion&nbsp;</h2>



The study, published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL110359" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>, analyzed over 60,000 coastal watersheds worldwide to assess how saltwater intrusion might evolve by the end of the century.&nbsp;



The researchers considered two primary drivers of the phenomenon - sea level rise and reduced groundwater recharge - both individually and in combination.



Spurred by planetary warming, sea level rise is making coastlines to migrate inland and increase the force pushing salt water landward. Moreover, slower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-depletion-is-accelerating-but-it-is-not-inevitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groundwater</a> recharge due to less rainfall and warmer weather is weakening the force moving the underground fresh water in some regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saltwater-intrusion-into-coastal-watersheds-nbsp">Saltwater intrusion into coastal watersheds&nbsp;</h2>



When examined separately, sea level rise is expected to cause saltwater to encroach in 82% of coastal watersheds.&nbsp;



In these areas, the transition zone between fresh and saltwater is projected to move up to 656 feet (200 meters) inland, particularly affecting low-lying regions such as Southeast Asia, the Gulf of Mexico, and the U.S. Eastern Seaboard.



In 45% of the watersheds studied, slower groundwater recharge will independently drive saltwater intrusion farther inland, with the transition zone advancing as much as three-quarters of a mile (1,200 meters) in some places.&nbsp;



Regions most impacted by reduced recharge include the Arabian Peninsula, Western Australia, and Mexico’s Baja California peninsula.



Combining these effects, the study predicts that 77% of coastal watersheds will experience saltwater intrusion by 2100.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-influencing-saltwater-intrusion-nbsp">Factors influencing saltwater intrusion&nbsp;</h2>



According to study lead author Kyra Adams, a groundwater scientist at JPL, lower rates of groundwater recharge will drive how far saltwater intrudes inland, while sea level rise will have a major effect on how widespread it is around the world.&nbsp;



Adams emphasized that local management strategies will need to be tailored to the dominant factor in each region. For instance, if low recharge is the main reason intrusion is happening in one region, officials could address it by protecting groundwater resources.&nbsp;



However, if the greater concern is that sea level rise will oversaturate aquifers, officials might choose to divert groundwater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impacts-of-sea-level-rise">The impacts of sea level rise</h2>



The study is part of a broader effort to evaluate how sea level rise will impact coastal regions, co-funded by <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a>. It used data from HydroSHEDS, a <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Wildlife Fund</a>-managed database based on elevation observations from NASA’s Shuttle Radar Topography Mission.&nbsp;



The researchers employed a model that incorporated variables such as groundwater recharge rates, water table changes, and sea level rise to estimate saltwater intrusion distances.



According to co-author Ben Hamlington, a climate scientist at JPL, a globally consistent framework which captures localized climate impacts is essential for countries that don’t have the necessary expertise to generate one on their own.&nbsp;



“Those that have the fewest resources are the ones most affected by sea level rise and climate change, so this kind of approach can go a long way,” he said.



Hamlington likened the issue of saltwater intrusion to the risks posed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal flooding</a>.&nbsp;



“As sea levels rise, there’s an increased risk of flooding everywhere. With saltwater intrusion, we’re seeing that sea level rise is raising the baseline risk for changes in groundwater recharge to become a serious factor,” he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-a-new-reality">Preparing for a new reality</h2>



The findings underscore the urgency of proactive measures to manage saltwater intrusion and protect freshwater supplies.&nbsp;



From safeguarding drinking water to preserving ecosystems and infrastructure, governments and local officials must act swiftly to address this growing threat.&nbsp;



With a clear and consistent model provided by this study, communities around the globe can better understand and mitigate the long-term impacts of saltwater intrusion.



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Saltwater intrusion threatens coastal groundwater supplies worldwide

Saltwater intrusion, a process where seawater infiltrates freshwater aquifers near...

Trees offer undeniable cooling benefits during the day by providing shade and reducing heat through evaporation. However, new research&nbsp;reveals that at night, tree canopies can trap heat and potentially increase temperatures.



The study, led by scientists from the University of Cambridge, emphasizes the importance of strategic planning when integrating trees into urban landscapes to combat heat stress effectively.



"Trees have a crucial role to play in cooling cities down, but we need to plant them much more strategically to maximize the benefits which they can provide," said Dr. Ronita Bardhan, an associate professor at the University of Cambridge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-temperatures-and-urban-heat-stress">Rising temperatures and urban heat stress</h2>



Urban heat stress has become a global concern that is linked to health issues, increased energy demands, social inequalities, and infrastructure challenges.



Many cities have turned to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree planting</a> as a mitigation strategy. Yet, the study warns that the wrong species or poor placement can negate these benefits.



By analyzing 182 studies covering 17 climates and 110 cities, the researchers have conducted the first global assessment of urban tree cooling. Findings highlight the complex interplay between tree species, urban layouts, and local climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-day-vs-night-cooling-dynamics">Day vs. night cooling dynamics</h2>



Trees cool cities during the day by blocking solar radiation, evaporating water through their leaves, and influencing airflow with their foliage.



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li></li>
</ol>



At night, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> canopies can trap longwave radiation from the ground, leading to a warming effect. 



This phenomenon, caused by aerodynamic resistance and stomatal closure (a response to heat and drought), varies significantly across climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-specific-cooling-and-heating-effects">Climate-specific cooling and heating effects</h2>



The analysis revealed that urban trees provide varying degrees of cooling and heating depending on the climate:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Tropical wet and dry climates: Trees cooled cities by up to 12°C (21.6°F) but warmed them by 0.8°C (1.44°F) at night.</li>



<li>Arid climates: Cooling reached over 9°C (16.2°F), while nighttime warming was 0.4°C (0.72°F).</li>



<li>Temperate climates: Daytime cooling was 6°C (10.8°F), with a nighttime warming effect of 1.5°C (2.7°F).</li>



<li>Tropical rainforest climates: Cooling dropped to 2°C (3.6°F), with 0.8°C (1.44°F) warming at night.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategic-tree-planting-for-maximum-cooling">Strategic tree planting for maximum cooling</h2>



Cities with open urban layouts and mixed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree species</a> (evergreen and deciduous) achieved better cooling results, especially in temperate and tropical climates. Mixed species provide seasonal shading and three-dimensional cooling.



In arid regions, compact urban areas (like Cairo and Dubai) with evergreen trees experienced significant cooling benefits. Open spaces in low-rise cities allowed for larger tree canopies, further enhancing cooling by 0.4°C.



"Our study provides context-specific greening guidelines for urban planners to more effectively harness tree cooling in the face of global warming," noted Dr. Bardhan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-trees-to-urban-features">Matching trees to urban features</h2>



The study emphasized the importance of compatibility between tree species and urban features. Factors such as street orientation, visible sky ratio, and aspect ratio impact tree cooling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-an-amazing-ability-to-adapt-to-new-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">efficacy</a>.



In compact urban zones with high temperatures, excessive canopy cover can trap heat at pedestrian levels. 



The researchers recommend using narrow species and sparse planting strategies in such areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-trees-solutions-for-urban-cooling">Beyond trees: Solutions for urban cooling</h2>



While trees are valuable, the study from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> urges reliance on complementary strategies like solar shading and reflective materials. These solutions enhance urban cooling without the unintended effects of poorly planned tree placement.



To assist urban planners, the researchers developed an interactive map and database. This tool helps estimate cooling efficacy based on data from cities with similar climates and urban features.



"Urban planners should plan for future warmer climates by choosing resilient species which will continue to thrive and maintain cooling benefits," said Dr. Bardhan.



In summary, strategic tree planting can significantly mitigate urban heat stress, but careful consideration is essential. 



Selecting the right species, planting them in optimal locations, and incorporating complementary solutions can ensure that cities maximize cooling benefits while minimizing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-we-cut-down-all-oak-trees-isoprene-emissions-air-pollution-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unintended consequences</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cooling-power-of-trees">The cooling power of trees</h2>



Large, mature trees provide greater cooling benefits due to their expansive canopies, which block sunlight and facilitate higher evaporation rates. 



Broadleaf species are especially effective, offering more shade and water evaporation compared to needleleaf trees. When planted in clusters, trees create a synergistic cooling effect by enhancing air circulation and providing widespread shade.



Proximity to water bodies further amplifies cooling effects, as the combination of tree shade and evaporation from water surfaces creates cooler microclimates. 



Native species often outperform non-native ones, as they are better adapted to local climates and conditions.



Evergreen trees offer year-round cooling, particularly in regions with less distinct seasonal changes. Additionally, leaf color influences cooling, with lighter-colored leaves absorbing less heat. Tree roots also play a role, cooling the soil and supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthier ecosystems</a>.



A diverse mix of tree species strengthens urban forests, making them resilient to pests and ensuring long-lasting cooling benefits.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01908-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Planting trees in the wrong place can make cities hotter

Trees offer undeniable cooling benefits during the day by providing...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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