Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

For many of us, it seems like the memory-stealing disorder dementia is an inevitable part of aging.



Over time, countless theories have been proposed, linking this incurable condition to every aspect of our lives, from bedtimes to alcohol consumption. 



However, a recent review has suggested that only three factors significantly affect your risk of developing dementia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-dementia-the-basics">Understanding dementia -- the basics</h2>



Dementia is a condition that affects the brain, making it harder for people to think, remember, and communicate over time.



It’s not a single disease but more of an umbrella term for a group of symptoms caused by damage to the brain. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-a-brain-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a> is the most common cause of dementia, but there are others, like vascular dementia and Lewy body dementia. 



People with dementia might forget important things, struggle to follow conversations, or have trouble doing everyday tasks they used to manage with ease. 



It’s like their brain’s wiring gets tangled, making it harder for signals to get through.



What’s tough about dementia is that it doesn’t just affect memory -- it can also change behavior, mood, and personality. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moving-up-social-status-can-lower-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Someone with dementia</a> might get confused or frustrated more easily, or they could withdraw from social activities they once enjoyed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-health-and-preventing-dementia">Brain health and preventing dementia</h2>



The research was led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.rand.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RAND Corporation</a>, a non-profit, research institution based in California. 



The team examined data of over 20,000 senior citizens gathered in an impressive span of 30 years.



Out of the numerous factors they explored, the experts found that the absence of a hobby, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-obesity-rates-are-surging-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>, and sedentariness post-60 are the most influential elements that could predict the development of dementia.



"This work provides additional evidence about actions that individuals can take to pursue a lifestyle that promotes brain health across the lifespan," explained Peter Hudomiet, the lead economist of the study.



“Other lifestyle and health behavior factors are not strong predictors of dementia, such as smoking, checking cholesterol levels, having flu shots, and getting mammograms, pap smears, and breast or prostate exams."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hobbies-weight-and-physical-activity">Hobbies, weight, and physical activity</h2>



Why is it important to pick up a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hobbies-keep-the-brain-sharp-and-slow-cognitive-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hobby</a>, stay active, and watch your weight?



The researchers found that hobbies help people feel they have a purpose in life and allow them to exercise their cognition, which essentially keeps the brain active and healthy.



Similarly, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/regular-exercise-makes-your-brain-bigger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regular physical activity</a> is vital for healthy blood circulation, which in turn is crucial for the brain's long-term health.



On the other hand, obesity often leads to problems with blood circulation, which could enhance the risk of dementia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proactive-measures-for-preventing-dementia">Proactive measures for preventing dementia </h2>



The importance of understanding and mitigating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reduce-your-risk-of-dementia-by-cutting-out-this-type-of-meat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">risk of dementia</a> cannot be overstated, as it represents one of the most pressing public health challenges of our time.



It's estimated that roughly 10 percent of adults over the age of 65 suffer from dementia.



That's over 7 million people, a number projected to hit 12 million by 2040 if current trends persist, placing immense strain on families, healthcare systems, and social services worldwide.



Proactive measures are crucial to addressing this growing crisis and ensuring a better quality of life for future generations.



This discovery has significant implications on a broader societal scale, promoting a new emphasis on brain health.



Hollywood actor Chris Hemsworth, after discovering his heightened risk of developing dementia, has renewed his commitment to maintaining sleep quality, managing stress, and promoting nutrition and fitness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-surprising-role-of-alcohol">The surprising role of alcohol</h2>



While some factors, such as smoking or flu vaccinations, showed little impact on dementia risk, alcohol consumption revealed a surprising trend.



Drinking alcohol can definitely affect your chances of getting dementia later in life, and it all depends on how much you drink. 



Some studies suggest that light to moderate drinking -- like one drink a day -- might actually lower the risk of dementia for some people, especially when it comes to types linked to cardiovascular health. 



On the flip side, heavy drinking is a big red flag for brain health. 



Drinking too much over time can lead to serious issues like alcohol-related brain damage (ARBD) or Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, which directly impact memory and thinking. 



It also increases your risk of vascular dementia by damaging blood vessels and making strokes more likely. 



Even binge drinking, where you down a lot of alcohol in a short time, can hurt your brain over the long term.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dealing-with-a-dementia-diagnosis">Dealing with a dementia diagnosis</h2>



The researchers didn't stop at finding the crucial factors for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-onset-dementia-can-actually-be-prevented-through-lifestyle-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia prevention</a>. They also explored the responses and barriers of people diagnosed with dementia.



The experts found that, upon receiving a diagnosis, many patients took steps for future preparation, such as arranging financial help and planning for safer living conditions.



However, the cost associated with memory care was cited as the largest barrier to treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proactive-steps-for-preventing-dementia">Proactive steps for preventing dementia </h2>



Understanding your risk factors for dementia and taking action to mitigate them can be an important step towards healthier aging. 



"Assessments provided individuals with information that may facilitate actions to prepare for the future," said Susann Rohwedder, a senior economist at RAND, and an author on the study. 



While the research does not guarantee prevention, it does provide us with a clearer picture of what might help ward off dementia. 



Maintaining an active lifestyle, caring for our physical health, and keeping our minds engaged through taking up hobbies might be the secret recipe for a healthy brain, regardless of our age.



The findings are published in a <a href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA3207-1.html">RAND research report</a>.



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Preventing dementia: These three factors matter most

For many of us, it seems like the memory-stealing disorder...

Scientists have reopened the debate about comets as potential sources of Earth’s water. 



A recent study challenges earlier findings and sheds light on the influence of cometary dust on spacecraft measurements, particularly focusing on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. 



The research may reshape our understanding of water’s origins on Earth and the early solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-earth-s-water-origins">Mystery of Earth’s water origins</h2>



Water is vital for life, yet its origin on Earth remains a topic of debate. Earth’s proximity to the Sun during its formation likely caused much of its initial water to vaporize. 



Over time, water condensed from volcanic vapor and rained down, contributing to oceans. Additionally, asteroids and possibly comets delivered ice and minerals during a period of intense collisions around 4 billion years ago. 



While the asteroid hypothesis has gained strong support, the role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-comets-hidden-near-earth-ice-giants-can-be-both-friend-and-foe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comets</a> remains unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-water-and-extraterrestrial-sources">Earth's water and extraterrestrial sources</h2>



Scientists use the deuterium-to-hydrogen (D/H) ratio to trace water’s origin. Deuterium, a heavier isotope of hydrogen, forms more readily in colder environments. 



Objects like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-anticipated-comet-of-2024-returns-this-weekend-after-80000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comets</a>, formed far from the Sun, typically have higher D/H ratios than objects formed closer, like asteroids. By comparing these ratios, researchers can identify potential links between Earth’s water and extraterrestrial sources.



Jupiter-family comets, including 67P, contain primitive material from the early solar system. Initial measurements of their D/H ratios suggested a match with Earth’s water, bolstering the case for comets as water carriers. 



"It was really starting to look like these comets played a major role in delivering water to Earth," said Kathleen Mandt, planetary scientist at NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-twist-in-the-comet-water-connection">Twist in the comet-water connection</h2>



The European Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Rosetta" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rosetta mission</a>, launched in 2004, studied 67P closely. However, its findings in 2014 contradicted earlier studies. 



Rosetta’s measurements revealed a much higher D/H ratio in 67P’s water vapor - three times that of Earth’s oceans. “It was a big surprise and it made us rethink everything,” Mandt explained.



This discrepancy led Mandt’s team to reanalyze over 16,000 Rosetta measurements. Using advanced statistical techniques, they identified a significant factor affecting D/H readings: cometary dust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comet-dust-distorts-water-origins">Comet dust distorts water origins</h2>



Cometary dust influences the accuracy of D/H ratio measurements. As a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/once-in-a-lifetime-comet-will-be-easily-visible-this-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comet</a> approaches the Sun, its surface warms, releasing gas and dust. Water with deuterium adheres to dust particles more readily than regular water. 



When these dust grains release their ice into the coma (the gas and dust cloud surrounding the comet), they skew D/H measurements. Mandt’s team found that measurements taken near Rosetta often reflected dust contamination rather than the comet’s true composition.



"So I was just curious if we could find evidence for that happening at 67P," Mandt said. "And this is just one of those very rare cases where you propose a hypothesis and actually find it happening."



The analysis showed that by the time dust particles reach the outer coma - about 75 miles from the comet’s surface - the deuterium-rich water is gone. At this distance, spacecraft can accurately measure the comet’s true D/H ratio.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-comet-studies">Implications for comet studies</h2>



This research suggests that earlier D/H measurements of 67P and similar comets may need revisiting. 



The dust effect likely influenced past observations, affecting conclusions about the roles of comets in Earth’s water delivery. By accounting for these dust effects, scientists can refine their understanding of comet composition and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-can-comets-tell-us-about-solar-activity-and-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contributions to the early solar system</a>.



"This means there is a great opportunity to revisit our past observations and prepare for future ones so we can better account for the dust effects," Mandt noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-jupiter-family-comets">Potential of Jupiter-family comets</h2>



With these findings, Jupiter-family comets like 67P could once again be considered potential sources of Earth’s water. 



Their D/H ratios, when measured accurately, might align more closely with Earth’s oceans than previously thought. This research not only reshapes our view of Earth’s water origins but also highlights the need for improved techniques in future comet studies.



Understanding the role of comets in delivering water to Earth remains a complex puzzle. By addressing the influence of cometary dust on spacecraft measurements, scientists have taken a crucial step forward. 



As researchers revisit past data and plan future missions, comets may prove to be key players in the story of Earth’s water and the formation of the solar system.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp2191" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Comets may have delivered water to Earth

Scientists have reopened the debate about comets as potential sources...

Heat has dominated the climate headlines in 2024 as the year cements itself in the history books as the hottest ever recorded. 



What remains less reported, however, is the uneven distribution of these dangerous, record-breaking temperatures.



Some regions are experiencing unprecedented heatwaves that push human and environmental resilience to their limits, while others remain relatively unscathed.



A recent study highlights how specific regions around the globe are bearing the brunt of this escalating climate crisis and feeling the heat far more intensely than others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-hotspots">Mapping the hotspots</h2>



The study, a collaborative effort by researchers at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (<a href="https://iiasa.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IIASA</a>) and <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a>, offers a comprehensive look at where on Earth these temperature spikes are most prevalent.



The research provides the first-ever global map of such high-risk areas, which some researchers have begun referring to as "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate danger zones</a>."



Study lead author Kai Kornhuber is as an adjunct professor at the Columbia Climate School and leads the Weather Extremes and Climate Dynamics theme of the IIASA Energy, Climate, and Environment Program.



“This is about extreme trends that are the outcome of physical interactions we might not completely understand. These regions become temporary hothouses, ” said Kornhuber.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-data-and-extreme-heat">Climate data and extreme heat</h2>



The researchers examined data from the past 65 years to identify these hot zones. By analyzing decades of temperature records, they revealed patterns that point to regions disproportionately affected by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-events-are-becoming-increasingly-common/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme heat events</a>.



The experts focused on locations where extraordinary heatwave events are occurring at an alarming rate, and surpass average warm-season temperatures overall.



These instances of extreme heat have increased in frequency in the last five years, with occasional spikes since the early 2000s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regions-bearing-the-brunt-of-the-heat">Regions bearing the brunt of the heat</h2>



Regions severely affected by this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-could-vanish-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rise in temperature</a> include central China, Japan, Korea, the Arabian Peninsula, eastern Australia, parts of South America, and the Arctic. 



However, the most intense and consistent heat surges were recorded in northwestern Europe, where they led to the deaths of around 60,000 people in 2022 and 47,000 in 2023.



Maximum <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-shatters-heat-records-earths-hottest-year-is-here/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature records</a> were shattered in Austria, France, Hungary, Slovenia, Norway, and Sweden during these years. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/world-temperature-changes_1958-2022_map-illustration_credit-IIASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/world-temperature-changes_1958-2022_map-illustration_credit-IIASA_1s.webp" alt="Illustration of changes in the range of high temperatures recorded between 1958 and 2022. Credit: IIASA" class="wp-image-1952769"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of changes in the range of high temperatures recorded between 1958 and 2022. Credit: IIASA</figcaption></figure>



In addition, some parts of the U.S. Southwest and California experienced record temperatures well into October.



While these locales have seen temperatures soar at a rate far surpassing climate model predictions, not all regions have experienced this unprecedented warming. 



In many areas, the rise in temperature is, in fact, lower than model predictions. Among these are large expanses of the north-central U.S., south-central Canada, the South American interior, northern Africa, northern Australia, and much of Siberia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-extreme-temperatures">Consequences of extreme temperatures</h2>



Extreme heat waves can have serious consequences that impact both people and the environment. 



For humans, intense heat can lead to dangerous health problems like heat exhaustion and heatstroke, especially for older adults, young children, and those with preexisting conditions. 



Dehydration is another big risk, and heat waves often lead to more hospital visits and even fatalities.



Cities suffer the most because of the “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/as-urban-heat-continues-to-rise-birds-are-moving-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban heat island</a>” effect, where buildings and pavement trap heat, making temperatures even hotter. 



Heat waves also strain power grids as people crank up air conditioning, sometimes causing blackouts when demand spikes.



The environment takes a beating too. Prolonged heat can dry out soil, damaging crops and leading to lower food production. 



Wildfires become more frequent and intense during heat waves, destroying forests, wildlife habitats, and even homes. 



Rivers and lakes can dry up, stressing ecosystems and water supplies for humans and animals alike. Even aquatic life suffers, as high temperatures reduce oxygen levels in the water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-in-a-warming-climate">Extreme heat in a warming climate </h2>



“In most areas, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-earths-hottest-day-ever-was-recorded-on-july-22-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hottest days</a> of the year are warming about as fast as typical summertime days, which is the dominant signal of climate change, and in some areas even slower," noted study co-author Samuel Bartusek, a PhD candidate at Columbia University.



"In the hotspots that we point out, however, the hottest days have been warming particularly fast, which could be for various reasons."



In some places there could be more occurrences of specific heatwave-inducing weather patterns, or soil drying could be amplifying the hottest temperatures - and it will be important to untangle these specific local drivers.



“Due to their unprecedented nature, these heat waves are usually linked to severe health impacts, and can be disastrous for agriculture, vegetation, and infrastructure. We’re not built for them, and we might not be able to adapt fast enough,” Kornhuber concluded.



In charting these heatwave hotspots, the study has taken a significant step towards mapping the emerging risk of extreme, unprecedented heat and quantifying our capacity to predict these perilous signals. 



The findings open up a new avenue of climate change research and policy-making, emphasizing the need to target interventions and resources to the areas that need them most.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2411258121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Earth's climate danger zones revealed in new global heat map

Heat has dominated the climate headlines in 2024 as the...

Brazilian scientists have made a fascinating discovery about the history of maize, also known as corn. 



They've found traces of this ancient, partially domesticated plant in Brazil, which is farther from the crop's historic point of origin in Mexico than any other similar evidence. But the story doesn’t just end here.



The maize specimens discovered by the scientists were found hidden away in the Peruaçu Valley of Minas Gerais state, and they offer a fresh perspective on our understanding of the plant’s history.



The study was led by a group of dedicated researchers from the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) and the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-history-of-maize">The history of maize </h2>



According to commonly accepted theory, maize was domesticated in Mexico by early farmers. 



When archeologists from the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG) conducted initial excavation work in the Peruaçu Valley back in 1994, they discovered maize cobs, straw, and seeds of partially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domesticated maize</a>. They dismissed these as domesticated maize that simply hadn't grown properly, rather than imagining that it was still in the process of domestication.



The current research findings indicate that the crop may have been exported before being fully domesticated, and may actually have undergone the final stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticating-plants-permanently-alters-their-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestication</a> in South America - far from its Mexican origins.



This controversial idea was first proposed in 2018. Back then, genetic studies on living plants gave a hint that our age-old understanding of maize history might need a revision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-the-dots-with-genetic-evidence">Connecting the dots with genetic evidence</h2>



The magical world of genetics brought these forgotten specimens from 1994 back into the limelight.



A re-examination of the old material revealed traits that tied it to the ancestral plant, Teosinte, which was native to Mexico, and was first domesticated around 9,000 years ago. This ancient plant reportedly arrived in southwestern Amazonia about 6,000 years ago.



The current findings have been published in the journal Science Advances. Study lead author Flaviane Malaquias Costa was part of the research team while she was a PhD candidate and postdoctoral researcher at Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (ESALQ-USP).



“These samples were initially considered specimens of domesticated maize that had failed to grow sufficiently," said Malaquias Costa.



"However, in light of genetic evidence that the final domestication process may have occurred in South America, we analyzed the material again and found several traits shared with the ancestral plant from which maize originated in Mexico 9,000 years ago and that arrived in southwestern Amazonia 6,000 years ago."



Peruaçu Valley is approximately 4,400 miles (7,150 km) from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-agave-and-bats-face-a-sustainability-crisis-in-mexico/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mexico</a>, and the samples found there exhibit the most primitive characteristics ever discovered at such a distance from maize’s center of origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timeline-of-maize-arrival-in-brazil">Timeline of maize arrival in Brazil</h2>



Though there were human populations in Peruaçu Valley around 10,000 to 9,000 years ago, maize seems to have arrived in the region relatively late - around 1,500 years ago.



Interestingly, the samples dated back to between 1,010 and 500 years ago, and displayed traits of partial domestication. This time period mostly precedes the arrival of Europeans in South America.



Thus, it seems that the local Indigenous communities completed the domestication of this maize species through their relentless efforts in selecting, managing, and stabilizing traits that eventually formed today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-use-genomic-testing-to-trace-the-history-of-corn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South American maize</a> varieties.



Courtesy of Fábio de Oliveira Freitas, a researcher at EMBRAPA Genetic Resources and Biotechnology in Brasília, this piece of information becomes another chapter of the maize saga.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-family-ties">Identifying family ties</h2>



Further insights gained from the Peruaçu Valley samples revealed their close relation to the Entrelaçado variety of maize from the Brazilian states of Rondônia and Acre.



According to Elizabeth Ann Veasey, a professor at ESALQ-USP, this variety originated in South America through the selection of various other maize populations.



She extended this point by drawing parallels between the ancient traces and extant varieties discovered during the study in several locations across Brazil and Uruguay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-journey-from-wild-to-domesticated-maize">The journey from wild to domesticated maize</h2>



The transition from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/billions-of-people-depend-on-wild-plant-and-animal-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild plant</a>, Teosinte, to domesticated maize is marked by certain morphological traits. One such marker is the number of grain rows.



While Teosinte, the wild grass native to Mexico that was first domesticated around 9,000 years ago, typically has fewer than eight rows of seeds per ear (cob), modern South American maize varieties grown in lowland areas have eight to 26 rows.



On the other hand, the ancient samples from Peruaçu Valley showcase between four and six rows per ear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-science-the-cultural-impact">Beyond the science: The cultural impact</h2>



Such a monumental discovery not only reshapes our scientific understanding but also holds a significant cultural value. The Peruaçu Valley is home to some of the rarest cave art in the world that features crops.



Besides being depicted on the cave walls, maize was discovered in buried baskets, possibly as offerings for the dead.



Furthermore, there are significant geopolitical implications. If it is established that the final domestication of maize took place in Brazil, these genetic resources can no longer be considered exotic.



This will necessitate conservation efforts and discussions regarding property rights in international treaties.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adn146" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Maize samples found in Brazil may rewrite the crop's history

Brazilian scientists have made a fascinating discovery about the history...

Animals, much like humans, accumulate knowledge and wisdom as they age. A growing body of research highlights the profound impact that older animals have on their groups and ecosystems. 



However, human activities, especially hunting and fishing, are threatening this invaluable resource, pushing many species toward instability and decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-that-defy-time">Animals that defy time</h2>



Some species achieve astonishing lifespans. Bigmouth buffalo fish can live up to 127 years, Greenland sharks can reach 392 years, and certain sponges live for over 10,000 years.



These extended lifespans allow the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> to gather knowledge about their environments and pass it on to younger generations.



In a recent paper published in&nbsp;the journal Science, researchers noted that Earth's old animals are in a state of decline.



The analysis, which was based on data from over 9,000 peer-reviewed papers, warns that the few animals reaching old age are often targeted due to their size, unique features, or reproductive potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longevity-conservation-for-old-animals">Longevity conservation for old animals</h2>



Eliminating the largest and most experienced animals has significant consequences for social structures and group survival. Keller Kopf, lead researcher and ecologist at <a href="https://www.cdu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charles Darwin University</a>, advocates for "longevity conservation," which emphasizes protecting older individuals. 



"That simplistic idea about old individuals not being important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-animal-day-2024-building-a-legacy-of-compassion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>, or for environments, is really not the full story," said Kopf.



He and his co-authors argue that old animals play vital roles in biodiversity and ecosystem health, and therefore need targeted protection policies and management strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-knowledge-in-animal-populations">Cultural knowledge in animal populations</h2>



Older animals often act as reservoirs of cultural knowledge, maintaining stability within their groups. 



Older female elephants, for example, possess a "social memory" that helps identify friends and foes, detect dangers like lions, and guide the group to water sources during droughts. Similarly, postmenopausal orcas excel at locating salmon for their pods.



The removal of older individuals destabilizes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-got-their-colors-150-million-years-before-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>. This loss of cultural transmission explains why some fish populations fail to recover, even after fishing bans are implemented.



"The trouble is once culture is lost, it is very hard to regain," said Kopf.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grandmother-hypothesis-and-group-stability">Grandmother hypothesis and group stability</h2>



Older mammals often contribute significantly to the survival of their offspring and subsequent generations - a phenomenon known as the "grandmother hypothesis."



While their reproductive output declines with age, their knowledge and assistance in raising young bolster group success. 



For instance, deep-sea corals, which can live for thousands of years, provide critical habitats for marine life. Furthermore, older birds often ensure better care for their offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fisheries-and-collapse-of-collective-memory">Fisheries and collapse of collective memory</h2>



The targeting of older fish in fisheries has dire consequences for species survival. Culum Brown, a fish biologist at Macquarie University, emphasizes that older fish carry essential cultural knowledge. 



"The key thing here is that many important behaviors, such as migration to breeding and feeding grounds, are transmitted socially in lots of species of fish," said Brown.



"Imagine a fish swimming around in the ocean. The chances of finding the best feeding or breeding locations by chance is virtually zero." Losing older fish disrupts these learned behaviors, leading to potential population collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wisdom-and-social-learning-in-conservation">Wisdom and social learning in conservation</h2>



Kopf’s research underscores the importance of "cultural transmission" in animals. This concept acknowledges that animals possess culture and that older individuals transmit critical social learning. 



The accumulated knowledge of older individuals, such as where to locate scarce resources or find shelter, becomes irreplaceable in challenging environments.



More conservationists now recognize the need to preserve social learning and cultural knowledge within animal populations. 



"A term that has definitely pretty much only been used for people in the past is ‘wisdom,’ and we’ve used that term - wise - in the title (of the study)," said Kopf. This wisdom, stored in older animals, often holds the key to a species’ survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tragic-loss-of-wisdom-and-experience">Tragic loss of wisdom and experience </h2>



Hunting practices that target older animals exacerbate species’ vulnerabilities.



For instance, older elephants, which play pivotal roles in group dynamics, are systematically hunted for their large tusks and trophy value. 



This loss impacts not just the individuals but also the social fabric of their groups.



Kopf’s findings on the importance of older animals offer a poignant reflection on human society. "It’s made me think a lot more about how we don’t value older people in our society," he noted. 



This neglect of older generations results in a loss of wisdom and experience that could benefit humanity. "What is that doing for the modern world?” said Kopf.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



Longevity conservation could provide a solution. This approach involves targeted policies to protect older individuals, recognizing their role in maintaining biodiversity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-and-possibly-even-insects-have-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> services. 



By prioritizing these efforts, we can safeguard not just individual species but the intricate webs of knowledge and survival strategies they sustain.



Protecting older animals is not just about preserving the past. It is a step toward ensuring the future stability and richness of life on Earth. 



As researchers continue to reveal the critical roles of older animals, it becomes clear that their survival is intertwined with our planet’s ecological health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado2705" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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'Old and wise' animals are essential for the survival of species

Animals, much like humans, accumulate knowledge and wisdom as they...

Potatoes could hold the key to addressing the challenges posed by frequent and intense heatwaves, which are becoming more common in different regions of the world. 



These resilient crops are crucial in safeguarding global food supplies as climate change continues to disrupt traditional farming practices.



"We need to produce crops that can withstand more frequent and intense heatwave events if we are going to meet the population’s need for food in regions most at risk from reduced yields due to global warming," said Katherine Meacham-Hensold, scientific manager for the Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE) project at the University of Illinois.



Working under the auspices of this project, the research team has engineered a potato that not only withstands extreme weather conditions but also thrives in them, promising greater food security for many.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-promise-of-a-climate-ready-potato">The promise of a climate-ready potato</h2>



While studying the effects of global warming on crop yields, Meacham-Hensold and her team found that this new breed of potato could yield a 30% increase in tuber mass under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/once-in-a-century-heatwave-may-soon-happen-every-other-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heatwave</a> conditions compared to its conventional counterparts.



"The 30% increase in tuber mass observed in our field trials shows the promise of improving photosynthesis to enable climate-ready crops," she said.



The team operates under the banner of RIPE, an international research project that seeks to address global food scarcity by enhancing the ability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-malnutrition-new-satellite-can-monitor-nutrients-in-crops-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food crops</a> to convert the sun's energy into edible matter.



Since its inception in 2017, RIPE has garnered support from numerous entities such as the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, the Foundation for Food &amp; Agriculture Research, and the U.K. Foreign, Commonwealth &amp; Development Office.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-silent-enemy-photorespiration">The silent enemy: Photorespiration</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-defy-climate-change-through-acclimation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photorespiration</a> is a core issue that reduces crop yields. It refers to an energy-consuming process wherein the plant enzyme Rubisco, which is responsible for fixing carbon dioxide into organic molecules, reacts more readily with oxygen than with carbon dioxide when the ambient temperatures are high. 



This challenge is particularly pronounced in crops like potatoes, where high temperatures can significantly hinder growth and productivity. 



The reaction results in the production of a harmful byproduct called glycolate that, if not dealt with, can severely impair the plant's growth.



"Photorespiration is a large energy cost for the plant," explained Meacham-Hensold. "It takes away from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/local-food-production-is-undervalued-in-the-context-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food production</a> as energy is diverted to metabolizing the toxin. Our goal was to reduce the amount of wasted energy by bypassing the plant’s original photorespiratory pathway.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potatoes-that-can-thrive-in-a-heatwave">Potatoes that can thrive in a heatwave</h2>



By introducing two new genes into the potato's DNA, the team managed to improve photosynthetic efficiency.



These genes, glycolate dehydrogenase and malate synthase, help the plant metabolize the toxin in the chloroplast (the leaf compartment responsible for photosynthesis), eliminating the need for energy-draining transfer of the toxin to other parts of the cell.



This solution led to substantial growth gains in the test crops. The benefits of these modifications were further intensified under heatwave conditions, making these crops more resilient to the changing climate.



On a testing field in the year 2022, during a heatwave that consistently broke over 95°F (35°C), the modified potatoes yielded 30% more tubers than the control group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crops-that-resist-global-warming">Crops that resist global warming</h2>



Notably, the team's genetic engineering did not compromise the nutritional quality of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crop-yields-have-grown-steadily-over-the-last-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop yield</a>. 



"Food security is not just about the amount of calories that can be produced but we must also consider the quality of the food,” noted Don Ort, the Robert Emerson Professor of Plant Biology and Crop Sciences, and Deputy Director of the RIPE project.



While further multi-location field trials are needed to confirm the findings, the promising results in potatoes open the possibility of applying similar modifications to other tuber crops. These might include cassava, a staple food in some Sub-Saharan African countries that is expected to be heavily impacted by increasing global temperatures.



In conclusion, the research by scientists from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a> presents a ray of hope in the battle against climate change.



By creating crops that not only resist the impacts of global warming but also thrive under them, we are taking steps toward a future where every table has food, and no one is left hungry.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.17595" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Crops of the future: Potatoes that thrive in heatwaves

Potatoes could hold the key to addressing the challenges posed...

Clothing is more than just fabric and fashion -- our clothes tell stories about who we are as humans, where we've been, and how we've adapted over time. 



But when did our human ancestors first decide that we needed to cover up and wear clothes? 



This question has puzzled scientists for years. David Reed, associate curator of mammals at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, has been digging into this mystery by studying an unlikely source: lice.



Reed's work focuses on these tiny parasites that have been our unwelcome companions for thousands of years. 



"We wanted to find another method for pinpointing when humans might have first started wearing clothing," Reed said. 



"Because they are so well adapted to clothing, we know that body lice or clothing lice almost certainly didn’t exist until clothing came about in humans."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lousy-clues-hidden-in-our-hair">Lousy clues hidden in our hair</h2>



By examining the DNA of modern human lice, Reed and his team have calculated that we started wearing clothes about 170,000 years ago. 



This was a significant technological leap that allowed our ancestors to migrate out of Africa into colder climates. 



"It’s just interesting to think that humans were able to survive in Africa for hundreds of thousands of years without clothing and without body hair," Reed noted. 



"And that it wasn’t until they had clothing that modern humans were then moving out of Africa into other parts of the world."



This research, funded by the National Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF</a>), suggests that there was a substantial period when humans roamed the African continent without the warmth of body hair or the protection of garments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lice-humans-and-the-first-clothes">Lice, humans, and the first clothes</h2>



Lice are more than just a nuisance; they're evolutionary markers. Unlike many parasites, lice stick closely to their hosts over long periods. 



This host-parasite relationship allows scientists like Reed to trace changes in human history based on changes in lice populations. 



"We use these lice as a marker, if you will, as a marker of their host’s evolutionary history," he explained.



Interestingly, the study shows that we began wearing clothes around 70,000 years before venturing into colder regions -- a move that started about 100,000 years ago. 



This gap implies that clothing wasn't just a response to colder climates but perhaps a development that had other social or practical motivations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-got-cold-too">Early humans got cold, too</h2>



Back in 2003, geneticist Mark Stoneking from the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a> estimated that clothing use began around 107,000 years ago. 



Reed's study, however, includes new data and refined calculation methods, offering a different perspective. 



"The new result from this lice study is an unexpectedly early date for clothing, much older than the earliest solid archaeological evidence, but it makes sense," noted Ian Gilligan, a lecturer at <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Australian National University</a>.



The timing of clothing's emergence seems to align with the harsh conditions of the Ice Ages. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Last Ice Age</a> occurred about 120,000 years ago, but Gilligan suggests that humans started bundling up during the preceding Ice Age, around 180,000 years ago. 



With modern humans appearing about 200,000 years ago, this period was crucial for developing technologies that would ensure our survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-humans-needed-clothes-to-survive">First humans needed clothes to survive</h2>



Clothing wasn't the only advancement that helped our ancestors thrive. Reed pointed out that other innovations played a role. 



"The things that may have made us much more successful in that endeavor hundreds of thousands of years later were technologies like the controlled use of fire, the ability to use clothing, new hunting strategies, and new stone tools," he said.



One of the challenges in studying ancient clothing is the lack of physical evidence. Early garments wouldn't have survived millennia buried in the earth. 



Direct evidence like eyed needles only appeared about 40,000 years ago, and tools suitable for scraping animal hides date back to about 780,000 years ago. 



Reed's lice research fills in the gaps, offering a biological clue where archaeological evidence is scarce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lice-aren-t-often-seen-as-heroes">Lice aren't often seen as heroes</h2>



Collecting lice samples from around the world, including places like homeless shelters and health clinics, was essential for the study's success. 



These parasites provide a unique dataset that can be applied across various fields, from medicine to ecology. 



"It gives the opportunity to study host-switching and invading new hosts, which has everything to do with diseases that do the same thing, like emerging infectious diseases that affect humans," Reed explained.



"From an evolutionary standpoint, it’s interesting to learn about the evolutionary histories of a mammal and its parasite that are so intertwined, so interconnected over vast, long time scales. They just generate such interesting evolutionary questions," he continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



To sum it all up, by examining lice, Reed and his team found clues about when our early human ancestors first decided to wear clothes.



This was a pivotal moment in Earth history that allowed humans to migrate around the globe and adapt to new environments and extreme weather.



If our distant relatives hadn't figured out how to create and wear clothes roughly 170,000 years ago, chances are the species would not have survived, and we wouldn't be here today reading this article.



This fun but important research highlights the fact that humans have always been resourceful, even the very first ones. 



The incremental survival steps they took during the Last Ice Age led to the complex societies we have today. Whether that's a good thing, or a bad thing, will be left open for discussion on another day.



-----



Study co-authors were Melissa Toups, previously with UF and now at Indiana University, Andrew Kitchen, formerly with UF and presently at The Pennsylvania State University, and Jessica Light of Texas A&amp;M University. The researchers completed the five-year project with the help of Reed’s NSF Faculty Early Career Development Award, which is granted to researchers who exemplify the teacher-researcher role.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/28/1/29/984822" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a>.



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When did early humans first start wearing clothes, and why?

Clothing is more than just fabric and fashion -- our...

Primordial black holes are enigmatic remnants from the universe's infancy that hold the key to unlocking some of the biggest secrets in space.



These small yet powerful black holes, along with elusive dark matter, remain among the most perplexing mysteries in astrophysics. Though theorized for decades, they have yet to be directly observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-primordial-black-holes-and-dark-matter">Primordial black holes and dark matter</h2>



Conventionally, when we speak of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-triple-system-first-evidence-showing-gentle-black-hole-formation-v404-cygni/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole formation</a>, we visualize a massive dying star collapsing onto itself.



Nevertheless, the early universe's turbulent environment might have allowed many minuscule black holes to form, even before the birth of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/odd-galaxy-may-hold-clues-to-the-first-stars-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first stars</a>.



These black holes from the universe's dawn, known as primordial black holes (PBHs), might form mysterious dark matter, which makes up 85% of the total mass in the universe.



In a game-changing approach, new research proposes that we scale our search both up and down to uncover these elusive entities. 



This radical proposal suggests that signs of these primeval black holes could range from the enormously vast, such as empty planetary bodies, to the fantastically small, such as microscopic passageways in everyday materials on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hollow-primordial-black-holes">Hollow primordial black holes </h2>



The researchers imagine a captivating scenario where a trapped primordial black hole inside a large celestial object, such as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-impact-sparked-two-years-of-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> or a planet, would consume its liquid core, leaving it hollow. 



In a different scenario, a fleeting primordial black hole might leave behind straight tunnels large enough to be visible under a microscope, if it passes through a solid material, including substances present on Earth.



"The chances of finding these signatures are small, but searching for them would not require much resources and the potential payoff, the first evidence of a primordial black hole, would be immense," explained Dejan Stojkovic, PhD, professor of physics in the University of Buffalo<a href="https://arts-sciences.buffalo.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> College of Arts and Sciences</a> and the study's co-author.



Taking a new approach to this cosmic detective work, the researchers emphasize that conventional methods have failed in the quest to discover primordial black holes, sparking the need for innovative thinking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-in-the-universe">Clues in the universe</h2>



The experts proceeded to estimate how large a hollow celestial body could be without caving in on itself and the likelihood of a primordial black hole passing through an Earthly object.



The comforting conclusion was that such an occurrence would not be fatal to humans.



“Because of these long odds, we have focused on solid marks that have existed for thousands, millions or even billions of years," said study co-author De-Chang Dai, PhD, of <a href="https://www.ndhu.edu.tw/?Lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Dong Hwa University</a> and <a href="https://case.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Case Western Reserve University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trapped-primordial-black-holes">Trapped primordial black holes</h2>



When the universe was an infant, dense zones in the rapidly expanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-claims-our-universe-is-27-billion-years-old-double-the-current-age-estimate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmos</a> could have collapsed and formed PBHs.



While PBHs would have much less mass than stellar black holes born from dying stars, they would still be intensely concentrated. 



A PBH might become trapped within a planet, moon, or asteroid during or after its formation and absorb the liquid core of the object, leaving nothing but a hollow shell.



What happens next? The PBH might escape the object if it's hit by an asteroid. If the object survives, it could be a hollow celestial body, detectable via telescopes. 



By studying an object's orbit, scientists can deduce its mass and density.



"If the object has a liquid central core, then a captured PBH can absorb the liquid core, whose density is higher than the density of the outer solid layer," said Stojkovic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-everyday-items-as-black-hole-detectors">Everyday items as black hole detectors</h2>



On a smaller scale, PBHs might pass through objects without a liquid core, leaving behind a straight tunnel. Everyday items could, therefore, act as black hole detectors. 



The odds of a PBH passing through a human are minuscule. Even if it did, one probably wouldn't notice. 



Due to its small tension, a PBH would not tear apart human tissue. Furthermore, it moves so fast that it cannot release much of its kinetic energy during a collision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unresolved-mysteries-of-the-cosmos">Unresolved mysteries of the cosmos</h2>



Theoretical studies like these are vital as they challenge existing notions and open up new possibilities in the quest to decipher universal truths. 



The unresolved mysteries of the cosmos, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, continue to baffle us, thereby motivating us to explore new frameworks beyond the century-old theories of quantum mechanics and general relativity.



"The smartest people on the planet have been working on these problems for 80 years and have not solved them yet," stated Stojkovic. 



"We don’t need a straightforward extension of the existing models. We probably need a completely new framework altogether," he added.



 In the grand scheme of things, we've only just scratched the surface of the universe’s mysteries.



These potentially hollow celestial bodies and microscopic tunnels in everyday objects could be the breadcrumbs leading us to the holy grail of astrophysical discovery - primordial black holes.



-----



The research was supported by the National Science Foundation and National Science and Technology Council (Taiwan).



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2212686424002449" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics of the Dark Universe</a>.



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Tiny black holes from the early universe are zipping through our bodies

Primordial black holes are enigmatic remnants from the universe's infancy...

Scientists have made a fascinating discovery that rewrites our understanding of early American survival. For the first time, direct evidence shows that ancient Americans, specifically the Clovis people, relied heavily on mammoths and other large animals for food.



This new information about the diet of these early people not only indicates how they expanded across the Americas but also sheds light on the extinction of large, Ice Age animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-were-the-clovis-people">Who were the Clovis people?</h2>



The Clovis people arrived in North America around 13,000 years ago, likely via the Bering Land Bridge. 



Known for their unique, fluted projectile points, they weren’t just hunters but also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expert toolmakers</a> who used scrapers and blades for diverse survival needs.



Once considered the first inhabitants of the Americas, the Clovis people have now been relegated to a different status as older, pre-Clovis sites have been discovered. 



The decline of the Clovis culture, which is also linked to megafaunal extinctions, suggests that environmental changes and overhunting were involved.



However, their influence persisted and impacted later cultures, with their tools and strategies becoming foundational for subsequent Paleo-Indian populations in North America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-of-ancient-americans">Diet of ancient Americans</h2>



The study, recently featured in the journal Science Advances, used stable isotope analysis to understand the diet of a Clovis mother from a 13,000-year-old burial site in Montana. 



Before this, researchers inferred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homo-juluensis-new-human-species-vanished-just-fifty-thousand-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric</a> diets by studying tools or animal remains. 



Now, for the first time, scientists have been able to analyze the food consumed by the Clovis people directly, thus offering a more complete picture of their lives.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mammoth-hunt_ancient-humans_clovis-site_credit-Eric-Carlson_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mammoth-hunt_ancient-humans_clovis-site_credit-Eric-Carlson_1s.webp" alt="An artist’s reconstruction of Clovis life 13,000 years ago shows the Anzick-1 infant with his mother consuming mammoth meat near a hearth. Another individual crafts tools, including dart projectile points and atlatls. A mammoth butchery area is visible nearby. The scene is inspired by the La Prele mammoth site in Wyoming and set against the Montana landscape where the Anzick burial was discovered. Credit: Eric Carlson" class="wp-image-1952744"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An artist’s reconstruction of Clovis life 13,000 years ago shows the Anzick-1 infant with his mother consuming mammoth meat near a hearth. Another individual crafts tools, including dart projectile points and atlatls. A mammoth butchery area is visible nearby. The scene is inspired by the La Prele mammoth site in Wyoming and set against the Montana landscape where the Anzick burial was discovered. Credit: Eric Carlson</figcaption></figure>



The findings strongly suggest that the Clovis people specialized in hunting large mammals instead of focusing on smaller animals or plants. 



These ancient humans lived in North America when mammoths roamed across both northern Asia and the Americas. 



Mammoths, being abundant and migratory, provided a stable source of fat and protein for the humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-mammoths-in-clovis-expansion">Role of mammoths in Clovis expansion</h2>



"The focus on mammoths helps explain how Clovis people could spread throughout North America and into South America in just a few hundred years," explained co-lead author James Chatters from <a href="https://www.mcmaster.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McMaster University</a>.



This reliance on mammoths allowed the ancient Americans to expand rapidly, as they did not need to depend on local, unpredictable food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clovis-technology-and-mammoths">Clovis technology and mammoths</h2>



The study also revealed an interesting link between Clovis technology and their diet.



"What's striking to me is that this confirms a lot of data from other sites. For example, the animal parts left at Clovis sites are dominated by megafauna, and the projectile points are large, affixed to darts, which were efficient distance weapons," said Ben Potter, co-lead author and archaeology professor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (<a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UAF</a>).



This hunting technology was critical to the Clovis <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-early-humans-first-start-wearing-clothes-and-why-parasites-lice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifestyle</a>, enabling them to target massive, dangerous animals like mammoths from a safe distance. 



"Hunting mammoths provided a flexible way of life. It allowed the Clovis people to move into new areas without having to rely on smaller, localized game, which could vary significantly from one region to the next," Potter noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammoth-diet-of-ancient-americans">Mammoth diet of ancient Americans </h2>



The research team was able to estimate the Clovis diet by analyzing isotopic data from earlier studies of Anzick-1, an 18-month-old Clovis child. Adjustments for nursing helped researchers model the mother’s diet. 



"Isotopes provide a chemical fingerprint of a consumer's diet and can be compared with those from potential diet items to estimate the proportional contribution of different diet items," explained Mat Wooller, the director of the Alaska Stable Isotope facility at UAF.



The isotopic fingerprint revealed that mammoths made up around 40% of the diet of the Clovis mother, while other large animals, like elk and bison, made up the rest. 



Surprisingly, small mammals contributed very little to her diet. When researchers compared her diet with that of other carnivores from the same era, including American lions and wolves, they found it most closely resembled that of the scimitar cat (Homotherium serum), a specialist mammoth predator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-ice-age-extinctions">Implications for Ice Age extinctions</h2>



These findings also have implications for understanding the extinction of large animals from the Ice Age. Environmental changes reduced habitats for megafauna, which may have increased their vulnerability to human hunters.



"If the climate is changing in a way that reduces the suitable habitat for some of these megafauna, then it makes them potentially more susceptible to human predation. These people were very effective hunters," noted Potter.



"You had the combination of a highly sophisticated hunting culture - with skills honed over 10,000 years in Eurasia - meeting naïve populations of megafauna under environmental stress," said Chatters.



This mix of experienced hunters and vulnerable prey may have accelerated the extinction of animals like the mammoth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaboration-with-indigenous-communities">Collaboration with Indigenous communities</h2>



Another important aspect of this research on ancient Americans' reliance on mammoths is its emphasis on ethical collaboration with Indigenous communities. 



Potter and Chatters actively engaged with Native Americans in Montana and Wyoming to address their concerns and interests.



"It is important and ethical to consult with Indigenous peoples on questions relating to their heritage,” said the researchers.



The team worked closely with Shane Doyle, executive director of Yellowstone Peoples, who consulted tribal representatives throughout Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho. 



"The response has been one of appreciative consideration and inclusion," noted Doyle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptability-and-hunting-skills-of-early-americans">Adaptability and hunting skills of early Americans</h2>



"I congratulate the team for their astounding discovery about the lifeways of Clovis-era Native people and thank them for being tribally inclusive and respectful throughout their research," said Doyle. 



"This study reshapes our understanding of how Indigenous people across America thrived by hunting one of the most dangerous and dominant animals of the day, the mammoth."



This study not only highlights the incredible adaptability and hunting skills of the Clovis people but also stresses the importance of consulting with Indigenous communities in research involving their ancestors. 



It enriches our understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> shaped the environment and their role in the extinction of some of the most iconic creatures of the Ice Age.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr3814" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Mammoths fed and clothed early Americans, resulting in their extinction

Scientists have made a fascinating discovery that rewrites our understanding...

Next time you spot a Norway rat scurrying around in Central Europe, remember, it's not technically a local. Non-native species, often introduced by humans, are causing a significant decline in indigenous species, globally.



They have been implicated in a colossal 60 percent of worldwide species extinctions in recent years. A new study shows that some non-native species are now endangered in their homeland, and would benefit from conservation measures to protect them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effect-of-globalization-on-species-distribution">Effect of globalization on species distribution</h2>



This intriguing find comes from a collaboration of biologists from the University of Vienna and La Sapienza University in Rome. 



The study, published in the journal Conservation Letters, examines the paradoxical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> predicaments posed by non-native species.



Our increasingly interconnected world has caused many animal and plant species to migrate to new areas. These invasive species can endanger local species by introducing competition or new diseases. Interestingly, though, some of these invasive species are facing extinction in their native homes. 



This presents a compelling paradox, and prompts questions about whether we should protect or control non-native populations of endangered species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extent-of-the-paradox">Extent of the paradox</h2>



The recent study explores how widespread this conservation paradox is among non-native mammal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-we-failing-the-worlds-most-threatened-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. Worldwide, humans have introduced 230 mammal species to new regions.



"We were very surprised by this high number, as we assumed that invasive species are also common in their area of origin," noted study lead author Lisa Tedeschi from <a href="https://www.uniroma1.it/en/pagina-strutturale/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">La Sapienza University</a> and the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-saviors-foreign-territories">Unexpected saviors: Foreign territories</h2>



The study details interesting instances where invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> have flourished outside their native lands. 



For example, the crested macaque and wild rabbit both face severe declines in their original habitats whereas, in new territories, their numbers have remained stable or even increased. This finding implies that invasive populations could potentially rescue these endangered species from extinction in their homelands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-globalization-in-nature-conservation">Role of globalization in nature conservation</h2>



The study raises valid questions about the current methods for assessing global extinction risks. Often, non-native populations are not considered in these assessments. 



However, the researchers argue that including these populations could improve the threat assessment for some species. 



Franz Essl, a biodiversity researcher from the University of Vienna, states that this could decrease the global extinction risk for 22 percent of the analyzed species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protection-efforts-for-non-native-species">Protection efforts for non-native species</h2>



While recognizing the value of non-native populations in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-know-far-less-about-four-footed-animals-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> conservation, the study also warns of potential downsides. Diverting attention towards such populations could reduce protection efforts for native ranges which may be more threatened. 



Plus, these species could negatively impact the local flora and fauna of their new range. Franz Essl concludes that the future may see more species threatened in their native ranges but thriving in new areas.



Thus, the tricky task of striking a balance between the benefits and risks of non-native populations needs to be addressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-non-native-species-are-not-always-invasive">Non-native species are not always invasive </h2>



Non-native species are not always considered invasive. In some cases, they integrate into ecosystems without causing significant harm. 



For example, certain plants and animals introduced centuries ago have become naturalized, contributing to biodiversity and even serving as critical resources for local wildlife. The distinction between invasive and non-invasive alien species is vital for targeted conservation efforts.



Additionally, non-native species are often unintentionally introduced through human activities such as trade, tourism, and transportation. 



For instance, the zebra mussel, native to Eastern Europe, spread across North America by hitching rides on ships. Once such species are established, controlling them can be costly and challenging, often requiring coordinated international efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-types-of-non-native-species">Different types of non-native species</h2>



While many discussions focus on mammals, non-native species include a wide range of organisms such as birds, insects, and plants.



Non-native plants like kudzu in the United States can outcompete native flora, while insect species, such as the emerald ash borer, have devastated tree populations in North America. These examples highlight the need for comprehensive management strategies across multiple species and ecosystems.



Climate change further complicates the issue, as shifting temperatures and habitats can make regions more hospitable to different types of non-native species.



This can exacerbate their spread, introducing new risks to ecosystems that are already under stress. Understanding the interplay between climate change and non-native species is critical for future conservation policies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.13069" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Letters</a>.



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How non-native species are saving themselves from extinction

Next time you spot a Norway rat scurrying around in...

In ancient Rome, fisherman gladiators wielded nets and tridents to survive against heavily armed opponents. Today, a similar tactic is used by much smaller and more fascinating predators - slingshot spiders (Theridiosoma gemmosum).



These arachnids, also known as ray spiders, have evolved a unique hunting technique: instead of waiting for prey to fly into their web, they use it like a catapult to ensnare unsuspecting prey. 



But how do these spiders decide when to release their ballistic nets? Recent research suggests they might actually be listening for their next meal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slingshot-spider-arsenal">Slingshot spider arsenal</h2>



Slingshot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> create a flat web and then pull back the center and anchor it with a taught thread. This creates a cone-shaped web that can spring forwards when released.



Perched at the back tip of the cone, they wait for the right moment to release the thread and launch it forward to entangle their prey. Their remarkable strategy inspired researchers to investigate further, which revealed surprising details about how these spiders hunt.



"Slingshot spiders are really tiny, so they can be quite hard to find," said Sarah Han, from the <a href="https://www.uakron.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Akron</a>, USA.



Han spent hours searching riverbanks for the distinctive cone-shaped webs, nestled in crevices and on rocks. "It does take some time to develop the eye for them," she noted.



Once Han relocated the spiders to a laboratory, she provided twigs for web construction and collected mosquitoes to test their hunting behavior. By attaching mosquitoes to strips of black paper and filming the spiders' interactions with them, the team gained valuable insights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-for-dinner">Listening for dinner</h2>



The experiments showed that slingshot spiders launch their webs even before their prey make physical contact with the structure. Using high-speed cameras, Han observed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holy-grail-artificial-spider-silk-indistinguishable-from-natural-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> released their webs when flapping mosquitoes were nearby, despite there being no direct contact.



To probe further, Han introduced a tuning fork that replicated the frequency of mosquito wingbeats. The spiders still launched their webs, confirming that they were using sound as a means of detection when prey approached.



Han and her colleague Todd Blackledge suspect that sound-sensitive hairs on the spiders’ legs enable this extraordinary ability. By perceiving vibrations both in the web and the surrounding air, the spiders can determine when prey is within range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precision-and-speed">Precision and speed</h2>



Once the spiders release their webs, the action is astonishingly fast. Han meticulously tracked web trajectories and calculated their acceleration at an incredible 50G (504 m/s²).



The webs reach speeds of nearly 1 m/s, and capture prey within 38 milliseconds. This lightning-quick reaction leaves little chance for the insects to escape.



Moreover, the spiders showed a remarkable preference for targeting prey in front of their webs. They were successful in 76 percent of attempts when the insect was in front of the web, compared with only 29 percent when the prey was behind the web.



This precision suggests slingshot spiders might compare sound vibrations traveling through their webs to those reaching their legs via air. This mechanism helps them avoid misfires and ensures their hunting efforts are efficient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



Understanding the slingshot spider’s hunting strategy not only showcases nature’s ingenuity but also opens avenues for biomimetic applications. 



Could these precision-based mechanisms inspire new technologies in robotics or materials science? Time will tell, but for now, the slingshot spider remains a testament to evolution’s creativity and efficiency.



This research, published in the&nbsp;Journal of Experimental Biology, adds yet another chapter to the fascinating world of arachnid behavior. By listening for their prey, slingshot spiders are able to capture prey that are significantly larger than themselves. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proactive-behavior-of-slingshot-spiders">Proactive behavior of slingshot spiders</h2>



Slingshot spiders belong to the family&nbsp;Theridiosomatidae, a group of orb-weaving spiders known for their unique web structures and hunting methods. 



These spiders are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, preferring humid environments near water bodies where flying insects are abundant. 



Despite their small size, slingshot spiders demonstrate remarkable engineering skills by creating highly elastic webs capable of storing immense potential energy.



Unlike many other spider species, slingshot spiders’ webs are not passive traps. These webs require constant maintenance to ensure optimal elasticity and effectiveness.



The spiders frequently rebuild and adjust their webs, particularly after a successful hunt. This proactive behavior underscores their reliance on precision and efficiency in capturing prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nocturnal-activity-of-slingshot-spiders">Nocturnal activity of slingshot spiders</h2>



Interestingly, slingshot spiders exhibit a degree of nocturnal activity, relying on low light conditions to hunt more effectively. 



This behavior helps them avoid predators and increases the likelihood of encountering prey, which is often more active during the evening and night hours. Their ability to blend into their surroundings further aids their survival, as their small size and muted coloration make them difficult to spot.



The advanced sensory abilities of these small spiders also extend beyond hearing. Some studies suggest that they may detect changes in air pressure or subtle environmental cues, which allows them to anticipate prey movements.



The combination of sensory and mechanical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-man-web-slinging-technology-has-become-a-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptations</a> places slingshot spiders among the most specialized hunters in the arachnid world.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/227/23/jeb249237/363202/Directional-web-strikes-are-performed-by-ray" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>. 



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Slingshot spiders listen for the right moment to launch their webs

In ancient Rome, fisherman gladiators wielded nets and tridents to...

Ultra-processed&nbsp;food&nbsp;products&nbsp;are convenient to eat, and&nbsp;there is no denying that the combination of sugar, salt, and fat is extremely enticing.



These food items,&nbsp;from ready-to-eat meals to packaged snacks and soft drinks,&nbsp;not only appeal to our palates but also&nbsp;affect&nbsp;our brain's reward system, thus leading us to crave&nbsp;more.



Yet&nbsp;have we ever stopped&nbsp;to think about what this convenience costs us in terms of nutrition?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ultra-processed-foods-and-muscular-health">Ultra-processed foods and muscular health</h2>



A fresh perspective has emerged from recent research that casts a shadow over the consumption of ultra-processed foods.



The study revealed that people who consume a diet with high levels of such foods tend to store more fat inside their thigh muscles. This occurs regardless of our calorie intake or physical activity.



What&nbsp;makes this study unique is its approach in&nbsp;analyzing the role of ultra-processed foods in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecule-in-coffee-trigonelline-keeps-muscles-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle health</a>.



But why focus on thigh muscles? This choice isn't random. Higher amounts of intramuscular fat in the thigh could escalate the risk for knee osteoarthritis, which is a prevalent and costly global health issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quality-of-diet-quality-of-life">Quality of diet, quality of life</h2>



The researchers, from the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, San Francisco</a>, set out to assess the potential correlation between ultra-processed food intake and intramuscular fat in the thigh.



"This is the first imaging study looking into the relationship between MRI-based skeletal muscle quality and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-diet-quality-in-adolescence-linked-to-lifelong-health-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quality of diet</a>," said Dr. Zehra Akkaya, a researcher in the UCSF Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging.



The&nbsp;results&nbsp;were&nbsp;based&nbsp;on&nbsp;data&nbsp;from&nbsp;more than 600&nbsp;participants who had not developed osteoarthritis and were part of the Osteoarthritis Initiative. The participants had an average age of 60, and an average BMI of 27, which is generally considered obese.



The&nbsp;disturbing&nbsp;news,&nbsp;however,&nbsp;was&nbsp;that nearly&nbsp;40% of&nbsp;the food they had eaten within the past year was ultra-processed.



The researchers concluded that the more ultra-processed foods participants consumed, the more intramuscular fat they had in their thigh muscles, irrespective of their overall energy (caloric) intake or level of physical activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-onset-of-knee-osteoarthritis">The onset of knee osteoarthritis </h2>



Furthermore, an intriguing correlation was observed - the fat in thigh muscles might be linked to the onset and progression of osteoarthritis in the knees.



"Research from our group and others has previously shown that quantitative and functional decline in thigh muscles is potentially associated with onset and progression of knee osteoarthritis," said Dr. Akkaya. 



"On MRI images, this decline can be seen as fatty degeneration of the muscle, where streaks of fat replace muscle fibers."



With the muscle fibers in the thighs being replaced by fatty tissue, muscular weakening and degeneration may precede the onset of osteoarthritis. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-smarter-choices-for-better-health">Making smarter choices for better health</h2>



Until now, the approach to fighting osteoarthritis has focused on modifiable lifestyle factors such as sufficient exercise, a healthy diet, and obesity prevention.



But this study indicates that the consumption of ultra-processed foods may also be a modifiable factor in the prevention of this health condition.



"Since this condition is highly linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-the-epidemic-crisis-of-our-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a> and unhealthy lifestyle choices, there are potential avenues for lifestyle modification and disease management," noted Dr. Akkaya.



Understanding the relationship between ultra-processed food consumption and muscle composition can help us make better dietary choices, ultimately leading to enhanced musculoskeletal health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visceral-fat-and-chronic-diseases">Visceral fat and chronic diseases </h2>



The effects of consuming ultra-processed foods extend far beyond thigh muscles and the link to osteoarthritis.



A growing collection of evidence shows that these foods contribute significantly to the development of visceral fat - the fat stored around internal organs. Visceral fat is very closely linked with the prevalence of chronic diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweetener-erythritol-sugar-substitute-linked-to-blood-clots-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart disease</a>, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.



Subcutaneous fat, by contrast, is metabolically inactive and cannot induce an inflammatory response that increases systemic disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addictive-nature-of-ultra-processed-foods">Addictive nature of ultra-processed foods</h2>



Another issue is that ultra-processed foods affect the brain's reward system, making us resistant to reducing the consumption of these foods.



The addictive&nbsp;nature&nbsp;of the high sugar, salt, and fat content rewires&nbsp;our brains to crave more of these substances, leading&nbsp;to overindulgence and a vicious cycle of poor dietary choices.



The&nbsp;researchers stress that&nbsp;the reduction&nbsp;of these foods in our diet could help in improving muscle composition, as well as overall metabolic and cardiovascular health.



This broader perspective reinforces the&nbsp;need&nbsp;to&nbsp;lower&nbsp;dependence&nbsp;on ultra-processed foods and&nbsp;move&nbsp;toward nutrient-dense, whole foods that&nbsp;align with both musculoskeletal and systemic health.



The study was described in a <a href="https://press.rsna.org/timssnet/media/pressreleases/14_pr_target.cfm?ID=2536">press release</a> by the Radiological Society of North America.



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Eating ultra-processed foods makes your muscles weaker and more fragile

Ultra-processed&nbsp;food&nbsp;products&nbsp;are convenient to eat, and&nbsp;there is no denying that the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

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Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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