Around 3.7 billion years ago, early molecules on the young Earth learned to copy themselves. Over time, this simple act of replication - with help from chance and chemistry - blossomed into the plants and animals we see today.



Charles Darwin later explained how slow, steady change - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-intelligence-did-not-evolve-due-to-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> acting on isolated populations - could split one species into two.



Yet in the plant kingdom, an alternative route to diversity exists. It is called autopolyploidy, and a new theoretical study of a woodland herb known as beetleweed (Galax urceolata) shows just how powerful - and complicated - this mechanism can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-mistake-sparks-new-species">DNA mistake sparks new species</h2>



Most organisms, humans included, are diploid: they carry two complete sets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chromosomes</a>, one from each parent.



In autopolyploidy, something unusual happens during the production of sperm or egg cells. Instead of halving the chromosome count, the cell leaves the full complement intact. When such a gamete meets another, the resulting embryo inherits double - or even triple - the usual DNA.



The newcomer may still manage to reproduce with its diploid relatives, but the hybrid offspring generally fare poorly. That mismatch in fertility often pushes the polyploid lineage to mate among its own kind, launching an instant reproductive barrier and, effectively, a new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-types-one-plant">Three types, one plant</h2>



For decades botanists assumed these chromosome copycats were evolutionary curiosities - unlikely to survive, let alone thrive, alongside their diploid parents.



Field surveys later overturned that view: autopolyploids are widespread and resilient. 



The lingering mystery was whether several cytotypes - diploids, triploids, tetraploids - could share the same patch of ground without one eventually eliminating the others through sheer competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-herb-with-three-identities">Mountain herb with three identities</h2>



Beetleweed, a low evergreen that carpets portions of the Appalachian Mountains, provided the perfect natural experiment. Earlier surveys revealed that some stands contain plants with two, three, or four chromosome sets.



“Through my fieldwork, I discovered that a single population could have a mishmash of cytotypes, which fascinated me,” remarked Shelly Gaynor, lead author of the new study that she&nbsp;completed at the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.



“With this study, I set out to understand if these populations could persist over time. Would one cytotype eventually outcompete the others, or could all three cytotypes persist?”



Answering that required tools beyond the transect tape and microscope. Gaynor and colleagues designed a mathematical framework that treats population change as inherently noisy - subject to random swings in birth, death, climate, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-transforming-pollen-science-and-health-planning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollen</a> flow.



Their model tracks how diploids, triploids, and autotetraploids form, spread, and interact when gene flow keeps tossing new genetic combinations into the mix.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chromosomes-coexist-in-plants">Chromosomes coexist in plants</h2>



Two ingredients emerged as critical for long-term coexistence. First, self-fertilization rates matter. 



The more often a plant can pollinate itself, the easier it becomes for an odd-ploidy seedling to find a genetically compatible mate - sometimes its own flowers - without relying on scarce partners.



Second, partial reproductive isolation improves balance. If crosses between cytotypes rarely succeed, each form can maintain its numbers without being swamped by unfit hybrids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-favors-the-strongest">Stress favors the strongest</h2>



Environmental hardship then tilts the playing field. Under harsh conditions and intense competition, the model predicts that autotetraploids gain an edge over their diploid ancestors.



Extra chromosome copies may buffer them against stress, confer broader ecological tolerance or fuel faster adaptation. Triploids, by contrast, often act as a genetic bridge, forming when diploids and tetraploids interbreed but typically suffer lower fertility.



Because Gaynor’s simulations embed both demographic randomness and shifting weather, they reveal outcomes conventional equations might miss.



Sometimes all three cytotypes coexist for centuries; other times one prevails after a long stalemate. The key lesson is that stochasticity - the roll of the “evolutionary dice” - cannot be ignored when forecasting which lineages persist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-beyond-one-plant">Impacts beyond one plant</h2>



Although the work focuses on a single Appalachia endemic plant, its reach extends far. Crop breeders deliberately create autopolyploids to enlarge fruit, boost resilience, or break <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crop-disease-experts-discover-how-bacteria-hijack-plant-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a> cycles.



Understanding how mixed-ploidy fields behave over time could help manage gene flow between improved varieties and their wild relatives.



Conservationists, meanwhile, wrestle with how best to protect rare plants that harbor multiple chromosome races within the same reserve; the new model offers a scaffold for predicting viability under climate stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-evolutionary-assumptions">Challenging evolutionary assumptions</h2>



The research also nudges evolutionary theory. Instant speciation via autopolyploidy sits at one extreme of the continuum of reproductive isolation. 



By showing that such sudden splits can persist even when parents and offspring rub shoulders, the beetleweed study challenges the tidy notion that new species must always occupy distinct niches or territories to survive.



Gaynor’s findings do not close the book on polyploid dynamics; rather, they open new chapters. 



Field experiments that monitor marked plants through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>, fires, and pathogen outbreaks could test whether tetraploids really weather adversity better.



Genetic analyses might uncover which genes, duplicated in extra copies, underpin that resilience. And satellite imagery paired with ecological modelling may reveal whether mixed-cytotype populations correlate with particular microclimates across the Appalachian ridges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-evolutionary-pathways">New evolutionary pathways </h2>



For now, the humble beetleweed stands as living proof that life need not wait for continental drift or glacial cycles to carve new evolutionary pathways.



Sometimes a single cellular hiccup - one missed step in plant chromosome division - is enough to spin off an enduring lineage. 



In the grand narrative that began with rogue molecules self-assembling eons ago, autopolyploidy writes its own rapid-fire chapter, reminding us that the processes that generate biodiversity can be as swift as they are surprising.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/734411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Naturalist</a>.



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Plant chromosome glitch fast-tracks evolution

Around 3.7 billion years ago, early molecules on the young Earth learned to copy themselves. Over time, this simple act of replication - with help from chance and chemistry - blossomed into the plants and animals we see today. Charles Darwin later explained how slow, steady change - natural selection acting on isolated populations - could split one species into two. Yet in the plant kingdom, an alternative route to diversity exists. It is called autopolyploidy, and a new theoretical study of a woodland herb known as...

Every year, thousands of people worldwide succumb to the lethal amounts of cobra venom injected into their bodies through bites. 



These victims, often living in rural or impoverished regions with limited access to medical care, face not only the immediate threat of death but also the harrowing aftermath of envenomation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-cobra-venom">Impacts of cobra venom</h2>



Insidiously, the venom causes necrosis, the death of body tissue and cells, which often leads to severe complications, including the necessity for amputation of the affected limbs. 



This devastating process not only inflicts excruciating pain but also results in long-term disability and a significant reduction in quality of life.



Current treatments - mostly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-antivenom-to-heal-all-snakebites-is-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antivenoms</a> - barely tackle the necrotic effects of the venom and come with a heavy price tag, making them inaccessible to many who need them the most.



The financial burden and limited effectiveness of these treatments highlight the urgent need for more affordable and efficient solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groundbreaking-cobra-venom-treatment">Groundbreaking cobra venom treatment</h2>



Scientists based out of Australia, Canada, Costa Rica, and the UK have made a game-changing breakthrough that could drastically reduce the life-threatening and devastating effects of cobra venom.



"Snakebites kill an estimated 138,000 people each year, with another 400,000 people experiencing long-term morbidity," noted the study authors.



"Most of these envenomings occur in sub-Saharan Africa and South or Southeast Asia and disproportionately affect young adults and children."



At the heart of their discovery is a widely available and affordable blood thinner known as heparin.



“Our discovery could drastically reduce the terrible injuries from necrosis caused by cobra bites – and it might also slow the venom, which could improve survival rates," noted study co-author Professor Greg Neely from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-heparin-to-combat-cobra-venom">Using heparin to combat cobra venom</h2>



The researchers utilized CRISPR gene-editing technology to identify ways to block cobra venom. They successfully 'repurposed' heparin and related drugs, demonstrating their effectiveness in stopping the necrosis caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venomous-snake-bites-are-more-likely-to-occur-in-warmer-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cobra bite</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venomous-snake-bites-are-more-likely-to-occur-in-warmer-weather/">s</a>.



“Heparin is inexpensive, ubiquitous, and a World Health Organization-listed Essential Medicine," said study lead author Tian Du, a PhD student at the University of Sydney.



"After successful human trials, it could be rolled out relatively quickly to become a cheap, safe, and effective drug for treating cobra bites.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-the-discovery">The science behind the discovery</h2>



The researchers used CRISPR to identify the human genes that cobra <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-developed-an-immunity-to-cobra-venom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a> needs to initiate necrosis, killing the flesh around the bite.



One of venom's targets are enzymes necessary for producing molecules heparan and heparin, which many human and animal cells produce. 



The venom can bind to both molecules due to their similar structure, and the scientists used this information to create an antidote capable of stopping necrosis in human cells and mice.



The newly discovered heparinoid drugs function differently from traditional antivenoms. They act as a "decoy," flooding the bite site with heparin sulfate or related heparinoid molecules.



The decoy molecules bind to and neutralize the venom toxins responsible for tissue damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-implications-of-the-discovery">Global implications of the discovery</h2>



Professor Nicholas Casewell, head of the Centre for Snakebite Research &amp; Interventions at Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, emphasized that snakebites disproportionately impact people in poor, rural communities. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakebites-caused-over-63000-deaths-in-2019/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Snakebites</a> remain the deadliest of the neglected tropical diseases, with its burden landing overwhelmingly on rural communities in low- and middle-income countries."



Cobra bites, which inject lethal amounts of cobra venom, are one of the leading causes of snakebite incidents in some regions of India and Africa.



The World Health Organization has categorized snakebite as a priority in its program for tackling neglected tropical diseases, aiming to halve the global burden of snakebite by 2030. This new discovery can be instrumental in achieving that goal.



“That target is just five years away now. We hope that the new cobra antidote we found can assist in the global fight to reduce death and injury from snakebite in some of the world’s poorest communities," said Professor Neely.



This research is just one more example of how scientists worldwide are striving to use modern scientific techniques to combat age-old global health challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.adk4802" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Translational Medicine</a>.



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Cobra venom just became less deadly, thanks to a common drug

Every year, thousands of people worldwide succumb to the lethal...

Welcome to an era where deepfakes - artificial images created through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lawless-superintelligence-zero-evidence-ai-control-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a> (AI) - are becoming increasingly easy to produce.



These AI-generated creations, with their potential to heavily distort reality and propagate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-deception-is-a-growing-issue-that-we-cannot-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI deception</a>, are a major concern.



But what if we could expose these deceptive images simply by analyzing the reflections in a person’s eyes?



This is the central focus of research that was recently presented at the Royal Astronomical Society’s <a href="http://www.apple.com/uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Astronomy Meeting</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-eyes-betray-deepfakes">Human eyes betray deepfakes </h2>



The study argues that human eyes can betray deepfakes, and the technique to expose them aligns fascinatingly with the methods astronomers employ to decode images of galaxies.



The primary crux of this research, led by MSc student Adejumoke Owolabi from the <a href="https://www.hull.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hull</a>, lies in analyzing the reflection in an individual's eyes.



According to the study, if the reflections in both eyes are identical, this suggests the image is real. On the other hand, if the eye reflections are not matching, this discrepancy is a strong indicator of a deepfake.



Kevin Pimbblet is a professor of astrophysics and the director of the Centre of Excellence for Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, and Modeling at the University of Hull.



"The reflections in the eyeballs are consistent for the real person, but incorrect (from a physics point of view) for the fake person," explained Professor Pimbblet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter-of-deepfakes">Dark matter of deepfakes</h2>



To dig deeper into this matter, the researchers scrutinized the reflections of light on the eyeballs in both real and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distinguishing-ai-generated-images-of-people-from-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI-generated</a> images.



For their analysis, the team adopted the techniques typically used in astronomy to quantify these reflections and ensured they were consistent between the left and right eyes.



Interestingly, the researchers noticed that fake images often failed to maintain consistency in the reflections between each eye. On the other hand, real images generally exhibited identical reflections in both eyes.



"To measure the shapes of galaxies, we analyze whether they're centrally compact, whether they're symmetric, and how smooth they are," said Professor Pimbblet.



"We analyze the light distribution. We detect the reflections in an automated way and run their morphological features through the CAS [concentration, asymmetry, smoothness] and Gini indices to compare similarity between left and right eyeballs. The findings show that deepfakes have some differences between the pair."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-the-light">The science behind the light</h2>



The Gini coefficient, a measurement typically used to assess light distribution in the image of a galaxy, was also utilized in this deepfake detection study. 



Images of galaxies are arranged in ascending order of flux, and these results are compared against what would be anticipated form a perfectly even flux distribution.



However, the CAS parameters, originally developed by astronomers to measure light distribution of galaxies and determine their morphology, was found ineffective as a predictor of fake eyes.



Professor Pimbblet cautions that this method is not foolproof. He said that it's important to note that this is not a silver bullet for detecting fake images. 



"There are false positives and false negatives; it's not going to get everything. But this method provides us with a basis, a plan of attack, in the arms race to detect deepfakes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-threat-of-deepfakes">Growing threat of deepfakes</h2>



Deepfakes are not just a technological curiosity; they pose a significant threat to society. 



These AI-generated fake videos and images can be used to spread misinformation, create fraudulent identities, and even manipulate public opinion. 



As the technology behind these forgeries becomes more sophisticated, it becomes increasingly challenging to distinguish between real and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-some-people-fascinated-by-fake-news/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fake content</a>. This has serious implications for trust in media, security, and personal privacy.



Governments and organizations worldwide are beginning to recognize the potential dangers. Efforts are being made to develop more sophisticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deepfake-detection-inauthentic-content-lacks-telltale-signs-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deepfake detection</a> tools and to establish legal frameworks to address the misuse of this technology.



However, the battle against these convincing fakes is ongoing, and as detection methods improve, so too do the techniques used to create them. 



The combination of astronomical techniques and AI highlights a multidisciplinary approach to solving the problem, underscoring the need for innovative and collaborative solutions.



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Eye reflections: The key to detecting deepfakes

Welcome to an era where deepfakes - artificial images created...

3d,Rendering,Of,Enceladus,,A,Moon,Of,Saturn

Europa, a moon of Jupiter, and Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, have subsurface oceans beneath their ice crusts that may harbor life.



A NASA experiment suggests that if these oceans harbor life, the organic molecules (e.g., amino acids, nucleic acids) that could signal life might survive just beneath the surface ice despite harsh radiation. 



This discovery means that robotic landers sent to these moons wouldn’t need to dig very deep to find signs of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sampling-the-subsurface-oceans-nbsp">Sampling the subsurface oceans&nbsp;</h2>



“Based on our experiments, the ‘safe’ sampling depth for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-building-blocks-may-have-formed-near-newborn-stars-and-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amino acids</a> on Europa is almost eight inches (around 20 centimeters) at high latitudes of the trailing hemisphere (hemisphere opposite to the direction of Europa’s motion around Jupiter) in the area where the surface hasn’t been disturbed much by meteorite impacts,” said lead author Alexander Pavlov, an astronomer at NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a> in Greenbelt, Maryland. 



Pavlov noted that subsurface sampling is not required for the detection of amino acids on Enceladus – these molecules will survive radiolysis (breakdown by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radiation-made-earth-uninhabitable-for-much-longer-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiation</a>) at any location on the Enceladus surface less than a tenth of an inch (under a few millimeters) from the surface.



These nearly airless moons are inhospitable on their surfaces due to high radiation from their host planet’s magnetic fields and cosmic events like exploding stars.&nbsp;



However, their subsurface oceans, heated by tidal forces, could potentially harbor life if they also contain the necessary elements and compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radiolysis-experiments-nbsp">Radiolysis experiments&nbsp;</h2>



The research team conducted radiolysis experiments using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-asteroids-were-formed-in-cold-regions-of-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amino acids</a> as representatives of potential biomolecules. 



Amino acids can be created by both biological and non-biological processes, but finding specific types on these moons could be a sign of life since they are used to build proteins by terrestrial life.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/proteins-identified-that-allowed-vertebrates-to-evolve/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proteins</a> are crucial for life as they form enzymes that speed up or regulate chemical reactions and create structures. 



The team tested the survival of amino acids under conditions simulating those on Europa and Enceladus by mixing them with ice and exposing them to gamma-rays.



The experts also tested amino acids within dead bacteria and mixed with silicate dust to simulate possible mixing with meteorite material.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rates-of-amino-acid-destruction-nbsp">Rates of amino acid destruction&nbsp;</h2>



The experiments helped determine the rates at which amino acids break down under radiation, called radiolysis constants. 



This data allowed the team to calculate the depths and locations on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-on-europa-co2-discovery-by-webb-increases-the-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a> and Enceladus where amino acids would survive radiolytic destruction.



The experiments showed that amino acids degraded faster when mixed with dust but slower when originating from microorganisms.&nbsp;



“Slow rates of amino acid destruction in biological samples under Europa and Enceladus-like surface conditions bolster the case for future life-detection measurements by Europa and Enceladus lander missions,” said Pavlov.&nbsp;



“Our results indicate that the rates of potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-building-block-of-life-called-tna-created-in-the-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic biomolecules</a>’ degradation in silica-rich regions on both Europa and Enceladus are higher than in pure ice and, thus, possible future missions to Europa and Enceladus should be cautious in sampling silica-rich locations on both icy moons.”



The research team suggests that bacterial cellular material may protect amino acids from reactive compounds produced by radiation, potentially explaining why amino acids survived longer in bacteria.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-missions-aiming-to-detect-life">Future missions aiming to detect life</h2>



The study provides crucial data for future missions aiming to detect life on these icy moons, indicating that amino acids and other biomolecules could be found at relatively shallow depths.



Understanding the survival rates of amino acids and other biomolecules under the conditions found on Europa and Enceladus is critical for astrobiology and the search for life on these moons. 



If life exists in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-jupiter-moon-europa-deep-ocean-shifting-icy-shell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">subsurface oceans </a>of these moons, the organic molecules essential for life processes might be transported to the surface by geological activity such as geysers or through the slow churning of the ice crust.&nbsp;



These findings are vital as they inform the design and implementation of future missions that will search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-detects-signs-of-life-on-exoplanet-k2-18b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signs of life</a> on these moons. The goal is to ensure that the sampling methods are sufficient to detect the preserved organic molecules that could indicate biological processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-where-to-search-for-life">Predicting where to search for life</h2>



Additionally, the study's findings underscore the importance of selecting the right locations for sampling. Areas with less silica-rich dust might be more promising for detecting preserved amino acids.&nbsp;



As missions to these moons are planned and developed, such insights will guide scientists in making informed decisions about where to focus their efforts to maximize the chances of discovering signs of life.



The research contributes to a broader understanding of how life might survive in extreme environments beyond Earth.&nbsp;



By studying the preservation of organic molecules under harsh conditions, scientists can better predict where to look for life in our solar system and beyond, expanding our knowledge of life's potential distribution in the universe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ast.2023.0123" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrobiology</a>.



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Life could survive near the surface of Europa and Enceladus

Europa, a moon of Jupiter, and Enceladus, a moon of...

A recent revelation is set to reshape our perception of the Milky Way galaxy. A research team led by Dr. Florian Peißker from the <a href="https://www.uni-koeln.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cologne</a> has stumbled upon an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/featherweight-black-holes-may-soon-be-revealed-by-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusual phenomenon</a> at the center of our galaxy - another intermediate-mass black hole.



Black holes, especially of the intermediate-mass variety, are one of the biggest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-speed-stars-reveal-hidden-black-hole-in-omega-centauri/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mysteries</a> in the universe. Despite herculean research efforts, only a handful, approximately ten, have been detected to date.



According to scientific consensus, these celestial anomalies likely formed shortly after the Big Bang and play a crucial role as "seeds" in the formation and growth of supermassive black holes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-center-of-the-milky-way">Center of the Milky Way</h2>



Dr. Peißker and his team were studying a cluster of stars known as IRS 13, located incredibly close (0.1 light years) to the supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy known as Sagittarius A* (SgrA*).



For perspective, 0.1 light years is a short distance in astronomical terms, but in earthly distances, it equates to venturing to and fro between one end of our solar system to the other, twenty times. These astronomical numbers serve as a reminder of the sheer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-waterfall-discovery-proves-einstein-right-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vastness of the cosmos</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-moving-in-an-odd-manner">Stars moving in an odd manner</h2>



The stars in IRS 13 were moving in an unexpectedly orderly manner. Differing from the expected random arrangement of stars, the precise pattern suggested two possible scenarios. 



First, IRS 13 might be interacting with SgrA*, leading to the stars' orderly motion. Second, there could be something within IRS 13 that help maintain its observed compact shape.



What could that be? The answer lies in our central mystery - the intermediate-mass black hole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intermediate-mass-black-hole-in-the-star-cluster">Intermediate-mass black hole in the star cluster</h2>



After multi-wavelength observations using the Chandra, ALMA, and Very Large telescopes, the conclusion emerged. The compact shape of IRS 13 potentially stemmed from the presence of an intermediate-mass black hole at the center of the star cluster.



Supporting this theory were additional observations of characteristic X-rays and ionized gas rotating at breakneck speeds of several hundred km/s in a ring around where they suspected the intermediate-mass black hole was located.



Adding to this was the unusually high density of the star cluster, higher than any known density of a star cluster in our Milky Way. "IRS 13 appears to be an essential building block for the growth of our central black hole SgrA*," said Dr. Peißker.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-discovery">Implications of the discovery</h2>



The identification of another intermediate-mass black hole within IRS 13 is more than just a fascinating find; it has profound implications for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of galactic evolution</a>. 



The discovery provides tangible evidence to support the hypothesis that these intermediate-mass black holes act as building blocks for their supermassive counterparts, such as Sagittarius A. 



Furthermore, understanding the dynamic interplay between IRS 13 and SgrA could help unravel the intricate mechanisms behind galaxy formation and growth. 



The research underscores the importance of multi-wavelength astronomy and advanced observational technologies in uncovering the mysteries of the universe.



As we continue to push the boundaries of our knowledge, each new finding brings us a step closer to comprehending the complex tapestry of cosmic phenomena that shape our galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-in-milky-way-star-cluster">Black hole in Milky Way star cluster</h2>



The insights from this study illuminate our understanding of the Milky Way and open doorways to future research.



This extraordinary star cluster has surprised the scientific community since its discovery two decades ago. Initially mistaken for an unusually heavy star, further high-resolution data unveiled its true composition - a building block with an intermediate-mass black hole at its center.



With plans to utilize the <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> and the under-construction <a href="https://elt.eso.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extremely Large Telescope</a>, researchers hope to delve deeper into the processes within the star cluster. 



As we continue unraveling the mysteries of the universe, the discovery of another intermediate-mass black hole in the Milky Way certainly marks a significant milestone.



Isn't it intriguing how a tiny cluster of stars 0.1 light years away can shoot enlightening beams of knowledge about the profound depths of space?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad4098" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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Black hole found in mysterious Milky Way star cluster

A recent revelation is set to reshape our perception of...

Most people view sleep and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-daydream-to-awareness-the-brains-alert-mechanism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wakefulness</a> as two distinct states, clearly separating our daily activities.



Traditional neuroscience has anchored this perspective, defining sleep by the long, slow waves that traverse our brain. Now, pioneering research has unveiled intriguing details that challenge this belief.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sleeping-brain">The sleeping brain</h2>



The researchers have found that sleep can be detected by neural activity patterns lasting for just milliseconds - 1,000 times shorter than a second.



What's more, they discovered that small areas of the brain could briefly "flicker" <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasomnia-awake-dream-exploring-sleepwalking-deep-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">awake</a>, while the rest of the brain is asleep, and the opposite can also occur. 



These revelations open up fresh avenues to explore and understand the fundamental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-waves-move-in-opposite-ways-to-make-memories-and-to-remember/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain wave patterns</a> that govern consciousness.



The research is a collaboration between the laboratories of Professor Keith Hengen at <a href="https://wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a> and Professor David Haussler at <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Cruz</a>, with crucial contributions from Ph.D. students, David Parks (UCSC) and Aidan Schneider (WashU).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-state">What is a state?</h2>



Professor Hengen highlighted the significant implications of their discovery. He said that with powerful tools and new computational methods, there’s so much to be gained by challenging our most basic assumptions and revisiting the question of "what is a state?" 



"Sleep or wake is the single greatest determinant of your behavior, and then everything else falls out from there. So if we don't understand what sleep and wake actually are, it seems like we’ve missed the boat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-micro-naps-in-the-brain">Micro-naps in the brain</h2>



Professor Haussler noted that the research revealed different parts of the brain "taking little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-afternoon-naps-impact-our-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">naps</a>" while other regions remain awake.



"It was surprising to us as scientists to find that different parts of our brains actually take little naps when the rest of the brain is awake. Many people may have already suspected this in their spouse, so perhaps a lack of male-female bias is what is surprising.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-activity-patterns-by-the-millisecond">Brain activity patterns by the millisecond </h2>



In the course of their four-year research, Parks and Schneider trained a neural network to scrutinize patterns within an enormous amount of brain wave data. 



Ultimately, the team observed patterns occurring at extremely high frequencies, challenging foundational beliefs about the neurological basis of sleep and wake states.



Studying brain data that lasted for only a millisecond, the researchers found that the model could differentiate between sleep and wake states. This remarkable finding confirmed that the model wasn’t relying on the slow-moving waves to learn the difference.



“The previous feeling was that nothing would be found there, that all the relevant information was in the slower frequency waves," said Professor Haussler. 



"This paper says if you ignore the conventional measurements and just look at the details of the high-frequency measurement over just a thousandth of a second, there is enough there to tell if the tissue is asleep or not."



According to Professor Haussler, this tells us that there is something going on a very fast scale - that's a new hint to what might be going on in sleep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-neural-flickers">Uncovering neural "flickers" </h2>



Upon further investigation of these high-speed activity patterns, the researchers discovered another surprising phenomenon, which they refer to as "flickers."



These are instances where, for a split second, one region of the brain would be awake while the rest were asleep, and vice versa. 



These flickers don't adhere to the traditional neuroscience rules governing the strict cycle between wake, non-REM sleep, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-dreams-help-us-organize-our-experiences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">REM sleep</a>, further defying standard beliefs on sleep dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-sleep-research">The future of sleep research </h2>



These groundbreaking findings pave the way for a deeper understanding and potential treatments of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases, both of which are closely associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-test-detects-sleep-deprivation-over-24-hours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep dysregulation</a>. 



The research holds promise for developing new diagnostic tools and therapies that target the specific neural mechanisms involved in these conditions. 



“The more we understand fundamentally about what sleep and wake are, the more we can address pertinent clinical and disease-related problems," said Professor Hengen.



This knowledge could revolutionize our approach to treating a wide range of disorders linked to sleep, from insomnia and sleep apnea to more complex neurological conditions such as Alzheimer's and autism.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01715-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>.



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Micro-naps in the brain: Some regions sleep while others stay awake

Most people view sleep and wakefulness as two distinct states,...

Have you ever wondered about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-whale-perucetus-colossus-smaller-than-blue-whale/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures that lurk beneath the surface</a> of the vast oceans, mysteries cloaked in the blue abyss? There's one in particular that plays a game of "hide-and-seek" with scientists so well, they have never seen it alive. We're talking about the rare elusive spade-toothed whale. 



Its rare remains recently made a surprise appearance on a New Zealand beach, and the scientific community is buzzing with excitement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-whale-of-a-mystery">Rare whale of a mystery</h2>



Scientists from New Zealand's <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Conservation</a> and the national museum Te Papa stumbled upon an intriguing find this past 4th of July. 



It was a creature from the depths, washed ashore near a river mouth in southern Otago province. The 16.4-foot long specimen was no ordinary sea dweller. These experts believe it to be a male spade-toothed whale, a species so rare, it has been dubbed the "Ghost of the Ocean."



Gabe Davies, the coastal Otago operations manager of the conservation department, is very enthusiastic about the find. "Spade-toothed whales are one of the most poorly known large mammalian species of modern times."



According to Davies, only six samples have existed since the 1800s, and five of those were from New Zealand. "From a scientific and conservation point of view, this is huge," said Davies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-rare-whale-s-secrets">Unraveling the rare whale's secrets</h2>



To ensure the classification is correct, a DNA investigation is currently ongoing. The body was fresh enough, providing a unique opportunity for scientists to dissect a spade-toothed whale. 



The Department of Conservation said that the species is "so rare, next to nothing is known about them."



The body has been placed in cold storage and genetic samples have been shipped off to the University of Auckland, curators of the New Zealand Cetacean Tissue Archive. It may take weeks, even months, for the DNA to be processed and a final confirmation to be made.



The significance of the whale's rarity, according to the Department of Conservation, expands the conversation about what to do next beyond national borders. It becomes a topic of "international importance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-efforts">Implications for conservation efforts</h2>



The unexpected discovery of the spade-toothed whale on a New Zealand beach has broader implications for conservation efforts.



Because these whales are so rarely seen, their population status remains largely unknown, making it difficult to implement effective conservation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-20-minute-conversation-with-a-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a>.



The new specimen gives us a chance to highlight the species. It also helps bring attention to marine biodiversity.



Moreover, the data collected from this whale could contribute to international conservation policies aimed at protecting not just spade-toothed whales but also other elusive and endangered marine species. 



Researchers hope this event will spur further investment in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-continue-their-battle-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine research and conservation initiatives</a> worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enigma-of-the-spade-toothed-whale">Enigma of the spade-toothed whale</h2>



The first description of the species came in 1874 based on merely a lower jaw and two teeth discovered in the Chatham Islands off the east coast of New Zealand.&nbsp;



Coupling that with skeletal remains found in New Zealand and Chile, scientists were able to confirm a new species. The missing pieces are hard to come by, however.



The first intact specimen was a mother and calf that stranded in the Bay of Plenty in 2010. A further stranding in 2017 in Gisborne added one more specimen to the mix.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Marine scientist Vanessa Pirotta emphasized the potential of the recent sample to offer new insights. Experts intend to study the stomach contents and genetics of the whale and compare this sample with previous ones.



This might shine a light on the behavior of these whales, their population, and reasons behind their rarity. "It's like hitting the jackpot," said Pirotta.



With no live sightings and so few specimens found, the spade-toothed whale is classified as "data deficient" under New Zealand's Threat Classification System. Let's hope that this jackpot discovery can help fill in some of the blanks in our understanding of this ocean ghost.



The story of the spade-toothed whale continues to captivate the scientific community, offering a rare glimpse into the mysterious life of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-benefits-of-whale-remains-and-their-proper-disposal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elusive marine mammal</a>, and igniting hope for new discoveries.



Remember, the ocean is wide and its secrets are deep. Who knows what mysteries it will unveil next?



Image Credit: Department of Conservation via AP



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World's rarest whale found on New Zealand beach

Have you ever wondered about the creatures that lurk beneath...

This weekend, on the 55th anniversary of the Apollo 11 moon landing, the full Buck Moon will light up the sky.&nbsp;



The moon will reach its peak illumination on the night of July 21st, but will also appear full on the 20th, the same day that humans first walked on the moon in 1969.



In fact, according to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a>, the Buck Moon will appear full for about three days from Friday evening through Monday morning - making this a full moon weekend.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-buck-moon-illusion">Buck Moon illusion</h2>



July's full moon usually appears large and bright - often with a red or orange glow as it rises and sets low in the sky.



When the moon is lower over the horizon, its light travels a longer distance through the atmosphere. This atmospheric scattering of light is similar to what happens during sunrises and sunsets.&nbsp;



“As it travels a longer path, more of the shorter, bluer wavelengths of light are scattered away, leaving more of the longer, redder wavelengths,” explains NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-names-for-the-buck-moon">Names for the Buck Moon</h2>



The name of the July full moon is associated with male deer, or bucks, who typically grow their new antlers during this month.&nbsp;



“Early summer is normally when the new antlers of buck deer push out of their foreheads in coatings of velvety fur,” notes NASA.



This month's full moon is also referred to as the “Thunder Moon” due to the frequency of thunderstorms in July. Depending on where you're from, you might also know it as the “Hay Moon,” in reference to the hay harvest.&nbsp;



“For Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains, this is the Guru Full Moon (Guru Purnima), celebrated as a time for clearing the mind and honoring the guru or spiritual master,” notes NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-bit-of-astronomical-magic">A bit of astronomical magic</h2>



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-weekends-strawberry-moon-is-the-sweetest-of-the-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">full moon</a> occurs when Earth is perfectly positioned between the sun and the moon. The result? Our satellite is fully lit up from Earth's viewpoint. The cycle of the full moon, also known as a synodic month, happens every 29.53 days.



As the Buck Moon rises in the east, it won’t be the only eye-catching sight of the night. Not only will Saturn be visible, but if you have a telescope handy, you might even catch a glimpse of its mesmerizing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-rings-will-vanish-from-sight-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rings</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prelude-to-four-supermoons">Prelude to four supermoons</h2>



The Buck Moon is the final “regular” full moon before an exciting line-up of four back-to-back “supermoons” that will appear much bigger and brighter than usual.&nbsp;



These mega-moons emerge when the full moon coincides with its nearest approach to Earth, known as perigee.&nbsp;



The next full moon is the Sturgeon Moon on August 19th, kicking off the first of the four consecutive supermoons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-full-moon-myths-and-legends">Full moon myths and legends</h2>



The full moon has captivated human imagination for centuries, inspiring many myths and legends across various cultures.&nbsp;



In ancient civilizations, the full moon was seen as a powerful celestial body influencing the natural world and human behavior.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roman-mythology-nbsp">Roman mythology&nbsp;</h3>



For instance, in Roman mythology, Luna, the goddess of the moon, was believed to ride her chariot across the night sky, illuminating the Earth below.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transformation-and-magic">Transformation and magic</h3>



In folklore, the full moon is often associated with transformation and magic.&nbsp;



Perhaps the most famous legend is that of the werewolf, a creature that transforms from human to wolf under the light of the full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grow-plants-on-moon-by-2026-nasa-artemis-iii-mission/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>. 



This myth is prevalent in European folklore and has been popularized in modern literature and film.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-buck-moon-madness">Buck Moon madness</h3>



In many cultures, the full moon is also linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/suicide-rate-increases-during-the-week-of-a-full-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">madness</a>, a concept known as "lunacy." The belief that the full moon can affect mental health and behavior persists to this day, with some claiming that emergency rooms and police stations see more activity during a full moon.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-agricultural-traditions-nbsp">Agricultural traditions&nbsp;</h3>



The full moon holds a special place in agricultural traditions as well. Many farming cultures, such as those in Europe and North America, historically used the phases of the moon to guide planting and harvesting. The Farmer's Almanac still provides moon phase information for this purpose.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hindu-mythology-nbsp">Hindu mythology&nbsp;</h3>



In Hindu mythology, the full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-aims-to-build-a-train-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> is significant in various rituals and festivals. For instance, during the festival of Holi, the full moon marks the celebration of spring and the triumph of good over evil. 



In Buddhism, the full moon day of Vesak commemorates the birth, enlightenment, and death of Buddha.



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Full moon weekend is upon us as the "Buck Moon" arrives tonight

This weekend, on the 55th anniversary of the Apollo 11...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a> have made a significant discovery about endogenous retroviruses, ancient viral DNA embedded in the human genome, which can influence the development and survival of cancer.&nbsp;



These viral remnants, previously considered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/junk-dna-may-set-humans-apart-from-chimpanzees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“junk” DNA</a>, can reactivate and play a crucial role in cancer biology.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ado1218" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, reveals that silencing these retroviruses can enhance the effectiveness of cancer treatments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retroviruses-can-act-as-genetic-switches-nbsp">Retroviruses can act as genetic switches&nbsp;</h2>



According to Edward Chuong, the study’s senior author and assistant professor at CU Boulder's BioFrontiers Institute, endogenous retroviruses make up about 8% of the human genome.&nbsp;



These retroviruses infiltrated the cells of our evolutionary ancestors, embedding their genetic material into sperm, eggs, and embryos, thereby integrating into the genome over generations.&nbsp;



Despite losing the ability to produce functional viruses, these sequences can act as genetic switches, influencing nearby genes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beneficial-and-harmful-roles-of-retroviruses-nbsp">Beneficial and harmful roles of retroviruses&nbsp;</h2>



Chuong’s research highlights both the beneficial and harmful roles of these retroviruses.&nbsp;



While some have been domesticated for evolutionary benefits, such as the development of the placenta and immune responses, others can be detrimental, particularly in the context of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-encourage-cancer-to-spread-around-the-body/">cancer</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-activity-in-several-cancers">High activity in several cancers</h2>



To explore their impact on cancer, Chuong and first author Atma Ivancevic analyzed genomic data from 21 human cancer types.&nbsp;



The experts found that a lineage of endogenous retroviruses, specifically LTR10, showed high activity in several cancers, including lung and colon cancer. Further analysis revealed that LTR10 was active in about a third of colorectal cancer patients.



Using the CRISPR gene editing tool, the team silenced LTR10 sequences in cancer cells, resulting in the deactivation of critical genes that promote cancer development.&nbsp;



This finding was supported by experiments in mice, where removing the LTR10 switch from tumor cells improved the effectiveness of treatments aimed at shrinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holy-grail-molecule-can-kill-all-types-of-solid-cancer-tumors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tumors</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupting-a-critical-cellular-pathway-nbsp">Disrupting a critical cellular pathway&nbsp;</h2>



One key discovery was that LTR10 influences the MAP-kinase pathway, a critical cellular pathway involved in many cancers.&nbsp;



The study suggests that existing MAP-kinase inhibitors may work partly by disabling the LTR10 switch, which regulates around 70 cancer-associated genes in this pathway.



Chuong and his team propose that as people age, their genomic defenses weaken, allowing these ancient viruses to reawaken and contribute to various health problems.&nbsp;



“The origins of how diseases manifest themselves in the cell have always been a mystery,” Chuong said. “Endogenous retroviruses are not the whole story, but they could be a big part of it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retroviruses-and-cancer-biology-nbsp">Retroviruses and cancer biology&nbsp;</h2>



The research underscores the importance of understanding the role of endogenous retroviruses in modern diseases.&nbsp;



By shedding light on how these ancient viral sequences can be reactivated and influence cancer biology, the study opens up new avenues for improving cancer treatment and potentially addressing other health issues linked to these viral remnants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-part-human-part-virus">Part human, part virus</h2>



Studies show about 8% of the human genome is made up of endogenous retroviruses that slipped into the cells of our evolutionary ancestors, coaxing their hosts to copy and carry their genetic material.&nbsp;



Over time, they infiltrated sperm, eggs and embryos, baking their DNA like a fossil record into generations to come - and shaping evolution along the way.



“Part human, part virus” is a way to describe these sequences. Even though they can no longer produce functional viruses, Chuong’s own research has shown that endogenous retroviruses can act as “switches” that turn on nearby genes.&nbsp;



Some have contributed to the development of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-discovered-in-every-human-placenta-tested-after-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">placenta</a>, a critical milestone in human evolution, as well as our immune response to modern-day viruses like COVID.



“There’s been a lot of work showing these endogenous retroviruses can be domesticated for our benefit, but not a lot showing how they might hurt us,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-expression-and-cancer-development-nbsp">Gene expression and cancer development&nbsp;</h2>



Chuong’s findings reveal that these sequences, when activated, can influence the expression of genes that promote cancer development. This discovery is crucial as it suggests that targeting these sequences could improve cancer treatment outcomes.&nbsp;



In particular, the research showed that silencing LTR10 sequences led to the deactivation of cancer-promoting genes, enhancing the effectiveness of existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holy-grail-molecule-can-kill-all-types-of-solid-cancer-tumors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer therapies</a>.



The research also highlights the role of the MAP-kinase pathway, a cellular pathway frequently altered in cancers.&nbsp;



The study suggests that existing MAP-kinase inhibitors may work by disabling the LTR10 switch, which regulates numerous cancer-associated genes within this pathway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This research opens new avenues for understanding the role of endogenous retroviruses in modern diseases and improving cancer treatments by targeting these ancient viral sequences.&nbsp;



By illuminating how these viral remnants influence cancer biology, the study paves the way for more effective therapies and a better understanding of disease mechanisms.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

Ancient viruses can reactivate and fuel cancer development 

Researchers at the University of Colorado Boulder have made a...

Have you ever wondered about the first humans to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-early-humans-great-migration-reached-america-challenged-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">set foot on South American soils</a>? This question has been the subject of much debate among scholars and scientists alike. Recent evidence, however, suggests that humans were in South America over 20,000 years ago.



Mariano Del Papa, from the <a href="https://unlp.edu.ar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National University of La Plata</a>, Argentina, recently published his intriguing findings in the open-access journal PLOS ONE.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-occupation-in-south-america">Human occupation in South America</h2>



The whos, wheres, and whens of early human occupation of South America have been a long-standing topic of intense debate among researchers.&nbsp;



But, why is it important? It holds the key to understanding early human dispersal across the Americas and possibly even their role in the extinction of large mammals at the end of the Pleistocene Epoch.&nbsp;



The scarcity of direct archaeological evidence, however, keeps throwing a spanner in the works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-findings-on-the-reconquista-river">New findings on the Reconquista river</h2>



Researchers have hit upon tell-tale signs of butchery on Pleistocene mammal fossils.&nbsp;The fossils, belonging to a giant relative of armadillos called Neosclerocalyptus, seem to have been the dinner of choice.&nbsp;



The cut marks found on the pelvis, tail, and body armor of this creature are consistent with those made by stone tools. Intriguingly, these cuts target areas known for their dense flesh.



Radiocarbon dating tags the fossils at around 21,000 years old, nearly 6,000 years older than other known archaeological evidence in southern South America. This suggests an early human presence in the Americas, contradicting earlier beliefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questioning-the-16-000-year-old-theory">Questioning the 16,000-year-old theory</h2>



"The study's evidence puts into question the time frame for the first human peopling of the Americas 16,000 years ago," noted Miguel Delgado, the corresponding author.



This timeline was based on limited evidence and the idea that humans moved from North America to South America through an ice-free path. But recent discoveries along the Reconquista River challenge this theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-migration-in-south-america">Human migration in South America</h2>



The implications of this discovery extend far beyond the boundaries of Argentina.&nbsp;If humans were present in South America as early as 21,000 years ago, traditional models of migration through the Bering Land Bridge and subsequent southward spread need to be re-evaluated.&nbsp;



This revelation could signify that early humans were more adaptable and resourceful than previously thought, capable of thriving in diverse environments and overcoming significant geographic barriers much earlier.&nbsp;



The findings call for a fresh examination of archaeological sites across both North and South America, aiming to uncover more evidence that could fill in the gaps of our current understanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward-ongoing-research-efforts">The path forward: Ongoing research efforts</h2>



Delgado and his team are far from done with their research. More excavation, more analysis of the cut marks, and more extensive radiocarbon dating of the fossils are all needed to support these findings.&nbsp;



With each fossil dug up, each cut mark analyzed, and each radioactivity level measured, we inch closer to the truth. It seems that we've merely scratched the surface of this historic tale, and the best chapters may still be waiting to be unearthed.



This discovery reiterates the fact that even in the realm of science, where facts hold sway, there's always room for a little surprise. It also underscores the significance of preserving fossils.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-technology-and-prehistoric-humans">Modern technology and prehistoric humans</h2>



Modern archaeological techniques have greatly improved our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/persian-plateau-fills-20000-year-gap-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric humans</a>. Tools like ground-penetrating radar, advanced radiocarbon dating, and DNA analysis from bone fragments provide precise data. 



These tools help determine the age and context of findings and offer insights into ancient lifestyles, diets, and migrations. 



Researchers like Delgado are finding evidence that extends the timeline of human occupation in South America. Interdisciplinary collaboration among archaeologists, geneticists, and environmental scientists is crucial. 



These partnerships could reveal more about our early ancestors, offering a fuller picture of human history and evolution.



As we continue to unearth new evidence and foster cross-disciplinary efforts, we pave the way for groundbreaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-cave-painting-discovered-in-indonesia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">discoveries</a>. These advances could potentially rewrite history books, giving us a deeper understanding of our ancestors' journey.



The study is published in the open-access journal&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0304956" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Humans arrived in South America much earlier than we thought

Have you ever wondered about the first humans to set...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ants</a> are well-known for their complex social behaviors and mutualistic relationships with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-plants-partnership/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, particularly in the tropics. These interactions often involve ants inhabiting hollow swellings in trees and defending them against predators in exchange for food. 



While these mutualisms have been observed for centuries, their origins remain a mystery. Recent research led by <a href="https://www.utah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah</a> field biologist Rodolfo Probst has shed new light on this intriguing phenomenon, specifically focusing on the ant genus Myrmelachista.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellow-ants-and-understory-trees-nbsp">Yellow ants and understory trees&nbsp;</h2>



Probst's study, published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1214" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>, has investigated Myrmelachista species that typically nest in dead or live stems of plants without specialized mutualistic associations. 



However, one group of these species in Central America nests exclusively in live stems of specific understory trees, forming a specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiosis</a> similar to other ant-plant mutualisms. 



These tiny yellow ants hollow out the stems without harming the host plants, a behavior commonly observed throughout Central America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-convergent-evolution-nbsp">Convergent evolution&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers noted that obligatory ant–plant symbioses often appear to be single evolutionary shifts within particular ant lineages; however, convergence can be revealed once natural history observations are complemented with molecular phylogenetics.&nbsp;



“Here, we describe a remarkable example of convergent evolution in an ant-plant symbiotic system,” the study authors wrote.



The research revealed that this symbiosis requires complex behaviors and morphological adaptations, thought to occur infrequently in the evolutionary history of life.&nbsp;



The nine species exhibiting these traits were initially believed to share a single common ancestor that evolved this mutualism over a long period of time. However, Probst discovered through DNA sequence data that these species formed two distinct clusters in different parts of the evolutionary tree.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-species-develop-similar-traits-nbsp">Different species develop similar traits&nbsp;</h2>



“Using ultraconserved element phylogenomics and ancestral state reconstructions, we show that shifts from opportunistic to obligately symbiotic evolved independently in South and Middle America,” the authors explained.&nbsp;



This suggests that the complex relationship evolved twice independently from non-specialist ancestors around three million years ago - a fascinating case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-there-cases-of-convergent-evolution-between-reptiles-and-amphibians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convergent evolution</a>.



“I wish I could just take a time machine and see it,” Probst said. “Maybe it was the ecology or plant availability that helped those friendships evolve in the first place.”&nbsp;



Probst describes this phenomenon as “evolutionary déjà vu,” where different species develop similar traits due to occupying similar ecological niches.&nbsp;



“The coolest part of our paper is that we’re showing that these types of ant-plant friendships evolve multiple times independently. It’s like if it happens, it might happen again if you’re given the appropriate ecological conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-relationships-of-ants-and-trees">Complex relationships of ants and trees</h2>



Probst's co-authors include Jack Longino, a renowned entomologist known as “The Astonishing Ant Man,” and former University of Utah School of Biological Sciences postdoctoral researcher Michael Branstetter, now with the <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/logan-ut/pollinating-insect-biology-management-systematics-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Agriculture's Pollinating Insect Research Unit</a>. Longino highlights the significance of Probst's findings. 



“Rodolfo’s work revealed two independent evolutions of a complex relationship with plants. It suggests that the developmental building blocks for very distinctive or complex features are readily at hand, and can quickly evolve among different sets of species when the conditions arise.”



Probst, a postdoctoral researcher in the School of Biological Sciences and the university’s Science Research Initiative (SRI), has also involved undergraduates in his research, during fieldwork in Costa Rica funded by the University of Utah’s Wilkes Center for Climate Science &amp; Policy.&nbsp;



The group conducted research at the San Gerardo Station in the Bosque Eterno de los Niños (Children’s Eternal Rainforest) nature reserve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-research-efforts">Ongoing research efforts</h2>



With ongoing assistance from SRI undergraduates, Probst currently aims to conduct whole genomic sequencing to identify the genes involved in ant-plant associations, delving deeper into a phenomenon that has fascinated naturalists for centuries.



This research not only enhances our understanding of ant-plant mutualisms but also underscores the role of convergent evolution in the development of complex ecological relationships.&nbsp;



By studying these intricate interactions between different species, scientists can gain new insights into the adaptive mechanisms that drive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> and the intricate web of life in tropical ecosystems. 



Probst's findings highlight the importance of continued research and conservation efforts to protect these remarkable mutualistic relationships and the complex ecosystems they support.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

Evolutionary déjà vu: The symbiotic relationships of trees and ants

Ants are well-known for their complex social behaviors and mutualistic...

Is there more to the phrase "you are what you eat" than we might think? Perhaps we should also be considering - not just what - but when we eat. The timing of meals plays a significant role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-protein-with-intermittent-fasting-better-weight-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overall health and well-being</a>. Recent research has shed light upon the benefits of intermittent fasting.



Dr. Krista Varady, a leading scientist in the Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition at the <a href="https://www.uic.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Chicago</a>, specializes in intermittent fasting with over fifteen years of research in weight management and metabolic diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-intermittent-fasting">Impact of intermittent fasting </h2>



Intermittent fasting is a structured eating pattern. It involves cycles of eating and not eating. This method is designed to manage calorie intake that works within specific timeframes.



The technique has garnered significant attention in the scientific community. In short, the method involves alternating periods of eating and fasting, which can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-triggers-remarkable-changes-throughout-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">help regulate metabolism</a> and support weight management.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-for-thought">Food for thought</h2>



This special issue of research features several studies. One notable study, led by Dr. Alaina P. Vidmar from the Children’s Hospital Los Angeles and Keck School of Medicine of USC, focuses on type 2 diabetes in adolescents.



This condition is increasing in many communities. The study explores an 8-hour eating window for obese teenagers with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes.



The results? Late time-restricted eating proved to be both safe and effective, leading to meaningful weight loss and a decrease in liver enzymes. Also, there were no negatives concerning sleep, eating behaviors or physical activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-night-owls-versus-early-birds">Night owls versus early birds</h2>



On another enlightening note, research from Dr. Jess A. Gwin at the U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine delves into our sleep patterns and our eating habits.



Conventional wisdom, and most parents, will tell you not to eat just before bed. This study supports that, pointing out that breakfast skipping and late-night snacking could mess with our sleep quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intermittent-fasting-and-fitness">Intermittent fasting and fitness</h2>



One particularly intriguing aspect of intermittent fasting is its impact on exercise performance. Dr. Mark Mattson, a neuroscientist at Johns Hopkins University, played a crucial role in the study.



How does this work? During fasting, the body shifts from using glucose-based energy to ketones, which has been shown to enhance muscle efficiency and reduce recovery times.&nbsp;



Moreover, fasting seems to stimulate the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), aiding mental clarity and cognitive function. This additional benefit is a welcome bonus to any fitness regimen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-method">Significance of the method</h2>



"Many people stop adhering to standard diets that restrict calories because they become frustrated with having to regularly monitor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food intake</a> day in and day out. Intermittent fasting protocols can bypass this requirement by allowing participants to simply ‘watch the clock’ instead of monitoring calories, while still producing weight loss," said Dr. Varady.



Furthermore, she noted, intermittent fasting does not require the purchase of expensive food products and allows individuals to continue consuming familiar foods, making it a highly accessible diet, especially for lower resource patient groups. 



"Although fasting regimens are no more effective than other diet interventions for weight management, these protocols offer individuals an alternative, straightforward approach to addressing obesity by omitting the need for calorie counting." 



Dr. Varady pointed out that while weight loss is important, having a diet with a wide variety of nutrient dense foods such as fruits, vegetables and legumes is paramount in maintaining a replete nutritional status. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tips-to-get-started">Tips to get started</h2>



Starting intermittent fasting can be simple with these tips:



<ol>
<li>Pick a fasting schedule that works for you, like:</li>
</ol>



<ul>
<li>16/8 method: Fast for 16 hours and eat during an 8-hour window.</li>



<li>5:2 method: Eat normally for 5 days and cut calories for 2 days.</li>
</ul>



<ol start="2">
<li>Start slowly by gradually increasing your fasting time.</li>



<li>Stay hydrated with water and herbal teas.</li>



<li>Plan your meals to avoid impulsive eating and ensure they are balanced.</li>



<li>Listen to your body; if you feel dizzy or very tired, adjust your plan.</li>



<li>Consult a healthcare professional before starting, especially if you have health issues.</li>
</ol>



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jandonline.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics</a>.



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Intermittent fasting could be the key to better health

Is there more to the phrase "you are what you...

Climate models are essential tools for scientists, providing a glimpse into how our climate might change due to human-induced global warming. 



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperatures-increase-scientists-plan-slow-down-rising-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global temperatures</a> continue to rise, these models help us predict and prepare for the impacts of an imminent climate crisis. 



However, recent findings suggest that our trust in these models might be misplaced, as not all predictions are as accurate as we presume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-ice-cold-miscalculation">An ice-cold miscalculation</h2>



Right at the center of the stage, in a recently published investigation, stands the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM). 



It is one of the common models employed by geoscientists, but recent research brings up substantial inaccuracies in its predictions. 



This research was led by scientists in the Department of Earth System Science at <a href="https://uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Irvine</a> and the University of Michigan Department of Climate and Space Sciences and Engineering. 



The study revealed that the E3SM overestimates a critical component of our climate system – albedo, or the degree to which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-slow-antarctica-ice-melt-with-sunlight-reflecting-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice reflects sunlight</a> back into space.



The researchers discovered that the E3SM incorrectly magnified the level of sunlight reflection from the ice, causing a miscalculation in predicting the planet's warming.



"We found that with old model versions, the ice is too reflective by about five percent," noted Chloe Clarke, the team's project scientist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-ice-albedo-matter">Why does ice albedo matter?</h2>



The amount of sunlight received and reflected back by the Earth is paramount in determining the rate at which the planet will continue to heat up. 



The E3SM's overestimation of albedo stems from not considering what the team refers to as the "microphysical properties of ice." 



In simpler terms, these are factors such as algae and dust that can disrupt the ice's reflecting capabilities. Dark-colored algae and dust can decrease reflectivity, making ice less effective at reflecting sunlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-ice-absorbs-more-sunlight">Dark ice absorbs more sunlight</h2>



"A large portion of melt from the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) comes from regions with dark bare ice, because dark ice absorbs more incoming sunlight than regions with bright snow," noted the study authors. 



The experts pointed out that Earth System Models, which simulate changes in the Earth's climate and the impacts of these changes, prescribe the reflectivity of these dark ice regions as a constant. 



"This work shows that treating bare ice as though it has a constant reflectivity is not a good approximation, because the dark ice regions change as the winter snowpack melts and impurities accumulate on the ice surface."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-estimates-of-sea-ice-melt">Estimates of sea ice melt</h2>



The team used satellite data to monitor the albedo of the Greenland Ice Sheet to demonstrate the inaccurate reflection rates in E3SM. 



"The model estimates less melt than what would be expected from the ice microphysical properties," stated Clarke. 



The discovery of a more accurate ice reflectivity measurement predicted that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-ice-sheet-is-approaching-a-critical-tipping-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland Ice Sheet</a> is melting at a rate of about six gigatons more than older model versions estimated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ripple-effect-on-climate-modeling">The ripple effect on climate modeling</h2>



These seemingly small inaccuracies can have considerable implications. The team hopes their findings will bolster the efficiency of climate models, illuminating the significance of snow and ice-related climate feedbacks. 



The experts now plan to extend their research beyond Greenland. The goal is to get it functional globally and not just valid over Greenland, explained Clarke. This will include applying the findings to glaciers in other regions, such as the Andes and Alaska, to measure the accuracy of the new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-regions-are-rapidly-warming-with-global-consequences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice albedo</a>.



Our understanding of the Earth's climate is intricate and ever-evolving. This important work allows us to inch closer to a more accurate prediction of our planet's future, unraveling the complexities of our changing climate one small step at a time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-the-accuracy-of-climate-models">Enhancing the accuracy of climate models</h2>



As the science of climate modeling continues to advance, the focus on accuracy is more crucial than ever.



Enhancements in climate models, such as the improved understanding of ice albedo, provide more reliable data for predicting future climate scenarios. 



These enhancements allow policymakers and scientists to make more informed decisions about climate action. 



With continued research and collaboration, we can refine these models to reflect the complexities of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-play-an-overlooked-role-in-the-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's climate system</a> more precisely, ensuring that our strategies to combat climate change are based on the best available science.



The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023JD040241" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Conceptual Image Lab



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Climate models underestimate sea ice melt and global warming

Climate models are essential tools for scientists, providing a glimpse...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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