Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Every beat of your heart is not a random act, but the result of complex interplay between your brain and heart. But did you know there is a smaller brain – a mini nervous system tucked away in the heart that commands each pulsation?



It's a fascinating world within our body that scientists from Karolinska Institutet and Columbia University have started decoding.



Their research shows that the heart has a "mini-brain." This means the heart has its own nervous system that controls its heartbeat. Moreover, scientists say this system is much more complex than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mini-brain-of-the-heart">Mini-brain of the heart</h2>



Until now, people thought the heart was controlled solely by the autonomic nervous system. This system sends signals from the brain to control different functions. 



The heart's own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-conditions-linked-hidden-brain-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neural network</a> was seen as a simple structure and was believed to just relay brain signals. However, new research shows that the heart's nervous system plays a much more advanced role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-heart-s-complex-nervous-system">The heart's complex nervous system</h2>



"This 'little brain' has a key role in maintaining and controlling the heartbeat, similar to how the brain regulates rhythmic functions such as locomotion and breathing," explains Konstantinos Ampatzis, the principal researcher at Karolinska Institutet and leader of this research.



In the study, researchers discovered several types of neurons in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart</a>, each serving a unique purpose. 



One of these groups of neurons has pacemaker properties, meaning it helps regulate the heart's rhythm.



This discovery of the mini-brain challenges the existing understanding of how the heart beats, and suggests that the heart's nervous system is much more complex than previously believed.



The finding could have significant implications for how we treat heart conditions in the future, especially those related to rhythm, like arrhythmias.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-heart-s-mini-brain">Studying the heart's mini-brain</h2>



The researchers used zebrafish for their study. Zebrafish hearts are similar to human hearts in several ways, including heart rate and general function. This similarity makes zebrafish a good model for understanding the human heart.



"We were surprised to see how complex the nervous system within the heart is," said Ampatzis. He noted that understanding this system could lead to new insights into heart diseases. It might even help develop new treatments for conditions like arrhythmias.



To explore the heart's neural network, the researchers used several advanced techniques. These included single-cell RNA sequencing, anatomical studies, and electrophysiological methods. 



These tools helped them understand the composition, organization, and function of the heart's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-echoes-todays-activities-change-your-behavior-for-weeks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-possibilities-for-treatment">New possibilities for treatment</h2>



The next step for the researchers is to understand how the heart's mini-brain interacts with the actual brain. They aim to see how these systems work together under different conditions, such as exercise, stress, or disease.



"We will now continue to investigate how the heart’s brain interacts with the actual brain to regulate heart functions under different conditions such as exercise, stress, or disease," said Ampatzis. 



The experts hope to identify new therapeutic targets by studying disruptions in the heart's neural network.



The study was a collaboration with researchers from <a href="https://www.columbia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> in the U.S.A. It received funding from organizations like the Dr. Margaretha Nilsson Foundation, Erik and Edith Fernström Foundation, StratNeuro, and Karolinska Institutet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-heart-an-incredibly-efficient-organ">The heart: An incredibly efficient organ</h2>



The heart’s primary function is to pump blood throughout the body, thus delivering oxygen and nutrients while removing waste products.



The organ is incredibly efficient. It beats about 100,000 times a day, pumping around 2,3 fluid ounces (70 milliliters) of blood with each beat. This adds up to nearly 158 pints (75 liters) of blood every minute!



Despite its size, the heart is strong enough to pump blood throughout the entire body, reaching every cell, tissue, and organ.



The heart works harder when you stand up. Gravity causes blood to pool in the lower parts of your body, so the heart has to pump more forcefully to keep the blood flowing upward.



Interestingly, it only takes about 30 seconds for blood to travel from your heart to your toes and back again.



The heart can keep beating outside the body under the right conditions, which makes heart transplants possible. It can also adapt to physical activities. For example, an athlete’s heart can grow larger and pump blood more efficiently over time.



A better understanding of the interaction between the heart and brain could improve treatments for mental health conditions that are associated with heart problems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-54830-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Heart has its own 'mini-brain' that controls its beat

Every beat of your heart is not a random act,...

Elephants are renowned for their intelligence, which rivals that of other highly intelligent animals like primates and dolphins. They are also known for their rich social lives including strong family bonds. 



Now, a new study reveals that the personalities of elephants are more complex than we imagined.



The researchers found that male African elephants have distinct personalities; and adapt their behavior to fit the social context around them. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-traits-of-elephants">Personality traits of elephants</h2>



Before we jump into the findings, let's understand what researchers mean by "personality traits." 



In the animal kingdom, these traits reflect consistent individual differences in behavior, often referred to as "temperament." 



Prior studies have highlighted the unique personality types among elephants within controlled environments. But the best arena for understanding their social dynamics is in the wild.



This insight comes from Caitlin O’Connell-Rodwell and colleagues at Stanford University, <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>, and <a href="http://www.utopiascientific.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utopia Scientific</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-male-elephant-personalities">Male elephant personalities</h2>



The researchers observed 34 male African savannah elephants in Namibia’s Etosha National Park from 2007 to 2011.



The team identified five consistent behavioral traits: aggression, dominance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-shows-elephants-pranking-each-other-using-a-water-hose-as-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendly social interactions</a>, self-comforting, and calmness. 



However, unlike many other animals that demonstrate fixed personalities, these elephants proved to be quite adaptable. They changed their behavior depending on who was around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-dynamics-and-behavior">Social dynamics and behavior</h2>



For example, when younger males were nearby, older males performed more friendly and dominant actions. Yet, in the presence of a socially influential elephant, friendly behaviors decreased. 



The most dominant elephants, interestingly, exhibited aggression and friendliness equally - demonstrating the importance of balance in their social success.



The findings highlight the first known instance of adult male elephants displaying distinct personality traits in the wild. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dominant-personality-traits-across-elephants">Dominant personality traits across elephants</h2>



"Male elephants display five distinct character traits (affiliative, aggressive, dominant, anxious, and calm) consistently across time and context, and are also distinct from each other in how they display these five character traits," noted the study authors.



The experts also found that younger male elephants were more similar to each other in temperament, suggesting that unique personalities develop as these animals age. 



Older males tend to exhibit more individuality, which is likely a result of life experience shaping their behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptation-matters-for-social-success">Adaptation matters for social success</h2>



Elephants’ adaptability goes beyond just showing personality. The research emphasizes that social context is key to their behavior.



The ability to adjust behavior appears to make the most dominant elephants more successful socially. Elephants that balanced aggression with friendliness seemed to navigate their complex social environments better than those leaning towards either extreme.



Moreover, mixed-age groups appeared to benefit the overall well-being of these elephant societies. Younger elephants learn the ropes of social interaction from older, more dominant males, while the presence of diverse personalities helps foster a balanced, cooperative atmosphere. 



These findings demonstrate that maintaining these social dynamics in both wild and captive populations could greatly benefit elephant welfare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-varied-elephant-personalities">Implications of varied elephant personalities </h2>



Understanding elephant personalities isn't just an interesting fact - it has significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-have-drastically-declined-in-the-last-50-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">implications for conservation</a>. Managing elephants in both the wild and captivity could be improved by recognizing their distinct personalities and social adaptability.



Efforts to preserve elephants must consider these social dynamics to ensure these intelligent animals thrive.



Caitlin O’Connell-Rodwell and her team have deepened our understanding of these iconic animals. By demonstrating both consistency and flexibility in the personality of male elephants, the study points towards how much social adaptability contributes to their success. 



This nuanced insight from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> could help conservationists provide better environments for both wild and captive elephants, ensuring a more natural social experience for these majestic animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-african-male-elephants">More about African male elephants</h2>



African male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-will-soon-become-extinct-without-immediate-international-help/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a>, also known as bulls, live very different social lives compared to female elephants. Unlike female elephants, which stay in close-knit family groups led by a matriarch, male elephants leave their family units upon reaching adolescence. 



They then join loosely formed all-male groups or lead largely solitary lives. These all-male groups often function based on complex dominance hierarchies, where older males assert dominance over younger ones.



Male elephants are also known for their unique role in the ecosystem. Their behaviors, such as tree-pushing and digging for water, shape the landscape, creating waterholes and pathways that benefit other animals. These interactions highlight not only their physical power but also their ecological importance.



Musth is a natural condition in male elephants characterized by a significant increase in testosterone levels, leading to heightened aggression and dominance. This behavior plays an important role in helping males compete for mates during the breeding season.



Understanding the changes in their personalities can help improve the management and care of both wild and captive elephants, ensuring their well-being and safety.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0311780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Male African elephants develop distinct personality traits with age

Elephants are renowned for their intelligence, which rivals that of...

When thinking about the causes behind species extinctions, invasive species such as rats or snakes and the looming threat of climate change often come to mind. However, an unexpected contender tops the list of culprits: domestic cats.



Although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/free-ranging-cats-are-one-of-the-most-problematic-invasive-species/">cats</a> may appear as gentle and lovable companions, their impact on ecosystems worldwide reveals a far more destructive side. Beneath their charming exterior lies one of nature’s most efficient predators - stealthy, adaptable, and relentless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-predators-without-boundaries">Cats: Predators without boundaries</h2>



Whenever a cat moves with silent determination, it’s likely closing in on its next prey. With no specific preferences and an insatiable hunting instinct, both domestic and feral cats have driven the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/local-species-extinctions-are-often-underestimated/">extinction</a> of numerous species, earning the title of one of the most invasive predators on Earth.



According to a study published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/epdf/10.1073/pnas.1602480113" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> in July 2016, cats have contributed to the extinction of 63 species in modern times. Recent research has further illuminated the staggering breadth of their ecological impact.



A December 2023 study in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-42766-6#citeas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a> documented over 2,000 species hunted by cats.&nbsp;



Among these, 347 species are classified as threatened, near-threatened, or extinct by the <a href="https://iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN). Cats show no favoritism when it comes to prey, but birds appear to be their preferred target.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feral-cats-are-invasive-predators">Feral cats are invasive predators </h2>



In the United States alone, cats - both domestic and feral - are responsible for the deaths of approximately 2.4 billion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and 12.3 billion small mammals annually.&nbsp;



In Australia, feral cats kill over two billion native animals every year, including marsupials, reptiles, and ground-nesting birds.



Of the 2,084 species preyed upon by cats, birds top the list at 981, followed by 463 reptile species.&nbsp;



Iconic examples of their destructive influence include the Stephens Island wren, driven to extinction by a single housecat named Tibbles, and the now-extinct Hawaiian crow and New Zealand quail. Even today, feral cats remain a top threat to endangered species like the Galápagos petrel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-vulnerability-of-island-ecosystems">Unique vulnerability of island ecosystems</h2>



Cats wreak havoc in both mainland and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/island-bird-communities-are-changing-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">island ecosystems</a>, but the damage they cause varies significantly. Islands are especially vulnerable due to the lack of natural predators and the evolution of native species without defenses against invasive hunters.



Ground-nesting birds, slow-moving reptiles, and small mammals are particularly at risk on islands.&nbsp;



The introduction of cats, apex predators in such environments, has led to dramatic population declines and outright extinctions. Islands house three times more species of conservation concern linked to cats compared to mainland habitats.



On the mainland, the impact of cats is more nuanced. While larger landmasses often support native predators and competitors, cats still exploit fragmented habitats in urban and suburban areas.&nbsp;



They prey on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-play-a-vital-role-in-maintaining-forest-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small mammals</a> and birds in already stressed ecosystems, disrupting food chains and sometimes outcompeting native predators. However, the diversity of competitors and predators on the mainland somewhat mitigates their impact compared to the devastation seen on islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cats-are-such-effective-predators">Why cats are such effective predators</h2>



Cats' ability to spread and thrive as invasive predators stems from a combination of biological traits and human support:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-reproduction-nbsp">Rapid reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



A single female cat can produce up to 180 kittens in her lifetime under ideal conditions, allowing feral populations to grow quickly in areas with sufficient food and few predators.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-versatile-hunting-skills-nbsp">Versatile hunting skills&nbsp;</h3>



Equipped with sharp claws, keen night vision, acute hearing, and razor-sharp teeth, cats are adept at hunting a wide range of prey, including birds, rodents, reptiles, and insects.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-flexibility-nbsp">Dietary flexibility&nbsp;</h3>



Cats rely solely on animal protein, enabling them to survive on prey alone. Their evolutionary ability to extract water from their meat-based diet allows them to thrive in diverse environments.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-adaptability-nbsp">Behavioral adaptability&nbsp;</h3>



Cats employ stealth and ambush tactics to outwit prey, showing remarkable patience and persistence in hunting even elusive or cautious species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-support-nbsp">Human support&nbsp;</h3>



Unlike other invasive predators, cats benefit directly from humans. Feral cats often rely on food scraps, garbage, or intentional feeding, which shields them from natural selection pressures like starvation. Meanwhile, even well-fed domestic cats hunt for sport, exacerbating their ecological impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-the-invasive-cat-issue">Managing the invasive cat issue</h2>



Efforts to control cat populations, such as trap-neuter-return (TNR) programs, aim to reduce feral cat numbers without removing them entirely. However, cats’ adaptability and widespread presence across all continents except Antarctica mean their ecological impact persists.



Balancing the affection many people feel for cats with the urgent need to protect vulnerable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> is an ongoing challenge.&nbsp;



While cats remain beloved companions to millions, their role as one of the most destructive invasive species highlights the necessity for responsible management. Protecting ecosystems from their predation is not merely a choice - it’s an ecological imperative.



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Cats have become one of the world’s most invasive predators

When thinking about the causes behind species extinctions, invasive species...

The shoebill is a striking bird native to the wetlands of tropical East Africa, known for its unique appearance and remarkable presence. 



The bird gets its name from its large, shoe-shaped bill, which is both powerful and highly efficient for catching prey.



Shoebills can grow up to five feet tall, with a wingspan that adds to their commanding presence. Their gray feathers and intense, piercing eyes give them a prehistoric look.



However, behind the bird's striking exterior lies a story of survival and a call to action for its protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifestyle-of-the-shoebill">Lifestyle of the shoebill </h2>



The shoebill is more closely related to pelicans than to storks. It's the sole species in its family, Balaenicipitidae, and belongs to the order Pelecaniformes. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-birds-commit-to-caring-for-young-males-abandon-family-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> is a relic, dating back millions of years.



The shoebill produces a sound resembling machine gunfire -- a behavior known as bill-clattering -- typically during nesting or interactions with other shoebills.



While these birds appear solemn, their behaviors and hunting strategies reveal an intriguing mix of precision and persistence. 



They are solitary creatures, rarely seen in groups, and their habitats are under threat due to human activities, making them a conservation priority.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-pelecaniformes-the-basics">Understanding Pelecaniformes -- the basics</h2>



Pelecaniformes are a group of water-loving birds that include some of the most recognizable species, like pelicans, herons, egrets, ibises, and even the goofy-looking shoebill that we're discussing here. 



These birds are all about life near water -- whether it’s oceans, lakes, rivers, or marshes. They have a knack for fishing, thanks to their long beaks and specialized hunting techniques. 



For example, pelicans use their massive, stretchy pouches to scoop up fish, while herons patiently stalk their prey in shallow water, striking with lightning speed.



Pelecaniformes play an important role in ecosystems by controlling fish populations and acting as indicators of environmental health. 



If these birds are thriving, it’s usually a sign that the local waterways are in good shape. That's why learning that shoebills are struggling is not a good omen of things to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-on-the-menu">What’s on the menu?</h2>



Shoebills are known for their calm and deliberate movements, often standing motionless for long periods as they patiently stalk their prey.



For a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> with such a theatrical hunting style, you might expect its diet to be equally dramatic.



The shoebill is a highly specialized predator and doesn’t eat just anything it finds in the water. The bird's diet primarily consists of large aquatic prey -- particularly lungfish, catfish, and tilapia.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/shorebill_eating-prey_grassy-marsh_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/shorebill_eating-prey_grassy-marsh_1s.webp" alt="The shoebill is a carnivore through and through, specializing in hunting fish in the wetlands of central tropical Africa. Its favorite meals include large, slippery prey like lungfish, tilapia, and catfish. Shoebills will also snack on frogs, snakes, young crocodiles, and even baby turtles if the opportunity arises." class="wp-image-1952432"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The shoebill is a carnivore through and through, specializing in hunting fish in the wetlands of central tropical Africa. Its favorite meals include large, slippery prey like lungfish, tilapia, and catfish. Shoebills will also snack on frogs, snakes, young crocodiles, and even baby turtles if the opportunity arises.</figcaption></figure>



A study in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.2989/00306525.2014.977364" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of African Ornithology</a> found that catfish composes around 71 percent of the shoebill's meals.



The bird occasionally indulges in other creatures like eels, snakes, and even baby crocodiles - showcasing its adaptability and the rich biodiversity of its habitat.



Once a creature ventures too close, the shoebill lunges with incredible speed and precision, using its massive beak to seize and crush the prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surviving-with-limited-resources">Surviving with limited resources </h2>



While shoebills are generally solitary, they form monogamous pairs during the breeding season. 



Both parents are involved in raising the offspring, including incubating eggs and feeding chicks. Despite this cooperation, the success rate of raising chicks is relatively low.



Shoebills usually lay two eggs per breeding season, spaced a few days apart. However, their reproductive strategy often results in siblicide -- a phenomenon where the older, stronger chick dominates the weaker one.



This behavior ensures that limited resources, such as food, are focused on the chick most likely to survive to adulthood. If the first chick dies, the second egg serves as a backup.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-struggles-of-the-shoebill">Struggles of the shoebill</h2>



Despite its apparent strength, the shoebill faces significant threats. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) estimates its global population at just 5,000 to 8,000 individuals.



The bird is primarily threatened by habitat destruction, illegal hunting, and practices of the exotic pet trade. 



Conservation efforts are focused on protecting wetlands, minimizing human interference, and monitoring populations in the wild.



These initiatives strive to preserve East Africa's distinctive wildlife by balancing conservation with human development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-east-african-wildlife">Other East African wildlife</h2>



East Africa is a wildlife lover’s dream, bursting with some of the most iconic animals you can imagine. The incredible wildebeest migration unfolds each year, showcasing one of nature’s greatest spectacles. 



You’ll also encounter majestic elephants, elegant giraffes, swift cheetahs, and the powerful lions that reign over the savannas. 



Beyond the open plains, East Africa is home to lush forests and breathtaking landscapes that shelter unique species, such as the elusive snow leopard in the mountainous regions.



But the magic of East Africa’s wildlife doesn’t stop with the big mammals. The region is teeming with diverse birdlife, like the Shoebill, vibrant reptiles, and fascinating insects that add layers of beauty to its ecosystems. 



Along the stunning coastlines of Zanzibar and the Seychelles, you can explore vibrant coral reefs and swim with playful dolphins and graceful sea turtles. 



Conservation efforts are strong here, with numerous reserves and community projects dedicated to protecting these incredible creatures and their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-shoebill">Significance of the shoebill </h2>



The shoebill serves as a symbol of ecological balance, both in East Africa and around the world as it's reputation spreads. 



Its presence reflects the vitality of the wetlands it inhabits -- critical ecosystems that support both wildlife and humans.



Wetlands provide a range of invaluable services, such as water purification, flood control, and carbon storage. They are also biodiversity hotspots, supporting a multitude of plant and animal species. 



By protecting and conserving wetlands, we ensure the preservation of not only the shoebill but also the many other species that rely on these vital ecosystems.



Education plays a critical role in raising awareness about the importance of the shoebill and the broader environmental issues it faces.



Regardless of where you live, you can play a part in the shoebill’s survival. Promoting educational initiatives and sharing information about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-have-regional-accents-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird's</a> challenges are great ways to help. Together, we can create a future where the shoebill thrives.



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These human-sized birds are tough enough to eat baby crocodiles, yet they face extinction

The shoebill is a striking bird native to the wetlands...

Crop yields are at the heart of a pressing global issue: can we produce enough food to sustain an estimated 10 billion people by 2050?



Amid growing concerns of production stagnation, a new study has emerged, offering promising insights that bring a silver lining to an otherwise cloudy forecast.



The findings challenge the prevailing narrative of agricultural decline, instead highlighting a steady trajectory of growth over the last sixty years.



This revelation highlights the potential to address future food demands, provided we continue to innovate and adapt to evolving global challenges.



The research was conducted by scientists from the <a href="https://www.uidaho.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Idaho</a> and the World Bank.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-global-crop-yields">A new perspective on global crop yields</h2>



"Utilizing a comprehensive caloric-based index of production and yield for 144 crops, covering 98% of global agricultural land and food output, this paper reveals that, on an aggregate level, global yield growth - a vital indicator of agricultural productivity - has not slowed over the past six decades," wrote the study authors. 



The researchers noted that much of the growth in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-based-food-production-would-have-extremely-positive-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food production</a> over the past 60 years has been driven by technological advancements. This has led to the creation and widespread use of superior crop varieties.



In response to worrying claims of production growth leveling off, particularly in low and middle-income countries with surging populations, the authors provided a counter narrative.



"This steady growth equates to an annual increase of approximately 33 kilograms of wheat per hectare, highlighting continued productivity gains worldwide," said the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-challenges-for-food-security">Ongoing challenges for food security </h2>



However, the study is not all roses. The researchers caution that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-heat-is-threatening-wheat-and-the-global-food-supply/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global food supply</a>'s sustainability and affordability will continue to pose significant challenges for global food security.



It's essential to understand that observed slowdowns in specific crops or areas have been compensated by gains in others, reminding us that the issue is complex and multifaceted.



The concern becomes even more pertinent when considering the intensifying impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and the increased demand for food due to population growth and income increase. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crop-yields-and-a-sustainable-food-supply">Crop yields and a sustainable food supply</h2>



Even though the overall global yield growth hasn't slowed, these factors will weigh heavily on our ability to secure a stable, affordable, and sustainable food supply for everyone.



The study matters because it offers a new perspective and brings a glimmer of hope to an otherwise grim picture.



It's a stepping stone with valuable implications for scientists and policymakers alike because it allows a more nuanced view of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-cut-agricultural-productivity-by-21-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural productivity</a> across different countries and regions.



Still, the challenges are real and pressing. Therefore, it's essential to continue exploring, innovating, and implementing solutions that can ensure we sustainably feed the growing global population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crop-diversity-and-agricultural-stability">Crop diversity and agricultural stability</h2>



The study emphasizes the role of crop diversity in maintaining global yield growth. By cultivating a wide range of crops that are adapted to varying climates and conditions, farmers worldwide have contributed to a steady increase in agricultural productivity.



This diversity acts as a buffer against localized crop failures, and ensures a stable food supply, even in the face of climate-related challenges.



Regions that adopt diverse agricultural practices often display increased resilience to external pressures, such as fluctuating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-influences-us-weather-patterns-ai-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather patterns</a> and resource limitations.



This highlights the importance of continuing efforts to promote diverse agricultural systems, particularly in low and middle-income countries where populations are increasing rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-crop-productivity-with-sustainability">Balancing crop productivity with sustainability</h2>



While the findings reveal sustained growth in global crop yields, they also point to a critical challenge: balancing increased productivity with sustainable practices. 



The intensive cultivation of high-yielding crops often requires significant inputs such as fertilizers, water, and energy, which raises concerns about environmental degradation and resource depletion.



Innovative agricultural technologies and practices are key to enhancing crop yields without compromising ecological balance. 



Approaches like precision agriculture, soil health monitoring, and the development of drought-resistant crop varieties are pivotal in achieving this balance. 



These strategies are essential to meeting future food demands while protecting the planet's ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0313088" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Crop yields have grown steadily over the last six decades

Crop yields are at the heart of a pressing global...

According to a recent study, the first summer on record when nearly all of the Arctic's sea ice melts - an alarming milestone for the planet - could occur as soon as 2027.



For the first time, an international team of researchers, including climatologist Alexandra Jahn from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a> and Céline Heuzé from the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a> in Sweden, has used computer models to forecast when the Arctic Ocean might experience its first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-free-arctic-summers-could-be-the-new-normal-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice-free</a> day. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-an-ice-free-arctic-nbsp">Implications of an ice-free Arctic&nbsp;</h2>



An ice-free Arctic could have significant impacts on ecosystems and Earth's climate by altering weather patterns.



“The first ice-free day in the Arctic won’t change things dramatically,” said Jahn, associate professor in the Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences and fellow at CU Boulder’s Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research.&nbsp;



“But it will show that we've fundamentally altered one of the defining characteristics of the natural environment in the Arctic Ocean, which is that it is covered by sea ice and snow year-round, through greenhouse gas emissions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rapidly-warming-arctic">A rapidly warming Arctic</h2>



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperatures-increase-scientists-plan-slow-down-rising-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global temperatures</a> rise due to increasing greenhouse gas emissions, sea ice in the Arctic has been disappearing at an unprecedented rate of more than 12% each decade.



In September, the <a href="https://nsidc.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Snow and Ice Data Center</a> reported that this year’s Arctic sea ice minimum - the day with the least amount of frozen seawater - was among the lowest recorded since 1978.



At 1.65 million square miles (4.28 million square kilometers), this year’s minimum was above the all-time low observed in September 2012.&nbsp;



However, it still represents a significant decline compared to the average coverage of 6.85 million square kilometers between 1979 and 1992.



Scientists consider the Arctic to be ice-free when the ocean has less than one million square kilometers of ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focusing-on-the-first-ice-free-day">Focusing on the first ice-free day</h2>



Previous projections of Arctic sea ice have centered on predicting when the ocean will remain ice-free for an entire month. Jahn’s earlier research suggested that the first ice-free month is almost certain and could occur by the 2030s.



As this critical point approaches, Jahn became interested in pinpointing when the first summer day might occur that melts virtually all Arctic sea ice.



“Because the first ice-free day is likely to happen earlier than the first ice-free month, we want to be prepared. It’s also important to know what events could lead to the melting of all sea ice in the Arctic Ocean,” Heuzé said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-weather-and-early-melt">Extreme weather and early melt</h2>



Jahn and Heuzé estimated the timing of the first ice-free Arctic day using data from over 300 computer simulations.&nbsp;



They found that most models predict the first ice-free day could happen within nine to 20 years after 2023, regardless of human efforts to reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a>. The earliest ice-free day could occur within three years.



While this is an extreme scenario, it remains a possibility based on the models. In total, nine simulations indicated that an ice-free day could happen in three to six years.



The researchers discovered that a sequence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-does-climate-change-influence-extreme-weather-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a> could melt two million square kilometers or more of sea ice rapidly. An unusually warm fall could weaken the sea ice, followed by a warm Arctic winter and spring that prevent new ice from forming. 



If the Arctic experiences such extreme warming for three or more consecutive years, the first ice-free day could occur in late summer.



Such warm periods have already occurred. For example, in March 2022, areas of the Arctic were 50°F warmer than average, and regions near the North Pole were nearly melting. According to Heuzé, climate change will only increase the frequency and intensity of these weather events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-through-emission-reductions">Hope through emission reductions</h2>



Sea ice protects the Arctic by reflecting incoming sunlight back into space. With less reflective ice, darker ocean waters absorb more heat from the Sun, further increasing temperatures in the Arctic and globally.&nbsp;



Additionally, warming in the Arctic could alter wind and ocean current patterns, leading to more extreme weather events worldwide.



But there is also positive news: a significant reduction in emissions could delay the timeline for an ice-free Arctic and decrease the duration the ocean remains ice-free, according to the study.



“Any reductions in emissions would help preserve sea ice,” Jahn concluded.



The findings were published on December 3 in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54508-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>. Jahn will also present the results on December 9 at the <a href="https://www.agu.org/annual-meeting" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Geophysical Union annual meeting</a> in Washington D.C.



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First ice-free day in the Arctic may arrive in 2027

According to a recent study, the first summer on record...

International Cheetah Day, celebrated each year on December 4, is dedicated to raising awareness about the challenges faced by this iconic big cat.&nbsp;



With fewer than 7,000 individuals remaining in the wild, this day highlights the urgent need for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-conservation-can-help-stabilize-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> efforts to protect cheetahs.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-facts-about-cheetahs">Fascinating facts about cheetahs</h2>



Cheetahs are extraordinary animals. They are the fastest land mammals - capable of reaching speeds of up to 70 miles per hour in short bursts during a chase.&nbsp;



What’s even more impressive is their acceleration, going from 0 to 60 miles per hour in just a few seconds.&nbsp;



Their slim, aerodynamic bodies, long legs, and specialized spine allow them to achieve this remarkable speed, while their semi-retractable claws provide extra grip during sprints.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cheetah-vision">Cheetah vision</h3>



Beyond their speed, cheetahs have exceptional vision, enabling them to spot prey from distances of up to three miles.&nbsp;



The black "tear marks" running from their eyes to their mouths reduce glare from the sun, aiding in precision hunting during the day.&nbsp;



Interestingly, cheetahs rely more on sight than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cheetah-marking-sites-are-communication-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scent</a> when tracking prey, setting them apart from other big cats.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-lives">Social lives</h3>



Socially, male cheetahs often form coalitions, usually with their brothers, which help them defend territories and hunt cooperatively.



Females, on the other hand, are solitary and raise their cubs alone, teaching them crucial survival skills over the course of about 18 months.



Cheetahs also have unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/empathetic-humans-are-better-at-understanding-animal-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocalizations</a>, including chirps and purrs. To communicate with their cubs, mothers use a high-pitched meow-like call. Unlike other big cats, they do not roar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-faced-by-cheetahs">Threats faced by cheetahs</h2>



Cheetahs face a range of threats that have led to their classification as "Vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List - with some populations critically endangered.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat loss</h3>



One of the primary challenges is habitat loss and fragmentation, caused by expanding agriculture, urbanization, and infrastructure development.&nbsp;



As their natural habitats are converted into farmland or settlements, cheetahs lose vital hunting grounds and are often confined to smaller, isolated populations.&nbsp;



This fragmentation not only limits their movement but also reduces genetic diversity, making them more susceptible to diseases and environmental changes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-wildlife-conflict">Human-wildlife conflict</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reintroduced-cheetahs-may-cause-conflicts-with-nearby-farmers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human-wildlife conflict</a> is another significant threat. Cheetahs are frequently killed by farmers who see them as a danger to livestock, especially in areas where traditional grazing lands overlap with cheetah territories.&nbsp;



Overgrazing by livestock further compounds the issue by depleting the natural prey base for cheetahs. These prey populations are also declining due to poaching and habitat degradation, leaving cheetahs with fewer options for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illegal-wildlife-trade">Illegal wildlife trade</h3>



Illegal wildlife trade poses a dire risk to cheetahs, particularly to cubs, which are often captured to meet the demand for exotic pets. This practice not only disrupts family groups but also leads to high mortality rates among trafficked cubs.&nbsp;



Furthermore, roadkills and other accidental human impacts, such as collisions with vehicles in areas where roads intersect habitats, take a toll on their numbers.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-nbsp">Climate change&nbsp;</h3>



Adding to these challenges is climate change, which alters ecosystems and disrupts prey availability and water sources. In some regions, invasive plant species further degrade their habitats, reducing the quality of the ecosystems cheetahs depend on.&nbsp;



Taken together, these threats create a complex web of challenges that endanger the survival of this iconic species. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protected-areas-are-highly-effective-for-wildlife-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation efforts</a> aim to address these issues, but the cheetah’s future remains uncertain without sustained and coordinated global action.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-international-cheetah-day-nbsp">International Cheetah Day&nbsp;</h2>



International Cheetah Day was initiated by the Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF). It is tied to the birth date of an orphaned cheetah cub named Khayam, rescued by CCF’s founder, Dr. Laurie Marker.&nbsp;



The day emphasizes education, community involvement, and spreading awareness to ensure a future for cheetahs in the wild. People worldwide are encouraged to participate by learning about cheetahs and supporting conservation initiatives.



For over six decades, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has been working to protect nature in more than 100 countries. To support the conservation efforts of WWF, you can symbolically <a href="https://gifts.worldwildlife.org/gift-center/gifts/Species-Adoptions/Cheetah?sc=AWY1800OQ18352A01716RX&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gclid=CjwKCAiAmMC6BhA6EiwAdN5iLc4M6DO7TxYQTu60VtHJhdSs_JnBIREMzgpGYyUiO2Jlz7DdNV9fLxoCbmEQAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adopt a cheetah</a>. 



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International Cheetah Day 2024: Racing against extinction 

International Cheetah Day, celebrated each year on December 4, is...

Astronomers have stumbled upon a cosmic treasure trove by using NASA's Hubble Space Telescope in an unexpected way. They've discovered over a thousand photos of asteroids that had been hiding in Hubble images, unnoticed until now.



Lead researcher Pablo García Martín from the Autonomous University of Madrid delved into 19 years' worth of Hubble images to find these elusive space rocks.



Working alongside co-author Bruno Merín of the European Space Astronomy Centre, they found 1,701 asteroid trails, with 1,031 of them being entirely new discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-ugc-12158-has-a-surprise-guest">Galaxy UGC 12158 has a surprise guest</h2>



One of the standout images features the barred spiral galaxy UGC 12158, which got an unexpected visitor -- a photobombing asteroid passing by during the telescope's exposure.



Barred spiral galaxies like UGC 12158 are fascinating. They have swirling arms that extend from a central bar-shaped region. 



These bars are more than just cosmic eye candy; they play a crucial role in channeling gas toward the galaxy's center, fueling the birth of new stars.



These bar structures aren't permanent fixtures. Astronomers believe they slowly disperse over time, and the galaxies eventually evolve into regular spirals. It's like watching a cosmic dance that changes steps over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-s-hunt-for-hidden-asteroids">Hubble's hunt for hidden asteroids</h2>



But how did these asteroids go unnoticed for so long? The answer lies in the sheer volume of data. 



Hubble has been snapping pictures of the universe for decades, amassing a vast archive that's simply too massive for astronomers to sift through alone.



Enter the citizen scientists -- over 11,000 volunteers from around the globe who teamed up with the researchers. 



Their mission? To comb through nearly 20 years of images in search of asteroid trails.



"We are getting deeper into seeing the smaller population of main belt asteroids. We were surprised with seeing such a large number of candidate objects," García Martín remarked.



"There was some hint of this population existing, but now we are confirming it with a random asteroid population sample obtained using the whole Hubble archive. This is important for providing insights into the evolutionary models of our solar system," he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-we-care-about-asteroids">Why do we care about asteroids?</h2>



You might be wondering, why all the fuss about asteroids? These space rocks are like time capsules, holding clues about the early solar system.



The abundance of small asteroids supports the idea that they are fragments from larger bodies that collided and broke apart over billions of years. 



It's like piecing together a cosmic jigsaw puzzle, helping us understand how planets and other celestial bodies formed.



This finding challenges an alternative theory suggesting that these smaller fragments formed as such billions of years ago. Understanding which theory holds true can significantly impact our knowledge of solar system evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-science-asteroids-and-hubble">Citizen science, asteroids, and Hubble</h2>



The Hubble Asteroid Hunter project, launched in 2019, was a true team effort. 



Volunteers provided nearly 2 million identifications, which were then used to train a machine learning algorithm to find even more asteroids.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Galaxy-UGC-12158_asteroid-photobomb_annotated-hubble-image_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Galaxy-UGC-12158_asteroid-photobomb_annotated-hubble-image_NASA_1s.webp" alt="Annotated image of barred spiral galaxy UGC 12158 against the black background of space, with compass arrows, a scale bar, and color key for reference. The galaxy has a pinwheel shape made up of bright blue stars wound around a yellow-white hub of central stars. The galaxy is tilted face-on to our view from Earth. A slightly S-shaped white line across the top is the Hubble image of an asteroid streaking across Hubble’s view. Indicated filters are expressed as: “F475W” in blue, “F606W” in green, and “F814W” in red. At the bottom left corner is a scale bar labelled “60,000 light-years” over “30 arcseconds.” At the bottom right corner, the “E” compass arrow points towards the 2 o’clock position. The “N” compass arrow points towards the 5 o’clock position. Credit: NASA/ESA" class="wp-image-1952414"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Annotated image of barred spiral galaxy UGC 12158 against the black background of space, with compass arrows, a scale bar, and color key for reference. The galaxy has a pinwheel shape made up of bright blue stars wound around a yellow-white hub of central stars. A slightly S-shaped white line across the top is the Hubble image of an asteroid streaking across Hubble’s view. Credit: NASA/ESA</figcaption></figure>



"Asteroid positions change with time, and therefore you cannot find them just by entering coordinates, because at different times, they might not be there," explained Merín. 



"As astronomers we don't have time to go looking through all the asteroid images. So we got the idea to collaborate with over 10,000 citizen-science volunteers to peruse the huge Hubble archives."



This innovative approach may be effectively applied to other datasets in the future, showcasing the power of combining human effort with technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-hubble-finds-asteroids">How Hubble finds asteroids</h2>



Hubble's unique position orbiting Earth allows it to capture images of asteroids as they move. Unlike stars, which stay relatively fixed, asteroids can appear as streaks or trails in photographs.



From Earth-based telescopes, an asteroid leaves a straight streak across the picture. But in Hubble's images, they appear as curved trails due to the telescope's motion around Earth.



By analyzing these trails, scientists can determine how far away the asteroids are and estimate their orbits. 



The faintest asteroids they found are incredibly dim -- about one forty-millionth the brightness of the faintest star visible to the naked eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snapshot-of-the-universe">Snapshot of the universe</h2>



The image of UGC 12158 holds more than just an asteroid. It also contains a supernova -- an exploding star -- called SN 2004ef. 



This bright blue point near the galaxy's center was first spotted by two British amateur astronomers in September 2004.



At around 400 million light-years away, this supernova offers a glimpse into the life cycles of stars far beyond our own galaxy. It's a reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe.



The team plans to study these newly discovered asteroids further, looking into their orbits and properties like rotation periods.



However, since many of these images were taken years ago, tracking the asteroids now isn't possible. But the data still provides valuable insights that can be used to refine models of asteroid behavior and solar system evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



This discovery highlights how much can be achieved when professionals and the public join forces.



By tapping into the enthusiasm and curiosity of citizen scientists, the team was able to process an enormous amount of data that would have been overwhelming otherwise.



"This is important for providing insights into the evolutionary models of our solar system," García Martín emphasized.



Understanding asteroids isn't just an academic exercise. These objects can tell us about the building blocks of planets, including our own Earth.



They can also help us learn about potential hazards. After all, asteroids have impacted Earth before, and knowing more about them can help us prepare.



The full study was published in the&nbsp;journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.aanda.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



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Hubble gets photobombed by an asteroid in beautiful image of a spiral galaxy

Astronomers have stumbled upon a cosmic treasure trove by using...

Scientists have discovered a potential new member of the human family tree. This mysterious species, named Homo juluensis, includes the enigmatic Denisovans -- our ancient human relatives whose stories are still being unraveled.



The study was led by Professor Christopher J. Bae from the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa's Department of Anthropology in the College of Social Sciences. 



Professor Bae has dedicated over three decades to studying our ancestors across Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-diversity-of-hominin-fossils">Unexpected diversity of hominin fossils </h2>



The research ties up some loose ends about different types of human-like species that shared the Earth with us in the late Middle and early Late Pleistocene, roughly from 300,000 to 50,000 years ago.



"When compared to other paleontological disciplines, the field of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Quaternary</a> (~300,000–~50,000 years BP) paleoanthropology has lagged far behind in synthesizing the degree of morphological variability in the hominin fossil record," wrote the study authors.



"It is now evident that morphological diversity among Late Quaternary hominin fossils from eastern Asia (East and Southeast Asia all-inclusive) is greater than we (and most researchers) expected."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-of-homo-juluensis">Life of Homo juluensis</h2>



Homo juluensis thrived about 300,000 years ago in eastern Asia, then quickly disappeared about 50,000 years ago. 



These early humans hunted wild horses in small groups, crafted stone tools, and likely processed animal hides for survival.



The proposal suggests that the new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-hotspots-may-skew-our-view-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> encompasses the elusive Denisovans. 



This population is known primarily through DNA evidence from scarce physical remains discovered in Siberia, with a few fossils found in Tibet and Laos.



The connection is largely based on similarities between jaw and teeth fossils from various sites. Though the link requires more thorough research, the possibility itself is an exciting discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-denisovans">What are Denisovans?</h2>



Denisovans are one of humanity's ancient cousins, and they’re as mysterious as they are fascinating. 



Scientists discovered their existence in 2010 when a finger bone and some teeth were found in Denisova Cave, Siberia. These remains didn’t look like anything we’d seen before, so researchers turned to DNA analysis. 



The results showed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/denisovans-drawing-symbolic-imagery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Denisovans</a> were a distinct group of hominins, closely related to both Neanderthals and modern humans. 



Unlike Neanderthals, though, we don’t have a clear picture of what they looked like since we’ve only found a few fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Despite the limited evidence, Denisovans left a big mark on modern humans. 



Genetic studies reveal that people in Asia, Oceania, and Indigenous populations in the Americas carry small percentages of Denisovan DNA. 



This genetic legacy includes some handy adaptations, like a gene that helps people living at high altitudes -- such as Tibetans -- cope with low oxygen levels. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/homo-juluensis_human-ancestor_timeline_Primary-Late-Quaternary_credit-Nature_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/homo-juluensis_human-ancestor_timeline_Primary-Late-Quaternary_credit-Nature_1s.webp" alt="Homo juluensis and the Primary Late Quaternary (~300,000–~50,000 years BP) hominin taxa from eastern Asia. Credit: Nature Communications" class="wp-image-1952411"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Homo juluensis and the Primary Late Quaternary (~300,000–~50,000 years BP) hominin taxa from eastern Asia. Credit: Nature Communications</figcaption></figure>



This suggests <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-denisovan-species-humans-lived-undisturbed-tibetan-plateau-160000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Denisovans</a> lived in diverse environments and possibly thrived in mountainous regions like the Himalayas.



Advanced technologies like DNA analysis have even helped uncover their interactions with Neanderthals and early modern humans. Evidence suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-how-neanderthal-dna-got-diluted-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these groups interbred</a>, sharing not just DNA but also survival skills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-they-found-homo-juluensis">How they found Homo juluensis</h2>



This significant breakthrough from <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hawaiʻi</a> can be largely attributed to a new method of organizing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-humans-get-big-brains-fossil-teeth-reveal-new-clues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil evidence</a>. 



Professor Bae compares this method to arranging an old family photo album where some pictures are unclear or challenging to identify.



The researchers established a clearer system for sorting and understanding these ancient human fossils from China, Korea, Japan, and southeast Asia.



"This study clarifies a hominin fossil record that has tended to include anything that cannot easily be assigned to Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens," Bae said.



"Although we started this project several years ago, we did not expect to be able to propose a new hominin (human ancestor) species and then to be able to organize the hominin fossils from Asia into different groups. Ultimately, this should help with science communication."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-our-view-of-human-evolution">Changes in our view of human evolution </h2>



The work conducted by Professor Bae and his team helps to unravel the intricate story of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tam-pa-ling-cave-reveals-early-human-presence-in-asia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human evolution in Asia</a>.



By meticulously analyzing and organizing the hominin fossils from this region, they have contributed to a clearer and more comprehensive understanding of our evolutionary history. 



"Thanks largely to a growing hominin fossil record, the field of Late Quaternary eastern Asian paleoanthropology is in the midst of significant and important change that is contributing tremendously to how we view and are refining these evolutionary models," noted the researchers.



The study not only benefits scientists but also engages and informs the broader public, promoting better science communication and enabling a deeper appreciation for our shared human heritage.



The research makes the picture of our ancient ancestors a bit clearer by filling some of the gaps in our knowledge. The findings are published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53918-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-homo-juluensis-discovery">Implications of Homo juluensis discovery</h2>



The recent discovery of Homo juluensis and the taxonomic assignment of this potential new human species have opened up promising avenues for future research.



The classification of Homo juluensis offers a new lens through which scientists can investigate the origins, migrations, and interconnections of ancient human populations in Asia.



This finding paves the way for further exploration and encourages researchers to examine the rich tapestry of human evolution, uncovering more clues about our complex ancestry and the fascinating dynamics that shaped us as a species.



Image Credit: Nature Communications 



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New human species discovered that seems to have vanished just 50,000 years ago

Scientists have discovered a potential new member of the human...

Addiction to drugs often begins with an unpleasant experience. Consuming addictive substances, whether by injection, inhalation, or ingestion, frequently involves aversive cues like a bitter taste, pain, or discomfort.



Understanding these initial reactions can shed light on who might develop an addiction. This is the focus of a recent study led by Dr. Travis Moschak, a biologist at the University of Texas at El Paso.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aversive-cues-matter-in-drug-addiction">Aversive cues matter in drug addiction</h2>



"Aversive cues matter from the very first exposure," said Dr. Moschak. Until now, researchers lacked an effective animal model to study the role of aversive cues in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zapping-the-brain-with-ultrasound-waves-may-cure-drug-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">addiction</a>. 



To fill this gap, Moschak’s team developed a novel method for rats to self-administer cocaine while experiencing aversive stimuli from the start.



The study on drugs revealed that initial reactions to these aversive cues can significantly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-discovery-offers-hope-for-tackling-opioid-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">susceptibility to addiction</a>, offering critical insights into why some individuals develop substance use disorders while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-on-cocaine">Rats on cocaine</h2>



The researchers worked with nearly 30 rats that had the opportunity to self-administer small doses of cocaine.



Each dose was preceded by a small, bitter-tasting dose of quinine, a substance that is both safe for rats and commonly found in tonic water. 



This pairing mimicked the mixed positive-negative experience of drug consumption and addiction. The goal was to observe whether the bitter taste deterred the rats from seeking cocaine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-distinct-patterns-of-behavior">Three distinct patterns of behavior</h2>



After exposure to this paired experience, the rats’ responses fell into three distinct patterns:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strong-negative-reaction">Strong negative reaction</h3>



These rats reacted strongly to the quinine and stopped self-administering cocaine entirely. This behavior mirrors individuals who try a drug, have a negative experience, and avoid it thereafter.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowly-increasing-cocaine-use">Slowly increasing cocaine use</h3>



This group began with low cocaine consumption but gradually increased their intake. The aversive cue wasn’t strong enough to deter them.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-over-consumed-cocaine-at-first">Over-consumed cocaine at first</h3>



Surprisingly, this third group started with heavy cocaine consumption but later leveled off. 



"The third group surprised us," noted Dr. Moschak. "They seemed to have over-indulged and the combination of too much cocaine and too much aversive stimulus took over."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-drug-addiction-research">Implications for drug addiction research</h2>



Previous studies have examined the role of aversive cues in drug use, but this current research is unique in pairing these cues with drug use from the very first instance.



"These findings could help explain why some individuals develop substance use disorders while others do not, and future studies may uncover genetic or neural differences that could guide targeted treatments," said Dr. Moschak.



This study highlights the complexity of addiction and the interplay between positive and negative experiences during drug use. By identifying patterns of behavior, researchers can better understand the factors that contribute to addiction vulnerability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-better-ways-to-treat-addiction">Finding better ways to treat addiction </h2>



Moving forward, Dr. Moschak’s team plans to examine the brain regions active during drug use with an aversive cue.



The researchers aim to uncover genetic or biological differences that may explain the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dopamine-and-serotonin-shape-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">varying responses</a> among the rats.



"This is a fascinating study with great potential to help us better understand and address drug abuse in people," said Dr. Robert Kirken, dean of the College of Science. "With further study, this research could lead to better ways to prevent and treat addiction."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethical-considerations-and-research-support">Ethical considerations and research support</h2>



At the conclusion of the study, the rats were safely taken off cocaine and were unharmed.



The cocaine used in the study was obtained through the National Institute on Drug Abuse’s Drug Supply Program, which provides restricted substances for research purposes. 



The team ensured the rats’ well-being throughout the experiment, demonstrating a commitment to ethical research practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-drug-addiction">Understanding drug addiction</h2>



This study from the <a href="https://www.utep.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at El Paso</a> opens new avenues for understanding addiction by focusing on the role of aversive cues from the very first exposure to drugs. 



By investigating the behavioral, genetic, and neural factors underlying addiction, researchers hope to pave the way for more effective prevention and treatment strategies. 



Future research will also explore deeper connections between aversive stimuli, drug-seeking behavior, and long-term addiction risks. 



As Dr. Moschak’s findings show, even the smallest details - like a bitter taste - can significantly influence the path to addiction.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376871624014005?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drug and Alcohol Dependence</a>.



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Rats on cocaine: Investigating the cues that lead to drug addiction

Addiction to drugs often begins with an unpleasant experience. Consuming...

Lions are synonymous with the majestic landscapes of Africa. Yet, worryingly, their numbers in Uganda are critically low. Meanwhile, hyenas appear to be holding their ground.



This data emerges from a comprehensive survey conducted across four major protected areas in Uganda, a first in nearly two decades. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lions-and-hyenas-in-uganda">Lions and hyenas in Uganda</h2>



Researchers conducted this survey across six major protected areas, including Murchison Falls (4,000 km² or 1,544 mi²) and the Queen Elizabeth Conservation Area (2,400 km² or 926 mi²).



Over 100 conservation stakeholders collaborated on this effort, using advanced spatial capture-recapture methods to establish a new benchmark for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honoring-the-king-of-the-jungle-on-world-lion-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife monitoring</a> in Africa.



These findings are already shaping Uganda’s conservation policies, forming the backbone of the nation’s Strategic Action Plan for Large Carnivore Conservation (2023–2033). 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sign-of-ecological-shifts">A sign of ecological shifts</h2>



The data highlights urgent challenges for certain species. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-and-female-lions-have-different-social-strategies-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lion populations</a> in Queen Elizabeth and Kidepo Valley National Parks have decreased to critically low levels, with fewer than 40 and 20 individuals recorded, respectively.



In contrast, spotted hyenas are thriving. Murchison Falls boasts Africa’s highest recorded density of hyenas, with 45 individuals per 100 km². This imbalance may signal ecological shifts.



"We could be seeing a release in hyena numbers as populations of lions decline," noted Dr. Alexander Braczkowski, lead researcher from <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a>.



Yet, the park’s ability to sustain high densities of all three species in the past - lions, hyenas, and leopards - shows its unique conservation value.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uganda-s-final-refuge-for-lions">Uganda’s final refuge for lions</h2>



The survey highlights Murchison Falls National Park as Uganda’s last critical lion stronghold. 



The park supports a lion density of seven per 100 km² (18.2 per 100 mi²), with an estimated 240 individuals in a 3,233 km² (1,249 mi²) sampling area. This contrasts sharply with the dire conditions in Queen Elizabeth and Kidepo Valley National Parks.



However, even Murchison Falls faces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">significant threats</a>. Wire snare poaching and oil exploration put immense pressure on its ecosystems. Despite these challenges, targeted conservation efforts have preserved the park’s biodiversity thus far.



Anti-poaching measures by the Uganda Conservation Foundation, Snares to Wares, and ICON play a vital role in safeguarding these iconic carnivores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leopard-numbers-in-uganda">Leopard numbers in Uganda </h2>



Leopards show varied densities across Uganda, with Murchison Falls again standing out. 



The park records some of Africa’s highest leopard densities, at 14 individuals per 100 km² (36.26 per 100 mi²). This resilience underscores the importance of anti-poaching efforts and collaborative conservation strategies.



Many areas still have few leopards. Habitat loss, poaching, and conflicts with people put them at risk. However, targeted actions can help. Working together, governments and organizations have been key to protecting leopards and their homes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-needed-for-uganda-s-carnivores">Action needed for Uganda’s carnivores</h2>



This survey highlights the threats to Uganda’s lions and other carnivores, including poaching, habitat loss, and human-wildlife conflict. Lions are especially at risk, with declining numbers in protected areas. Even the presence of the resilient hyenas may indicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-tracking-is-crucial-for-preserving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological problems</a>.



"This survey highlights both the challenges and successes of Uganda’s carnivore conservation," Dr. Braczkowski noted. 



The collaborative nature of this effort shows what’s possible when governments, NGOs, and local communities work together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-path-forward-for-conservation">Path forward for conservation</h2>



The study shows the importance of using new methods to monitor wildlife. Involving locals can help conservationists protect Uganda’s carnivores more effectively.



The Strategic Action Plan for Large Carnivore Conservation (2023–2033) provides a roadmap for addressing these challenges. 



However, its success will depend on sustained efforts and resources. Protecting Uganda’s iconic species requires not just policy but action at every level - from local communities to international organizations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-lions-in-uganda">More about lions in Uganda</h2>



Lions in Uganda are strong animals that keep nature balanced. Sadly, there are fewer lions now because of habitat loss, poaching, and human activity. 



Most lions live in protected areas such as Murchison Falls and Queen Elizabeth National Parks. They hunt animals like buffalo and antelope and are important for the ecosystem.



Conflict with people is a big challenge for lions. When lions attack livestock near park borders, local communities often retaliate by killing them. To help, conservation groups are creating buffer zones and supporting programs that compensate farmers for livestock losses, thus promoting peaceful coexistence.



Community education also plays a vital role. Teaching locals about the ecological importance of lions helps reduce hostilities. Despite the challenges, ongoing efforts give hope for their survival. 



By combining scientific research, community involvement, and strong policy action, Uganda can secure a future for its lion populations.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=Southern+University+of+Science+and+Technology&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern University of Science and Technology</a> (China) and <a href="https://nau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a> also contributed to the research.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235198942400516X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Conservation</a>.



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Lion numbers have reached a critical low in Uganda

Lions are synonymous with the majestic landscapes of Africa. Yet,...

In the serene, upper reaches of a Minnesota watershed, the water’s chemical makeup holds a startling secret. The streams are so saturated with dissolved nitrous oxide that hydrologist Zhongjie Yu of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign compares the water to fizzy soda from a can.



"If you grab water from the local streams and measure nitrous oxide, the saturation is tens of thousands of times higher than it would be at equilibrium with the atmosphere. In other words, it's super-saturated with this potent greenhouse gas. Naturally, you wonder where it’s coming from," explained Yu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-annual-nitrous-oxide-in-streams">Annual nitrous oxide in streams</h2>



<a href="https://nres.illinois.edu/directory/zjyu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yu</a> and his collaborators explored this phenomenon in two recent studies, and revealed that emissions from such streams stem primarily from nitrification in agricultural soils.



Their findings suggest that these stream emissions contribute significantly more to the annual nitrous oxide budget than previously estimated.



"The conventional method to estimate nitrous oxide emissions is to measure from a chamber placed on the soil surface, but focusing entirely on soil doesn’t give you any idea of nitrous oxide emissions from downwind or downstream ecosystems that receive excess nitrogen lost from agricultural systems," explained Yu.



"When we traced those downstream <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distress-signals-earths-water-cycle-is-becoming-more-erratic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>, we found they could potentially account for one-third of the total nitrous oxide emissions within the Corn Belt region."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenhouse-gas-with-hidden-pathways">Greenhouse gas with hidden pathways</h2>



Nitrous oxide is a powerful greenhouse gas that traps heat almost 300 times more effectively than carbon dioxide. It’s closely linked to agriculture, where nitrogen-based fertilizers are used to help crops grow.



The problem is that these fertilizers don’t just stay in the soil - they can release nitrous oxide into the air or leach into nearby streams.



Soil microbes play a role too, turning excess nitrogen into nitrous oxide. Sometimes the gas escapes right away, but at other times it gets trapped in the soil or dissolves in water, only to be released later during rain or snowmelt. It’s a hidden cycle that impacts both the atmosphere and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lakes-are-warming-toward-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waterways</a>.



Despite the acknowledged role of agriculture, researchers have historically overlooked nitrous oxide emissions from streams and rivers connected to these systems. 



"By better understanding these indirect stream emissions, we can refine estimates of direct soil emissions," said Yu. "In our case, the high contribution of stream emissions suggests that soil emissions may have been overestimated in current regional nitrous oxide budgets."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-sources-of-nitrous-oxide">Tracing the sources of nitrous oxide</h2>



Yu’s team studied nitrogen and oxygen isotopes in nitrous oxide to find its source. They found that up to half of the nitrous oxide in the streams came from agricultural soil nitrification.



The researchers also identified “hot spots” and “hot moments” of emissions, particularly when the application of ammonia-based fertilizers is followed by heavy rainfall.



"Our results suggest that stream emissions are highest in areas with strong connections between streams and surrounding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-temperatures-may-rise-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soils</a>, particularly during wetter periods," Yu noted. 



"Large storm events, snowmelt, and installations of tile drains, which enhance soil-stream connections, contribute disproportionately to high nitrous oxide emissions via streams. These areas and events should be prioritized for targeted mitigation efforts," expanded Yu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-research-is-needed">Broader research is needed</h2>



Using air samples collected from a 328-foot-tall tower in Minnesota, Yu’s team found that at least 35% of regional nitrous oxide emissions originated from streams. 



Although this estimate came from a single tower, the findings highlight the need for broader research across a network of sites. Yu and his collaborators plan to expand their studies to a seven-tower network, aiming to capture a more comprehensive picture.



"When discussing agricultural nitrous oxide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-records-shatter-2024-set-to-be-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>, the focus is often on fertilizer nitrogen inputs or low nitrogen use efficiency in agricultural systems," Yu explained. 



"The results from our studies broaden this understanding by revealing the potential importance of indirect emission pathways via streams and rivers."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigation-strategies-for-a-complex-problem">Mitigation strategies for a complex problem</h2>



Addressing this issue requires integrated approaches that consider both nitrogen and water cycles. 



Practices such as planting winter cover crops in rainfed fields or adopting controlled irrigation could reduce nitrogen leaching and emissions. However, not all strategies are without risk.



"On the other hand, practices that promote enhanced soil water infiltration - generally regarded as beneficial for preventing water-logged soil conditions - could inadvertently increase downstream nitrous oxide emissions," Yu cautioned. "This highlights the need for holistic management approaches."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-nitrous-oxide-in-streams">Future research on nitrous oxide in streams</h2>



The two studies, “Hydrologic connectivity regulates riverine N2O sources and dynamics,” and “Isotopic constraints on nitrous oxide emissions from the U.S. Corn Belt,” highlight the importance of revisiting nitrous oxide budgets.



By including overlooked emission pathways from streams, policymakers and land managers can craft more effective mitigation strategies. 



Yu’s findings not only challenge existing models but also emphasize the critical role of interdisciplinary research in tackling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-greenhouse-gas-detecting-satellite-is-now-in-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.



As scientists continue to uncover the hidden pathways of nitrous oxide, a more comprehensive understanding of agricultural emissions could pave the way for innovative solutions. These efforts promise not only to improve water quality but also to combat the escalating challenge of climate change.



The studies are published in the journals <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.est.4c01285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Publications</a> and <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL109623" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Streams near farms are 'fizzy' with nitrous oxide

In the serene, upper reaches of a Minnesota watershed, the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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