In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

Auroras have inspired awe for millennia, but with modern reliance on electricity, we are only now understanding their full impact on Earth's magnetic field. 



The same forces behind auroras also produce currents that can harm electrical infrastructure, such as pipelines. 



Now, a study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2024.1392697" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences</a> has shown that the impact angle of interplanetary shocks is crucial to the strength of these currents, offering a way to predict and protect against potential damage.



“Auroras and geomagnetically induced currents are caused by similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weather</a> drivers,” explained lead author Denny Oliveira, a scientist at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a>.



“The aurora is a visual warning that indicates that electric currents in space can generate these geomagnetically induced currents on the ground.”



“The auroral region can greatly expand during severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/severe-geomagnetic-storm-alert-issued-sun-begins-erupting-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geomagnetic storms</a>. Usually, its southernmost boundary is around latitudes of 70 degrees, but during extreme events it can go down to 40 degrees or even further, which certainly occurred during the May 2024 storm - the most severe storm in the past two decades.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-auroras-and-earth-s-magnetic-field">Auroras and Earth's magnetic field</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-southern-united-states-this-week-huge-solar-storm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Auroras</a> occur through two primary processes: particles from the sun hitting Earth’s magnetic field, or interplanetary shocks compressing the magnetic field.&nbsp;



These shocks also generate geomagnetically induced currents that can damage electrical infrastructure. 



"The impact of interplanetary (IP) shocks on the Earth’s magnetosphere can greatly disturb the geomagnetic field and electric currents in the magnetosphere-ionosphere system," wrote the study authors. 



"At high latitudes, the current systems most affected by the shocks are the auroral electrojet currents." 



"These currents then generate ground geomagnetically induced currents that couple with and are highly detrimental to ground artificial conductors including power transmission lines, oil/gas pipelines, railways, and submarine cables." 



Stronger shocks mean stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steve-phenomenon-looks-like-an-aurora-acts-like-an-aurora-but-what-is-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">currents and auroras</a>, but frequent, less powerful shocks can also cause harm over time.



“Arguably, the most intense deleterious effects on power infrastructure occurred in March 1989 following a severe geomagnetic storm - the Hydro-Quebec system in Canada was shut down for nearly nine hours, leaving millions of people with no electricity,” said Oliveira.&nbsp;



“But weaker, more frequent events such as interplanetary shocks can pose threats to ground conductors over time. Our work shows that considerable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steve-phenomenon-not-aurora-has-dawn-side-twin-swarm-satellites-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geoelectric currents</a> occur quite frequently after shocks, and they deserve attention.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-angle-and-timing-of-the-shocks">Angle and timing of the shocks</h2>



Shocks hitting Earth head-on induce stronger geomagnetically induced currents due to greater compression of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a>. The researchers studied how these currents vary with the angle of shocks and the time of day.



Using data from interplanetary shocks and geomagnetically induced currents recorded from a natural gas pipeline in Mäntsälä, Finland, they calculated the shocks' properties, such as angle and speed, using interplanetary magnetic field and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-solar-wind-which-creates-beautiful-auroras-on-earth-is-now-less-mysterious/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> data.



Shocks were categorized into three types: highly inclined, moderately inclined, and nearly frontal.



The researchers found that more frontal shocks lead to higher peaks in geomagnetically induced currents, both immediately after the shock and during subsequent substorms.&nbsp;



Intense peaks often occurred around magnetic midnight when the north pole was aligned between the sun and Mäntsälä, also causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steve-phenomenon-not-aurora-has-dawn-side-twin-swarm-satellites-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">striking auroral displays</a>.



“Moderate currents occur shortly after the perturbation impact when Mäntsälä is around dusk local time, whereas more intense currents occur around midnight local time,” Oliveira explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-damage-to-infrastructure">Preventing damage to infrastructure </h2>



Predicting the angles of these shocks up to two hours in advance could enable preemptive measures to <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protect electrical grids</a> and other infrastructure from the strongest shocks.



“One thing power infrastructure operators could do to safeguard their equipment is to manage a few specific electric circuits when a shock alert is issued,” Oliveira suggested. “This would prevent geomagnetically induced currents reducing the lifetime of the equipment.”



However, the study did not find a strong correlation between the shock angle and the time it takes to induce a current, likely due to the need for more data from different latitudes.



“Current data was collected only at a particular location, namely the Mäntsälä natural gas pipeline system,” said Oliveira. “Although Mäntsälä is at a critical location, it does not provide a worldwide picture.”&nbsp;



“In addition, the Mäntsälä data is missing several days in the period investigated, which forced us to discard many events in our shock database. It would be nice to have worldwide power companies make their data accessible to scientists for studies.”



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Auroras are a visual warning of harmful shocks to Earth’s magnetic field

Auroras have inspired awe for millennia, but with modern reliance...

Can an infant barely a year old compose a symphony or craft the next great novel? Maybe not, but recent research suggests they might already be flexing their creativity in a very fascinating way.



In a remarkable new study from the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>, UK, and Central European University (<a href="https://www.ceu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CEU</a>) in Austria, it has been discovered that infants can merge simple concepts into intricate ideas. 



It turns out that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-diets-of-infants-provide-the-building-blocks-of-human-vision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a> are not only creative thinkers before they utter their first words but this inventive brainwork could also play a critical role in language acquisition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infant-creativity-skills">Infant creativity skills</h2>



Assistant Professor at the University of Birmingham's <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Psychology</a>, Dr. Barbara Pomiechowska, postulates that our astounding ability to combine ideas and invent new things may originate far earlier than we previously believed. 



“Human creativity has no boundaries: it has taken us to the moon and allowed us to cure deadly diseases – but despite its importance, we don’t yet know when and how this impressive ability to combine ideas and invent new things emerges," said Dr. Pomiechowska who conducted the research during her postdoctoral fellowship at CEU.



"This research shows that we must go right back to the beginning of language acquisition to solve this puzzle."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-does-creativity-come-from">Where does creativity come from?</h2>



The research aimed to uncover the roots of human creativity by studying infants. The scientists postulated that humans develop new thoughts and ideas by combining familiar concepts into novel structures.



However, how early in life these skills emerge remained an enigma. Enter our pint-sized participants.



Working with 60 babies all around the age of 12 months, the researchers began teaching the infants two new words to refer to quantities. 



It’s not exactly the stuff of rocket science, but the word ‘mize’ was introduced to mean ‘one’, and ‘padu’ to mean ‘two’. 



They then asked the babies to mix these new words with different object names, like identifying ‘padu ducks’ from a selection of pictures.



By using novel words for quantities, the researchers could test the babies' ability to combine concepts in the moment, rather than merely remembering combinations of words they knew from past experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creativity-in-infant-minds">Creativity in infant minds</h2>



Employing eye-tracking technology, researchers monitored where the cherubic learners looked. And what did they find? The babies successfully mixed the two concepts to understand what they were being probed about.



Dr. Agnes Kovacs, from CEU’s Department of Cognitive Science and CEU’s Cognitive Development Center, is of the opinion that this ability to blend different concepts helps babies not only decipher complex language but also learn about the physical and social world. &nbsp;



“For babies, this ability to combine different concepts is likely to help not only to interpret the complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-hear-far-more-speech-at-home-than-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language input</a>, but also to learn about different aspects of the physical and social world. For adults, it’s an ability that helps to move past everything that’s already been thought of, opening the mind towards endless possibilities,” she said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conceptual-blending">Conceptual blending</h2>



The skill of conceptual blending -- merging multiple concepts to form a new understanding -- has long been regarded as a cornerstone of adult creativity and problem-solving.



This study sheds light on the possibility that this sophisticated cognitive ability starts developing at a much younger age. 



By demonstrating that infants can amalgamate concepts like quantities and objects, it suggests that the brain’s propensity for innovative thinking may be hardwired and nurtured from the earliest stages of life. 



This revelation revises our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-scientifically-proven-steps-for-thriving-infant-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive development,</a> emphasizing the importance of early intellectual stimulation and the potential to foster creativity even in infancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-early-childhood-education">Implications for early childhood education</h2>



Given these groundbreaking findings, the landscape of early childhood education could see transformative changes. 



Educational strategies could be adapted to better support and enhance the natural creative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-immune-systems-have-hidden-and-surprising-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">abilities</a> of infants.



Activities that encourage conceptual blending, such as interactive storytelling or games that involve combining different objects and ideas, could play a significant role in educational curricula. 



Implementing such practices might not only bolster early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-to-babies-in-parentese-boosts-their-language-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language skills</a> but also cultivate a generation of innovative thinkers.



Dr. Pomiechowska and Dr. Kovacs advocate for educational programs that are mindful of these creative capabilities, aiming to provide a stimulating environment that respects and nurtures the latent creative potential within every child.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions">Future directions</h2>



This research strides a step forward in our understanding of where and when creativity starts in infants. It paints a picture of babies not just as passive sponges soaking up the world but as active and engaged creative thinkers.



So, the next time you see a baby babbling away or playing with their toys, remember that within their tiny heads, creative sparks are already flying. After all, as this research suggests, it’s never too early to start thinking outside the crib.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2315149121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Infants show creativity skills even before they can talk

Can an infant barely a year old compose a symphony...

A recent study has explored predicting cognitive decline rates in individuals with early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medical-breakthrough-new-vaccine-may-prevent-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a> and assessed the impact of newly approved drugs on this decline. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



“Alzheimer disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease with considerable variability in the rate of cognitive decline,” wrote the researchers.



“The disease is highly prevalent, with roughly 100 million people estimated to be in the mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia stages of the disease.”&nbsp;



“From the MCI stage, it is estimated to take 4 years on average before people have progressed to dementia. New disease-modifying treatments targeting amyloid plaques slow disease progression in the MCI and mild dementia stages of AD. However, the clinical meaningfulness of these medications is debated.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variable-rate-of-cognitive-decline">Variable rate of cognitive decline</h2>



Published in the July 10, 2024, online issue of <a href="http://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology®</a>, the research aimed to address the variability in cognitive decline, which is a pressing concern for patients and caregivers.



“The rate of cognitive decline varies greatly from person to person, and people are very interested in what to expect from the disease in themselves or their loved ones, so better prediction models are urgently needed,” said study author Dr. Pieter J. van der Veere of <a href="https://www.amsterdamumc.org/en/organization/amsterdam-umc.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amsterdam University Medical Center</a>, Netherlands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-models-to-predict-cognitive-decline-nbsp">Models to predict cognitive decline&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers developed predictive models to estimate how quickly individuals' scores on cognitive tests would <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scorching-reality-extreme-heat-worsens-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decline</a>. 



The team validated these models with data from 961 participants, averaging 65 years old - 310 with mild cognitive impairment and 651 with mild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/certain-personality-traits-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a>. All subjects had amyloid-beta plaques, an early marker of Alzheimer’s, targeted by the new drugs.



Cognitive test scores range from 0 to 30. Participants with mild cognitive impairment had scores drop from 26.4 to 21.0 over five years, while those with mild dementia saw scores fall from 22.4 to 7.8 in the same period.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accurate-prediction-rates">Accurate prediction rates</h2>



The models accurately predicted the rate of cognitive decline, although with some degree of uncertainty. For half of those with mild cognitive impairment, actual scores differed by less than two points from predictions, and for mild dementia, by less than three points.



A hypothetical case showed that a person with mild cognitive impairment and a baseline score of 28 would reach moderate dementia (score of 20) in six years.&nbsp;



However, with a drug reducing decline by 30%, this stage would be delayed to 8.6 years. For mild dementia with a baseline score of 21, reaching a score of 15 would take 2.3 years, or 3.3 years with the same treatment.



“Patients with AD and their care partners want to know their future cognitive functioning. Our prediction models can be used to inform patients about their cognitive decline, but our results also indicate that providing a precise prognosis is challenging,” wrote the researchers.



“Thus clinicians need to talk about the inherent uncertainty surrounding the predictions with their patients.”



The experts noted that visualizations of the uncertainty can form the basis for meaningful doctor-patient conversations about the predicted cognitive decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quality-of-life-and-daily-functioning-nbsp">Quality of life and daily functioning&nbsp;</h2>



“We understand that people with cognitive problems and their care partners are most interested in answers to questions like ‘How long can I drive a car?’ or ‘How long can I keep doing my hobby?’” said Dr. Van der Veere.&nbsp;



“In the future, we hope that models will help make predictions about these questions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/active-aging-physical-activity-has-a-direct-impact-on-life-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quality of life</a> and daily functioning.” 



“But until then, we hope these models will help physicians translate these predicted scores into answers for people’s questions.”&nbsp;



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Predicting the rate of cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s patients

A recent study has explored predicting cognitive decline rates in...

Australia is known for its unique and diverse wildlife, but few creatures play as crucial a role in preserving the country's ecological balance as the bettongs and potoroos of the marsupial family.



Marsupials are termed as "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/otters-have-the-ability-to-restore-delicate-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem engineers</a>" for the significant contribution they make to environmental health through their foraging habits.



What's more, their wide-ranging diet influences the survival and prosperity of various plant species. However, the declining numbers of these native marsupials and the degrading state of their ecosystems are concerning. 



So, a group of prominent experts in the field of ecology and evolution, based at the esteemed <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>, have taken it upon themselves to delve deeper into this critical issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-diet-of-marsupials">Studying the diet of marsupials</h2>



Dr. Rex Mitchell, a research associate in the College of Science and Engineering at Flinders University, explained that the initial goal of the study was to understand the toughness of the foods these foragers consume.



This input would play an essential part in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-race-against-heat-the-numbats-fight-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a> rates in conservation, newly established reserves, and even in formulating captive diets.



Dr. Mitchell emphasized the importance of maintaining the distinct populations and distributions of bettongs and potoroos for supporting biodiversity and healthy ecosystems in Australia.



In essence, understanding the hardness of potoroid diets from various habitats and comparing this with farmed foods or dietary supplements used in captivity are pivotal steps for their conservation efforts.



Australia's potoroid marsupials are known for their rich gastronomic preference of roots and tubers, fruit, fungi, seeds, leaves, and even tiny animals and insects.



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-secrets-how-bat-teeth-adapted-to-their-diverse-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dietary diversity</a> leads to the dispersal of seed and fungi across the landscape and promotes plant regeneration, establishing them as pivotal contributors to the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-nutritional-substitutes">Comparing nutritional substitutes</h2>



The researchers conducted fieldwork in the New England region of NSW and the Simpson Desert in South Australia to measure the mechanical properties of food in the bettong and potoroo diets.



They compared these findings with commercially available alternatives to identify possible substitutes or additional food sources.



Dr. Mitchell detailed the fascinating behavior of potoroids like the woylie and burrowing bettong. They can crack open resilient shells of sandalwood and quandong seeds to get to the kernels inside. This impressive skill is even more astonishing considering the small size of bettongs' jaws.



The researchers found that dried seed shells are less tough but more stiff compared to fresh shells. As a result, it might be easier for bettongs to crack open dry shells, clarifying why they usually store the seeds to crack open later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-marsupial-care-with-dietary-research">Enhancing marsupial care with dietary research</h2>



With new knowledge gained about the mechanical properties of potoroids' food compared to farmed foods, the researchers continue to develop better captive breed regimes and feed formulations. 



The team tested farmed foods such as commercial nuts, mushrooms, potatoes, dried and fresh fruits, alongside wild foods known to be consumed by potoroids in their natural habitats.



This fascinating research not only sheds light on the dietary needs of Australia's unique marsupials but also underscores the importance of maintaining their populations for a balanced and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/including-animals-carbon-cycle-models-boosts-ecosystem-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy ecosystem</a>.



The findings may ultimately lead to the formulation of nutritious and suitable substitutes for these ecosystem engineers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-habitat-loss-and-predation">Tackling habitat loss and predation</h2>



While understanding the dietary needs of marsupials is crucial, another significant aspect of their conservation involves addressing habitat loss and predation.



Urban expansion, agricultural development, and climate change continue to encroach on the natural habitats of bettongs and potoroos, making it increasingly difficult for these marsupials to thrive. 



Additionally, introduced predators such as foxes and feral cats pose a severe threat to the survival of these small marsupials.



To combat these challenges, comprehensive strategies are required, which include habitat restoration, predator control programs, and the establishment of safe havens and wildlife corridors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-ecological-balance">Restoring ecological balance</h2>



Efforts are also being made to reintroduce bettongs and potoroos into protected areas where they have previously disappeared. These rewilding projects aim to restore ecological balance and enhance biodiversity by reintroducing these marsupials into their native ranges.



By combining dietary research with habitat management and predator control, scientists and conservationists are taking a holistic approach to ensure the long-term survival of Australia's unique animals.



The study serves as a reminder that the intricate balance of Australian ecosystems hinges on the survival and prosperity of bettongs and potoroos.



Through continued research, community engagement, and integrated conservation efforts, there is hope for a future where these marsupials can thrive.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/AM/AM24006" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Mammalogy</a>.



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Marsupials are key to healthy ecosystems in Australia

Australia is known for its unique and diverse wildlife, but...

If we thought we knew everything about the fascinating world of dinosaurs, here's something to stir up our notions. The recent discovery of a species named Fona herzogae tells us that dinosaurs also led a life underground in burrows.



This new twist in the tale comes courtesy of a newly discovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/dinosaur_Fona-herzogae_cave-dwelling_Credit-Jorge-Gonzalez_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">burrowing relative of Thescelosaurus</a>, providing a fresh perspective on life during the mid-Cretaceous period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fona-herzogae-the-burrowing-dinosaur">Fona herzogae, the burrowing dinosaur</h2>



Making its home 99 million years ago in what constitutes present-day Utah, Fona herzogae painted a picture very different from our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koleken-inakayali-dinosaur-arms-smaller-than-t-rex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traditional</a> dinosaur imaginations.



Amid a large floodplain ecosystem with a backdrop of an inland ocean on one side, and volcanoes and mountains on the other, Fona was a plant-eating, small-bodied dinosaur that was quite distinct from its more decorated relatives.



Paleontologists from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> and the <a href="https://naturalsciences.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences</a> came across this intriguing species in the infamous Cedar Mountain Formation. 



Haviv Avrahami, a Ph.D. student at NC State and digital technician for the Dueling Dinosaurs program at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, is the first author of the paper describing the work. 



“The bias in the fossil record is toward bigger animals, primarily because in floodplain environments like the Mussentuchit, small bones on the surface will often scatter, rot away, or become scavenged before burial and fossilization,” Avrahami notes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underground-connection">Underground connection</h2>



The uniqueness of Fona lies in its several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-with-huge-blade-like-horns-discovered-in-montana/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anatomical features</a> that exemplify digging or burrowing qualities such as larger bicep muscles, strong muscle points on the hips and legs, fused bones along the pelvis - probably aiding in stability while digging -- and hindlimbs that are notably larger than forelimbs.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/dinosaur_Fona-herzogae_cave-dwelling_young-old_Credit-Jorge-Gonzalez_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/dinosaur_Fona-herzogae_cave-dwelling_young-old_Credit-Jorge-Gonzalez_1s.jpg" alt="Dinosaur species Fona herzogae, illustrated by Jorge Gonzalez" class="wp-image-1938684"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dinosaur species Fona herzogae, illustrated by Jorge Gonzalez</figcaption></figure>



Not just anatomical inference, the frequency of Fona fossils, according to Lindsay Zanno, associate research professor at NC State and head of paleontology at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, was alarmingly high for a little animal with fragile bones. 



“Essentially, Fona did the hard work for us, by burying itself all over this area,” Zanno notes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influence-of-fona-herzogae">Influence of Fona herzogae</h2>



Fona herzogae not only sharpens our understanding of dinosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-salamander-like-beast-gaiasia-jennyae-top-predator-before-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifestyles</a> but also broadens our knowledge of Cretaceous ecosystems.



“Fona gives us insight into the third dimension an animal can occupy by moving underground,” Avrahami adds, emphasizing the importance of its discovery in understanding the diversity of small-bodied herbivores. 



Zanno reiterates the importance of the discovery saying that we now understand that dinosaurs ranged from tiny arboreal gliders and nocturnal hunters to sloth-like grazers, and yes, even subterranean shelters.



As we unravel the mysteries encompassing the captivating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/incredibly-unusual-dinosaur-unearthed-in-mississippi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world of dinosaurs</a>, this new discovery roots us more deeply into the awe-inspiring aspects of evolution, making us ponder over the untold secrets that lay buried beneath the folds of time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-adaptations-of-fona-herzogae">Evolutionary adaptations of Fona herzogae</h2>



The discovery of Fona herzogae challenges established notions about dinosaurian evolution, specifically their adaptability to various ecological niches. 



Traditional perspectives often depict dinosaurs as either terrestrial, arboreal, or aquatic creatures.



The revelation of a burrowing dinosaur like Fona introduces a fourth dimension to this evolutionary paradigm, highlighting an impressive adaptability and versatility in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megaraptor-species-named-fujianipus-yingliangi-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological roles</a>. 



This underground niche occupation suggests that some dinosaurs developed complex behaviors and physical adaptations to escape predators, withstand harsh environmental conditions, or exploit subterranean food resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paleontological-methodology">Paleontological methodology</h2>



The findings associated with Fona herzogae not only enrich our understanding of dinosaur biodiversity but also suggest revisions in paleontological methodologies. 



The study underscores the importance of looking beyond the larger and more apparent fossils to discover smaller and potentially more elusive species.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/dinosaur_Fona-herzogae_cave-dwelling_3d-skull_Credit-Lindsay-Zanno_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/dinosaur_Fona-herzogae_cave-dwelling_3d-skull_Credit-Lindsay-Zanno_1s.jpg" alt="3D printed skull of Fona herzogae. Credit: Lindsay Zanno" class="wp-image-1938681"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">3D printed skull of Fona herzogae. Credit: Lindsay Zanno</figcaption></figure>



Advanced imaging techniques, detailed sediment analysis, and targeted excavation strategies could unearth a wealth of information about smaller-sized dinosaurs that might have previously gone unnoticed. 



As Avrahami and Zanno's work illustrates, these approaches can uncover pivotal information about the diversity and complexity of extinct ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Fona herzogae sets a precedent for future research focusing on lesser-known aspects of dinosaur life. Future studies could investigate other potential burrowing dinosaurs or similar adaptive behaviors among contemporaneous species.



Additionally, examining the environmental factors that facilitated the existence of burrowing dinosaurs during the Cretaceous period might provide further insights into their evolution. 



Collaborative efforts between paleontologists across various disciplines, such as geology, biology, and computer science, will be essential in piecing together these intricate details of the past.



As new techniques and technologies emerge, our understanding of these ancient creatures will continue to deepen, revealing the full spectrum of life during the age of dinosaurs.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ar.25505" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Anatomical Record</a>.



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Some dinosaurs dug burrows and lived underground

If we thought we knew everything about the fascinating world...

Deep within an Indonesian cave, a humble piece of art tells a story that dates back over 51,000 years. This remarkable painting, which depicts three human-like figures gathered around a large red pig, holds the title of the world's oldest known narrative artwork ever made by human hands.



Titled "A flaking image of three people around a big red pig," the painting stands testament to the dawn of human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-storytelling-structure-is-shaped-by-invisible-words/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storytelling</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-time-through-intricate-art">Unlocking time through intricate art</h2>



Scientists from Australia's esteemed <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a> made the remarkable discovery.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="eCT2iJgVX1-3729535-12187" type="single"]</div>



"This is the oldest evidence of storytelling," said Maxime Aubert, an archaeologist at the university. He was a member of the research team that had previously identified a 48,000-year-old hunting scene in another Indonesian cave.



This recent discovery, however, outdates the previous record holder by a substantial margin. "The first time we've passed the 50,000-year barrier," noted Aubert.



The study provides an enticing glimpse into human cognitive evolution, suggesting a highly sophisticated level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-artists-carved-incredibly-detailed-animal-tracks-onto-rocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storytelling</a> ability among early humans.



"Our discovery suggests that storytelling was a much older part of human history than previously thought," said archaeologist and co-author Adam Brumm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-boundaries-with-laser-dating">Pushing boundaries with laser dating</h2>



The dating of this ancient artwork was accomplished using a cutting-edge laser ablation technique, which involved the use of lasers and computer software to create a "map" of rock samples.



This innovative method proved to be more precise, efficient, and affordable than the traditional uranium series method. It also required substantially smaller rock samples.



The archaeological team first validated this technique on the previously discovered hunting scene. The experts determined that the painting is at least 48,000 years old, contradicting the initial estimate of 44,000 years.



The new laser method was then used to date the cave painting from Sulawesi Island, which resulted in a staggering age estimate of 51,200 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pig-imagery-in-cave-painting">Pig imagery in cave painting</h2>



One intriguing aspect of the ancient Indonesian artwork is the depiction of a large red pig, a motif that holds cultural and symbolic significance. 



Pigs were not merely subjects of artistic representation but were integral to the sustenance and rituals of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-were-often-buried-with-dogs-horses-and-other-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early human</a> communities.



The choice of a pig in the artwork could indicate its importance in the diet or spiritual practices of the people who created it. 



Understanding why early humans chose specific animals for their narratives can provide deeper insights into their daily lives, beliefs, and interactions with their environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-human-migration">Early human migration</h2>



This groundbreaking discovery also has implications for our understanding of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-early-humans-great-migration-reached-america-challenged-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human migration</a> patterns.



The presence of such sophisticated artwork in Indonesia suggests that early humans who migrated out of Africa were not only adept at survival but also carried with them a rich tradition of storytelling and artistic expression. 



This challenges the notion that complex cognitive abilities and cultural practices developed solely in Europe or the Middle East. Instead, it highlights a more diverse and widespread emergence of human creativity across different regions. 



Future research in other parts of the world may uncover additional pieces of this intricate puzzle, further expanding our understanding of humanity's shared <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negev-petroglyphs-ancient-art-rock-carvings-face-erosion-fungi-lichens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heritage</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-old-mystery-of-cave-paintings">Age-old mystery of cave paintings</h2>



The origins of human evolution can be traced back to Africa over 300,000 years ago. The first known images created by our ancestors are simple lines and patterns in ochre found in South Africa, dating back 100,000 years.



A "huge gap" follows this evidence until the Indonesian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-cave-paintings-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cave</a> paintings, dating back 50,000 years. Why such a gap? Why isn't art omnipresent throughout the timeline of human evolution?



While some suggest that older artworks might simply not have survived the test of time, others believe artifacts from the missing window of time are still out there, patiently awaiting discovery. 



Previously, it was believed that narrative art first surfaced in Europe. However, the Indonesian cave art - being so much older than what's been found elsewhere, including Europe - urges us to reassess these beliefs.



These revelations stand as a telling testament to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-ancestors-woodworking-sophisticated-techniques/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human creativity</a> and ingenuity, reminding us that pieces of our collective past might still be out there, etched into cave walls or buried under layers of history, eagerly waiting for us to unravel their ancient mysteries.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07541-7"></a><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07541-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Griffith University/AFP



Video Credit: Southern Cross University 



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World's oldest cave painting discovered in Indonesia

Deep within an Indonesian cave, a humble piece of art...

Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillars-use-their-hair-to-detect-predators-static-electricity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillars</a> exhibit specific food preferences that persist when they become butterflies. For example, monarch butterflies feed exclusively on milkweed, while Lime butterflies prefer lime leaves. 



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.nus.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National University of Singapore</a> (NUS) are investigating the origins of these dietary preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillar-odor-preferences-nbsp">Caterpillar odor preferences&nbsp;</h2>



A previous study by NUS researchers revealed that caterpillars develop a preference for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillar-noses-can-lead-to-safer-ways-to-protect-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smell</a> of leaves they consume outside their typical diet within a few days and pass this preference to their offspring. 



This adaptation can occur naturally when female butterflies lay eggs on non-typical plants. Caterpillars that feed on these new plants develop and inherit a preference for the new smell, potentially leading to host switching and the formation of new species with distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-when-butterflies-evolved-and-what-plants-they-used-for-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dietary preferences</a>.



“Since new food preferences develop in the brain of caterpillars, it was unclear how such preferences were inherited by their offspring,” said professor Antónia Monteiro, who led the research team.



“Offspring develop from the fusion of two cells (an egg and a sperm) produced in the gonads of each parent, which are located far from the brain. It was unclear how a smell preference was communicated to these cells,” explained lead author V. Gowri, a PhD student at NUS.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smell-preferences-across-generations-nbsp">Smell preferences across generations&nbsp;</h2>



To understand this adaptive behavior, the research team conducted experiments and discovered that hemolymph, the blood of the caterpillar, which bathes both the brain and reproductive organs, contains factors that promote the inheritance of new smell preferences.



A caterpillar's blood can transport factors from the brain to the gonads, influencing smell preferences in the next generation. Alternatively, it could transport these factors from food to the embryo's brain if included in the sperm or egg cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-preferences-in-caterpillar-blood-nbsp">Food preferences in caterpillar blood&nbsp;</h2>



To test if caterpillar blood contained such factors, newly hatched caterpillars were fed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-vegetation-database-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> with a new smell or a control plant. The researchers collected blood from mature caterpillars and injected it into others that had not consumed either plant type.



The experiment showed that caterpillars receiving blood from control-fed caterpillars maintained their usual diet. In contrast, those injected with blood from caterpillars fed with the new smell plants adapted to this dietary change. Remarkably, their offspring also inherited this new preference.



“This was very surprising to us, as this experiment shows that learning a preference towards a smell can occur without the need for the smell to enter the caterpillar's body via the antennae, as suggested in textbooks,” Monteiro said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanism-for-odor-learning-and-preference-nbsp">Mechanism for odor learning and preference&nbsp;</h2>



The findings suggest a possible mechanism for caterpillars to switch food preferences over evolutionary time. The researchers aim to further explore this mechanism and identify specific factors inherited across generations.



“These results indicate that factors in the haemolymph, potentially the odor molecule itself, play an important role in odor learning and preference transmission across generations,” wrote the study authors.



“Furthermore, this mechanism of odor preference inheritance, mediated by the haemolymph, bypasses the peripheral odor-sensing mechanisms taking place in the antennae, mouthparts or legs, and may mediate food plant switching and diversification in Lepidoptera or more broadly across insects.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-butterflies-and-milkweed-nbsp">Monarch butterflies and milkweed&nbsp;</h2>



Monarch butterflies and milkweed have a fascinating and crucial relationship. Monarchs are pretty much dependent on milkweed for their survival. The female monarchs lay their eggs exclusively on milkweed plants because their larvae (caterpillars) eat milkweed leaves as their sole food source.



The connection goes beyond just a food source. Milkweed contains toxic compounds that caterpillars ingest, making them unpalatable to predators.&nbsp;



This toxicity is carried through to their adult butterfly stage, offering them protection throughout their life cycle. The bright orange and black wings of Monarch butterflies are a warning sign to predators: "Stay away; I taste terrible!"



This dependence means that milkweed is critical to the survival of monarch butterflies. Unfortunately, with the decline of milkweed due to habitat loss and herbicide use, monarch populations have been struggling.&nbsp;



Many people are now planting milkweed in their gardens to help support these incredible creatures. It’s a simple but impactful way to contribute to the conservation of monarchs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2023.0595" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Caterpillars inherit food preferences through their blood 

Many caterpillars exhibit specific food preferences that persist when they...

Although tree species appear to prefer certain climates, their true preferences are often obscured by species interactions and dispersal limits.



During a recent yearlong sabbatical, Daniel Laughlin led a study that revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> can thrive in temperatures beyond their current habitats. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-tolerate-a-range-of-climates-nbsp">Trees tolerate a range of climates&nbsp;</h2>



“We were amazed. The result was crystal clear, and that doesn’t always happen in ecology,” said Laughlin, a professor in the <a href="https://www.uwyo.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wyoming</a> Department of Botany. 



“We found that tree species could grow and survive at one common moderate temperature, even though many species are only found in either cold or warm environments. In fact, many trees could expand their ranges by more than 25 percent based on their potential temperature tolerances.”



Laughlin is the lead author of a paper titled “Trees have overlapping potential niches that extend beyond their realized niches” published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adm8671" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-trees-respond-to-climate-change-nbsp">How trees respond to climate change&nbsp;</h2>



Co-authored by Brian McGill, a professor in the School of Biology and Ecology at the <a href="https://umaine.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maine</a>, the study aims to understand how species respond to rapid climate changes by examining occurrences of North American tree species in arboreta worldwide to measure their tolerance to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-global-temperature-exceeded-2c-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme temperatures</a>.



The researchers quantified the realized and potential thermal niches of 188 North American tree species to test the architecture of niches on a continental scale.&nbsp;



The study included 23 tree species native to Wyoming, such as the Engelmann spruce, the subalpine fir, and the ponderosa pine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-and-their-potential-niches-nbsp">Trees and their potential niches&nbsp;</h2>



According to Laughlin, the realized niche of a tree species is where it is found in nature, while the potential niche includes areas where it could survive but does not due to competition or dispersal limitations.&nbsp;



For example, the Engelmann spruce, typically found in high-elevation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-snowmelt-reduces-co2-absorption-in-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">subalpine forests</a>, could also survive in warmer, lower elevations but is outcompeted by faster-growing species like cottonwoods.



The study revealed that tree species at thermal extremes occupy less than 75% of their potential niches, with species’ potential niches overlapping at a mean annual temperature of 12 degrees Celsius (approximately 55 degrees Fahrenheit).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competition-with-other-tree-species-nbsp">Competition with other tree species&nbsp;</h2>



“When we walk in the woods, we see with our own eyes that tree species occur in distinct places. This is a core tenet of ecology,” Laughlin explained.&nbsp;



“However, where species are actually found in nature is a fraction of their potential distribution because competition with other species and dispersal limitation constrain where they actually occur.”



The findings challenge a core assumption of current methods for predicting species distributions, highlighting the need for ecologists to quantify the full range of environments tolerable to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-plants-adapt-to-changing-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>.



“This is a critical missing piece of information for predicting how they respond to a warming world,” Laughlin said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fundamental-temperature-tolerances-of-trees-nbsp">Fundamental temperature tolerances of trees&nbsp;</h2>



The results suggest that tree species will have varied fates with climate change. Cold-tolerant trees like Engelmann spruce may not need to move, while warm-tolerant species like live oak will need to migrate.



“North American tree species have been navigating changing climatic conditions for millions of years. We know that, over long time spans, trees have moved across the continent to track suitable climate conditions, but we don’t know how this will play out over the next few decades and centuries,” Laughlin said.&nbsp;



“For example, the climate in Laramie may soon be suitable for trees from the Southwest that are adapted to warmer conditions, but we are uncertain about which species will arrive first.”



“Understanding the fundamental temperature tolerances of trees is an important first step to improving our predictions of how tree species’ ranges will shift over time.”



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Trees have an amazing ability to adapt to new climates

Although tree species appear to prefer certain climates, their true...

For the first time, a team of researchers measured the heart rate of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-noisy-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> over several days in the wild, including full flight recordings.&nbsp;



The study involved attaching heart rate transmitters weighing less than one gram to male common noctule bats. 



The bats were tracked while they flew in search of food, with scientists following in an airplane for more than an hour at times.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-consumption-of-annuals">Energy consumption of annuals</h2>



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.0855" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, reveal significant insights into the energy consumption and survival strategies of bats.



The study was led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB) and the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a>. The goal was to understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-brain-energy-weight-gain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy expenditure</a> of male common noctule bats throughout the year.&nbsp;



“Understanding how animals meet their daily energy requirements is critical in our rapidly changing world,” wrote the researchers.



“Small organisms with high metabolic rates can conserve stored energy when food availability is low or increase energy intake when energetic requirements are high, but how they balance this in the wild remains largely unknown.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-budgets-of-bats">Energy budgets of bats</h2>



Study lead author Lara Keicher, an ecologist at Max Planck, noted that bats are fascinating animals that often share their habitat with us humans.



“But bats are still shrouded in mystery. We don't yet have a clear answer to simple questions such as: How much food do they need and can they find enough of it in different seasons to survive?”



To gather data, scientists fitted bats with heart rate transmitters weighing only 0.8 grams.&nbsp;



“To understand and accurately quantify energy budgets of bats in different stages of their life cycle, we studied free-ranging male common noctule bats, Nyctalus noctula, in southern Germany,” wrote the researchers.



“Nyctalus noctula is a representative insectivorous temperate-zone bat species with an annual life cycle characterized by periods of torpor and hibernation that are timed around different stages of the annual reproductive cycle and seasonal insect availability.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-bats-heart-rates-nbsp">Tracking the bats’ heart rates&nbsp;</h2>



The transmitters, which the bats wore for a few days, emitted audio signals of the bats' heartbeats, recorded using a radio receiver. This method allowed the researchers to track the bats' heart rates within a few hundred meters. 



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During the day, the recordings were straightforward as bats rested in tree caves or bat boxes. However, nighttime tracking required the researchers to fly a small airplane to follow the bats during their hour-long flights.



The researchers found that bats' heart rates could reach around 900 beats per minute during flight. “It sounded like a single high-pitched tone to our ears,” Keicher said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-conservation-strategies-of-bats">Energy conservation strategies of bats</h2>



The study revealed that male common noctule bats use different energy conservation strategies depending on the season.&nbsp;



In spring, the bats enter a state of torpor, reducing their heart rates to as low as six beats per minute to save energy. “We saw that bats in spring could ramp up their heart rates when they wake up, reaching the top speed of 900 beats per minute within only a few minutes,” Keicher added.



Interestingly, the team discovered that male bats do not use torpor during the summer.&nbsp;



“In the warmer months, when food is plentiful, males stay awake during the day to invest energy in sperm production in order to be ready for <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/male-bats-have-a-secret-mating-weapon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating</a> in the autumn,” she explained.&nbsp;



To compensate for the energy expended, male bats hunt twice as long in summer, consuming up to 33 June beetles or over 2500 mosquitoes in one night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energetic-challenges-faced-by-bats-nbsp">Energetic challenges faced by bats&nbsp;</h2>



The findings highlight the energetic challenges faced by bats and their survival strategies. This understanding is crucial for predicting how bats will be affected by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-waking-bats-up-too-early-from-hibernation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and changes in food availability.&nbsp;



“All bat species are protected in Germany and some are threatened with extinction. Basic research that investigates the behavior of the animals and their adaptations to the environment can help us develop protective measures,” concluded senior author Dina Dechmann, a biologist at Max Planck.



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Bats can ramp up their heart rate to 900 beats per minute

For the first time, a team of researchers measured the...

Polar regions are warming at a much faster rate compared to lower latitudes, a phenomenon referred to as “polar amplification.”&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC) has reported a ~5 °C rise in Arctic temperatures over the 20th century, with the highest rates of ~1 °C per decade since the 1980s. 



This rapid warming not only impacts the ecosystems of these regions but also has significant global consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vicious-cycle-of-ice-melt">Vicious cycle of ice melt</h2>



Ice and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-reveals-that-co2-is-rising-at-the-fastest-rate-in-50000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea ice</a> in both the Arctic and Antarctic play a crucial role in regulating climate through ice-albedo feedback. Ice reflects incoming solar radiation, helping to maintain cooler temperatures and preserve ice masses. 



As global temperatures rise, ice melts, exposing darker land and sea surfaces that absorb more solar radiation. This absorption warms the environment further, leading to more ice melt and perpetuating the cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atmospheric-moisture-and-cloud-cover">Atmospheric moisture and cloud cover</h2>



While the ice-albedo feedback is a significant concern, it is not the only mechanism that could lead to an ice-free world. Changes in atmospheric moisture and cloud cover can also affect radiation levels.&nbsp;



The exact contributions of albedo and atmospheric processes to polar amplification remain uncertain, making it difficult to predict the extent of future polar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-polar-regions-changing-fundamental-alarming-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> and ice melt accurately.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-driving-force-of-warming-polar-regions">Driving force of warming polar regions</h2>



To gain more insight, scientists examine Earth's geological past, particularly the Eocene epoch (~48–56 million years ago), a period when the planet was ice-free. This period helps isolate atmospheric processes as the driving force behind polar amplification, excluding large ice-albedo changes.&nbsp;



Research published in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1303-2024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate of the Past</a> has now quantified polar amplification during the Eocene, particularly during short-lived warming events known as hyperthermals, such as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (~56 Ma) and the Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (~54 Ma).



“At present, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-amplification-is-destabilizing-the-delicate-balance-of-the-ecosystem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar amplification</a> is a key uncertainty in predictions of future climate warming, with latest IPCC model estimates ranging from factor two to four. Polar warming has global consequences, because ice sheet melting causes sea level rise, but also because permafrost thaw can release large quantities of carbon dioxide,” said Chris Fokkema, a doctoral researcher at Utrecht University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-climate-of-polar-regions">Past climate of polar regions</h2>



The researchers used cell membrane lipid biomarkers from Nitrososphaera microorganisms to reconstruct sea surface temperatures during the Eocene.&nbsp;



This method, known as the TEX86 paleothermometer, involves analyzing the membrane lipids of archaea, which produce more rings in their lipid molecules at higher temperatures to maintain membrane rigidity.&nbsp;



The lipid molecules are well-preserved in sediments, allowing scientists to extract and analyze them from ancient marine sediments.



“This method is based on analyzing the membrane lipids of archaea that live near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizens-should-help-determine-the-future-of-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> surface. The simple principle behind this method is that these archaea produce relatively more rings in their membrane lipid molecules at higher ambient temperatures, to retain their membrane rigidity,” Fokkema explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-orbital-forcing-nbsp">The role of orbital forcing&nbsp;</h2>



The team analyzed sediments from Ocean Drilling Program cores in the tropical Atlantic Ocean off the coast of North Africa.&nbsp;



They found that temperature variability in the tropics was time-equivalent with that at high latitudes during hyperthermals and across Milankovitch cycles, suggesting global temperature changes driven by variations in Earth's orbit.&nbsp;



The scientists attribute these changes to orbital forcing, which affects the carbon cycle by influencing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-weaker-ocean-will-release-more-carbon-into-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> dioxide levels in the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-models-underestimate-polar-warming">Climate models underestimate polar warming </h2>



High latitude ocean temperatures during hyperthermals varied about twice as much as tropical surface oceans, indicating strong atmospheric feedbacks.&nbsp;



This finding suggests that current climate models may underestimate polar amplification, implying that future warming in the Arctic and Antarctic could be greater than predicted.



“Our new study shows that the current warming is already on the same scale as some of these hyperthermals, which strongly impacted climate and oceans. By comparing this new record to previously published open ocean bottom water temperatures we were able to calculate polar amplification on short timescales during multiple orbitally-forced global temperature changes,” said Fokkema.



“We found a polar amplification factor of ±2. Interestingly, this is slightly larger than the polar amplification that climate models predict in an ice-free, early Eocene world, which may imply that climate models underestimate polar warming for the future.”



Understanding polar amplification is crucial for predicting how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/abrupt-permafrost-thaw-releases-more-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">permafrost thawing</a> and ice sheet melting will impact sea level rise and the global carbon cycle. 



The insights gained from studying the Eocene period provide valuable information for refining climate models and improving our predictions of future climate change.



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Polar regions are rapidly warming with global consequences

Polar regions are warming at a much faster rate compared...

Prejudices are something we've all heard of through the age-old adage, "Monkey see, monkey do." 



Some may see it as a joke, but recent research suggests there's more truth to it than we may realize, specifically when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discrimination-speeds-up-aging-molecular-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forming prejudices</a>.



The way we view people and the biases we develop might not necessarily be a product of our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/self-serving-bias-distorting-beliefs-about-others-feel-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiences</a> but rather a reflection of the prejudice we witness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-formation-of-bias">Invisible formation of bias</h2>



So, what exactly is happening? According to this groundbreaking study helmed by psychologists from the University of Amsterdam (<a href="https://www.uva.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UvA</a>), our prejudices can be unconsciously formed simply by observing others' interactions. It's a phenomenon we may not be aware of, making it difficult for us to control.



"What we found in our research is that prejudice can form by merely observing other people's social interactions," said study co-author David Amodio.



"When an observer views a prejudiced person's interaction with a group member, they unconsciously form the same prejudice. Moreover, because observers are unaware that they picked up this bias, they go on to act with prejudice in their own behavior."



This unconscious bias extends beyond just forming an opinion. It can significantly impact our behavior as well. 



We can pick up this bias without realizing it and then act based on this prejudice in our own behavior. It's a subtle yet powerful way that prejudice can spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observational-prejudices-and-modern-living">Observational prejudices and modern living</h2>



As potent as this mechanism is, it becomes even more of a concern when we consider our exposure to prejudiced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/students-names-unfairly-impact-grades-due-to-alphabetical-bias/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> through multiple channels in this digital age.



A simple scroll through social media or a casual evening spent watching TV can expose us to numerous biased interactions that can subconsciously influence our biases.



This mechanism helps to explain how societal prejudices spread so easily, for example, through the viewing of TV programs, YouTube, or other social media where biased interactions with certain groups take place.



By merely observing those interactions, vicariously and with no direct contact, people may take on the same prejudices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlled-experiments-reveal-bias-formation">Controlled experiments reveal bias formation</h2>



The study carried out controlled experiments where participants watched an actor interact with two different groups. 



During the experiments, a research participant viewed interactions between an actor and members of two different groups. 



Across participants, the actor varied in prejudice, but the behavior of group members was always identical.



As predicted, the observers developed a preference aligned with the actor's prejudice, showing how easily we can internalize biases we see in others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deceptive-nature">Deceptive nature</h2>



What's even more alarming is how deceptive this mechanism can be. 



The study found that "observers were unaware that they were influenced by the prejudiced actor; instead, they misperceived worse behavior from group members who interacted with a prejudiced actor, when in fact, members of both groups acted the same."



"A troubling implication is that, because the observer believes that their preference is based on objective evidence, they have no reason to question it or control it," said Amodio.



In other words, we can grow convinced that our prejudice is based on personal observation and rightful judgement, making it harder to recognize our bias and change our behavior. 



Knowledge of this mechanism, as brought to light by these researchers, is a first step towards understanding and combating the unconscious formation of prejudices in society.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-unconscious-prejudice">Mitigating unconscious prejudice</h2>



Given the insidious nature of observational bias, the next logical step is developing strategies to mitigate its impact. 



One potential avenue is educational programs focused on awareness and critical thinking. Educating individuals about the existence and influence of unconscious prejudice can empower them to question their assumptions and the sources from which they derive their judgments.



Another promising approach involves promoting diverse and inclusive environments. By exposing individuals to a wide range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/income-inequality-and-carbon-emissions-have-a-complicated-relationship/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perspectives</a> and interactions, we can dilute the effects of observed prejudiced behavior. 



Encouraging media literacy and critical consumption of digital content can also help individuals recognize and filter biased portrayals they encounter.



Ultimately, while unconscious prejudice formed through observational learning presents a daunting challenge, understanding its mechanisms provides a pathway to fostering a more equitable society. 



By acknowledging the hidden ways in which biases are formed and actively working to counteract them, we can take significant steps towards reducing prejudice and promoting inclusivity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adk2030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Prejudice can form unconsciously by observing others' bias

Prejudices are something we've all heard of through the age-old...

We exist, thrive, and ponder upon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-life-has-inhabited-earth-since-the-very-first-cell-scientists-found-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>, but when it comes to understanding its beginnings, we've always found ourselves at a crossroads. Where did we come from? What did the world look like when life first emerged? A recent paper from <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Riverside</a> is now helping us piece together this complex puzzle using microbes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-life-on-earth">Early life on Earth</h2>



The research project, led by Christopher Tino, a Ph.D. candidate at UCR at the time of the study, and Timothy Lyons, a UCR distinguished professor of biogeochemistry, delves into unknown territories of Earth's biological history. 



The study fuses decades of research, breakthroughs, and data to tell a story about microbes, their evolution, and their impact on our planet.



Many studies have explored signs of early life preserved in ancient rocks, but this paper, weaves together this data with genomic studies of modern organisms and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-other-planets-collected-first-water-from-unexpected-source-planetesimals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolving chemistry</a> of early oceans, continents, and atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-and-early-life-forms">Microbes and early life forms</h2>



The paper reveals how primary life forms - O2-producing bacteria and methane-producing archaea - significantly influenced and were influenced by their surroundings. So, Earth, air, water, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> – they all evolved hand-in-hand, like a natural symphony.



“The central message in all of this is that you can't view any part of the record in isolation,” said Lyons. “This is one of the first times that research across these fields has been stitched together this comprehensively to uncover an overarching narrative.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-microbes">Journey of microbes</h2>



The paper also takes us on a journey of early life forms - how they survived, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origin-of-life-on-earth-may-have-been-found-in-ancient-hot-springs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapted</a>, and finally, flourished. As microbes gained in numbers, they began to shape their world around, most notably by producing oxygen via photosynthesis.



The research explores how microbial life consumed, transformed, and dispersed key nutrients like nitrogen, iron, manganese, sulfur, and methane across Earth. This biological evolution unfolded as Earth’s surface experienced significant changes, including the rise of continents and an increase in atmospheric oxygen.



How did these tiny organisms impact the planet's development? By understanding their role, we can better appreciate the intricate balance of life and the environment.



Microbes have been pivotal in shaping Earth’s biogeochemical cycles. This highlights their critical influence, inviting us to ponder the profound connections between life and our planet's history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-and-ancient-life">Microbes and ancient life</h2>



The researchers have also explored the trails of ancient life forms hidden in rocks billions of years old. The researchers used the chemistry of these rocks and the genomes of living relatives to get a comprehensive view of ancient life.



The study challenges the long-held assumption that life forms became dominant soon after their appearance on Earth. The journey from existence to prominence often took hundreds of millions of years. 



"Microbes that at first eked out an existence in narrow niches would later have their turn to be the big kids on the block," said Lyons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-a-fossil-hunt">More than just a fossil hunt</h2>



While this research feeds our curiosity about our origin, it also paints a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-soil-planet-warming-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">broader picture</a>. The study offers insights on how life and environments may respond to climate change, both in the immediate and distant future.



Moreover, the insights derived from this research could prove instrumental in our search for life beyond Earth. If we are ever going to find evidence for life beyond Earth, it will very likely be based on the processes and products of microorganisms, such as methane and O2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



Our understanding of life's early days is exponentially increasing, thanks to the relentless work of scientists like Christopher Tino, Timothy Lyons, and their team.&nbsp;



“In essence, we are describing Earth’s first flirtations with microbes capable of changing the global environment,” said Lyons.&nbsp;



“You need to understand the whole picture to fully grasp the who, what, when, and where as microbes graduated from mere existence to having a significant effect on the environment.”&nbsp;



So, whether you're pondering about our beginnings or wondering about extraterrestrial life, remember - it all starts with microbes and their remarkable journey. Isn't it amazing to consider how these tiny life forms have shaped, and continue to shape, the world we live in?



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-024-01044-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Microbiology</a>.



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Microbes laid the foundation for early life on Earth

We exist, thrive, and ponder upon life, but when it...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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