Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

If you’ve ever found it challenging to cut back on carbs, ancient DNA might offer an explanation.&nbsp;



New research reveals that humans have carried multiple copies of a gene responsible for breaking down starch, allowing us to efficiently digest foods that are high in carbs like bread and pasta. 



This genetic adaptation dates back far longer than previously thought, suggesting that our capacity to process starchy foods was an essential part of human evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-human-diets-and-carbs">Modern human diets and carbs </h2>



A study led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.buffalo.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Buffalo</a> (UB) and <a href="https://www.jax.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Jackson Laboratory</a> (JAX) sheds new light on how duplications of the salivary amylase gene (AMY1) began over 800,000 years ago, long before the advent of agriculture. 



These early duplications set the stage for the genetic diversity seen today, influencing how effectively modern humans digest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-starchy-foods-shaped-human-genomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">starch</a>. 



The study's findings, published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn0609" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>, offer critical insights into our evolutionary history and the role of diet in shaping our genomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-enzyme-for-starch-digestion">Key enzyme for starch digestion</h2>



The AMY1 gene produces amylase, an enzyme that starts breaking down starch in the mouth. More AMY1 copies mean higher amylase production, which can improve the digestion of starches.&nbsp;



Study senior author Omer Gokcumen is a professor in the Department of Biological Sciences at UB.&nbsp;



“The idea is that the more amylase genes you have, the more amylase you can produce and the more starch you can digest effectively,” said Gokcumen.&nbsp;



Amylase also plays a role in giving bread its characteristic taste as it breaks starch down into sugars.



The research team, including co-author Charles Lee, professor and Robert Alvine Family Endowed Chair at JAX, used advanced genome sequencing techniques, such as optical genome mapping and long-read sequencing, to study the AMY1 gene region in detail.&nbsp;



Traditional sequencing methods struggled to differentiate between the nearly identical gene copies in this region, but long-read sequencing enabled the researchers to map these variations with greater accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-diversity-of-ancient-hunter-gatherers-nbsp">Genetic diversity of ancient hunter-gatherers&nbsp;</h2>



By analyzing the genomes of 68 ancient humans, including a 45,000-year-old sample from Siberia, the team discovered that pre-agricultural hunter-gatherers already had a wide range of AMY1 copies, typically between four and eight per diploid cell.&nbsp;



This genetic diversity suggests that early humans in Eurasia were equipped to digest starchy foods well before they began domesticating plants.



The study also revealed that AMY1 gene duplications were present in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-may-belong-to-the-same-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> and Denisovans, indicating that these genetic variations began more than 800,000 years ago, long before the evolutionary split between modern humans and these ancient relatives. 



“This suggests that the AMY1 gene may have first duplicated more than 800,000 years ago, well before humans split from Neanderthals and much further back than previously thought,” said co-author Kwondo Kim, a scientist at the Lee Lab at JAX.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-ripples-of-variation">Genetic ripples of variation</h2>



The initial duplication of the AMY1 gene served as a starting point for further genetic variation, allowing humans to adapt to diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-diets-early-humans-richer-berries-nuts-plants-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diets</a> over time. 



As populations spread across different regions, having flexibility in the number of AMY1 copies provided an evolutionary advantage, especially in environments where starchy foods became more available.



“Following the initial duplication, leading to three AMY1 copies in a cell, the amylase locus became unstable and began creating new variations,” said co-author Charikleia Karageorgiou, a scientist at UB.&nbsp;



“From three AMY1 copies, you can get all the way up to nine copies, or even go back to one copy per haploid cell.” This variation enabled humans to adapt to different dietary needs as they encountered new food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-farming-influenced-genetic-variation">How farming influenced genetic variation</h2>



The shift from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to farming had a profound impact on the evolution of AMY1 copy numbers. While early humans already possessed multiple AMY1 copies, the rise of agriculture brought a surge in starch consumption, leading to further increases in gene copies. 



In particular, the average number of AMY1 copies among European farmers rose significantly over the past 4,000 years as their diets became increasingly starch-rich.



“Individuals with higher AMY1 copy numbers were likely digesting starch more efficiently and having more offspring,” Gokcumen explained.&nbsp;



“Their lineages ultimately fared better over a long evolutionary timeframe than those with lower copy numbers, propagating the number of the AMY1 copies.”&nbsp;



This trend mirrors findings from a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a> and published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07911-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, which reported that European populations expanded their average AMY1 copy number from four to seven over the last 12,000 years.



Interestingly, this genetic adaptation is not limited to humans. Gokcumen’s earlier research found that domesticated animals like dogs and pigs, which lived alongside humans, also developed higher AMY1 copy numbers compared to their wild counterparts, suggesting a parallel adaptation to starch-heavy diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-for-metabolic-health-insights">Potential for metabolic health insights</h2>



The study’s findings open new avenues for understanding how variations in AMY1 copy numbers may affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ketogenic-diet-improves-mental-and-metabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolic health</a> and glucose metabolism in humans. 



“Given the key role of AMY1 copy number variation in human evolution, this genetic variation presents an exciting opportunity to explore its impact on metabolic health and uncover the mechanisms involved in starch digestion and glucose metabolism,” said lead author Feyza Yilmaz, an associate computational scientist at JAX.



Future research could investigate how different AMY1 levels influence individual responses to high-carb diets, providing critical insights into nutrition and health. 



Understanding the evolutionary timeline of AMY1 gene duplications might also help researchers pinpoint when and how these genetic changes were most beneficial for human populations, shedding light on the interplay between genetics, diet, and adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-of-carbs-written-in-dna">A legacy of carbs written in DNA</h2>



This groundbreaking study highlights how ancient genetic adaptations continue to shape human biology today.&nbsp;



By tracing the evolution of the AMY1 gene across thousands of years, researchers have revealed the deep roots of our ability to eat carbs and digest starch, a skill that has been essential for survival across diverse environments and changing lifestyles. 



These insights not only deepen our understanding of human evolution but also pave the way for exploring the connections between ancient DNA, diet, and modern health.



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Our love of carbs may date back to the Neanderthals 

If you’ve ever found it challenging to cut back on...

Suspended 80,000 feet above New Mexico by a weather balloon, a pair of antennas juts out from a Styrofoam cooler, listening intently for signals that might improve air travel safety.&nbsp;



From this altitude, the transition between Earth's blue atmosphere and the darkness of space is visible, but the focus of these antennas is not the view; it's the experimental navigation technology being tested by researchers from <a href="https://www.sandia.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sandia National Laboratories</a> and <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio State University</a>.&nbsp;



The goal is to develop a backup system that could keep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-airplanes-are-worse-for-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">airplanes</a> on course when GPS signals are unavailable or unreliable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cell-phone-signals-to-assist-gps">Cell phone signals to assist GPS</h2>



The idea behind this research is to use alternative signals - radio frequencies from cell phone towers and non-GPS communication satellites - to calculate a vehicle’s position and velocity.&nbsp;



“We’re not trying to replace GPS,” said Jennifer Sanderson, Sandia's lead researcher. “We’re just trying to assist it in situations where it’s degraded or compromised,” which can pose risks to pilots and passengers if not addressed.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-consider-a-gps-backup">Why consider a GPS backup?</h2>



GPS remains the gold standard for navigation due to its speed, precision, and reliability, so why explore alternatives? “I worry about relying too heavily on it without a backup,” Sanderson, an expert in navigation algorithms, explained.&nbsp;



GPS is deeply embedded in the modern world, influencing activities ranging from aviation to agriculture and financial transactions.&nbsp;



This heavy reliance raises concerns about the impact of potential disruptions. “The impacts of losing GPS could be felt throughout society,” Sanderson noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-service-interruptions-and-air-safety">Service interruptions and air safety</h2>



Interruptions to GPS service are not rare, especially near conflict zones, where pilots may find GPS unreliable or unavailable.&nbsp;



Prolonged GPS outages increase the risk of accidents. One threat is GPS jamming - devices that emit disruptive signals on GPS frequencies.&nbsp;



“Commercial GPS receivers are susceptible to a couple different threats, one being jamming,” Sanderson said, adding that while such jamming devices are illegal, they can still be obtained.&nbsp;



Another issue is spoofing, where false signals are sent to mislead GPS receivers. Although spoofing is often associated with gaming, Sanderson highlights that it can have serious consequences in aviation.&nbsp;



“Pilots might not be able to tell if a signal is spoofed or genuine, leading them in the wrong direction,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-with-signals-of-opportunity">Navigating with “signals of opportunity”</h2>



The concept of using non-GPS signals for navigation, known as “signals of opportunity,” isn't entirely new, but it has typically been studied near the ground, such as in urban areas where buildings block GPS signals.&nbsp;



Unlike GPS, where location information is embedded in the signal, signals of opportunity often require measuring the physical properties of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-radio-waves-disrupt-the-magnetic-compass-of-migratory-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radio waves</a>, like the Doppler effect.&nbsp;



When a satellite moves toward a receiver, the radio waves compress, and as it moves away, they stretch. Using these changes, researchers can calculate their location relative to the signal source.



Sanderson’s team is pioneering the study of signals of opportunity at much higher altitudes. By collecting signal data from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-has-left-a-metal-mark-on-earths-stratosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stratosphere</a>, they hope to develop a navigation method that uses a network of radio frequency waves at those heights.&nbsp;



“So, we strap our payloads to these weather balloons and launch them into the air,” Sanderson explained. These payloads consist of electronic equipment housed in an insulated foam cooler, containing antennas that collect data high above the clouds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inconsistent-cell-phone-signals-nbsp">Inconsistent cell phone signals&nbsp;</h2>



This new method faces challenges, such as identifying and characterizing satellite and cell tower signals at these altitudes.&nbsp;



While satellite signals are strong, there can be gaps due to the cone-shaped transmission patterns that become narrower closer to the source.&nbsp;



Coverage over rural areas, like parts of New Mexico, may be inconsistent. Cell tower signal strengths can be estimated theoretically, but real-world conditions need to be tested.&nbsp;



“So far, the highest altitude we’ve reached is about 80,000 feet. In comparison, other studies we’ve seen have focused on 5,000 to 7,000 feet,” Sanderson said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precision-in-navigation-research-nbsp">Precision in navigation research&nbsp;</h2>



As the team continues to analyze their initial data, they are focused on overcoming technical challenges and refining their methods.&nbsp;



Sanderson emphasized the importance of precision in navigation research. “The not-sexy but very important side of navigation is understanding all your error sources.”&nbsp;



Her aim is to build a comprehensive dataset that can be used to create algorithms for real-time navigation systems, leading to hardware tests with actual data gathered from these high-altitude flights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-air-safety">Future of air safety </h2>



A key part of the project’s future is developing a system that can automatically match incoming signals to their transmitters and calculate a vehicle's position and speed in real-time.&nbsp;



Currently, the team is manually matching signals to satellites, which is time-consuming. “It can be quite tedious. So, one big aspect we need to address is automating this process,” Sanderson said.



Despite these challenges, the scientists remain hopeful about the potential of their work.&nbsp;



“While we are still processing the flight data, we believe our preliminary findings indicate that we detected cell tower signal beacons at our peak altitude of about 82,000 feet,” noted Sanderson.



“If these signals are clean enough for navigation, it will significantly change what we thought was possible for alternative navigation.”



The team's efforts could pave the way for a robust backup navigation system, providing a safety net for aircraft in situations where GPS is compromised, ultimately enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aviations-contribution-to-climate-change-is-expected-to-intensify/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aviation</a> safety and resilience.



The team's preliminary findings were shared at the <a href="https://www.ion.org/gnss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Navigation GNSS+ conference</a> in Baltimore, from September 16-20.&nbsp;



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Can cell phone signals help airplanes land safely?

Suspended 80,000 feet above New Mexico by a weather balloon,...

Why does the rooster crow while the hen remains silent? This intriguing question led scientist Arnold Adolph Berthold, in the mid-19th century, to castrate a rooster. The result was telling: the rooster's morning crow ceased.&nbsp;



While Berthold did not know the exact substance responsible, we now understand that the sex hormone testosterone plays a key role in such male-specific behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testosterone-and-the-androgen-receptor">Testosterone and the androgen receptor</h2>



Although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-with-low-testosterone-have-a-higher-risk-of-mortality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">testosterone</a> is present in females and has important functions, it is classically referred to as the “male hormone.” It significantly contributes to sexual development, appearance, and aggressive behavior in males. 



To exert its function, testosterone binds to the so-called androgen receptor. This binding activates the receptor and triggers the production of certain proteins within the cell.&nbsp;



However, testosterone can also be metabolized into estrogen - the “female hormone” - which binds to a different receptor. This complexity raises the question: when we talk about testosterone and its effects, what is the role of the androgen signaling pathway?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormone-signaling-in-birds">Hormone signaling in birds</h2>



A team of scientists led by Benjamin Schusser (<a href="https://www.tum.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Munich</a>) and Manfred Gahr (<a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a>) delved deeper into this question using birds as a model. 



The researchers noted that, unlike mammals, avian cells possess cell autonomous sex identity, allowing somatic cells to develop sexual traits independent of hormonal influence due to the absence of sex chromosome dosage compensation.&nbsp;



“This unique characteristic has significant implications, potentially leading to the manifestation of sexual traits differing from gonadal sex expectations,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



The experts pointed out that male chickens with experimentally reversed gonads develop complete sexual ornaments typical of roosters, challenging the notion that these traits are driven by testicular hormones.&nbsp;



“Our study aims to unravel the intricate interplay between hormonal and cell autonomous mechanisms in avian sexual development by investigating the role of androgen signaling through androgen receptor knockout in chickens.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research</h2>



Using the CRISPR-Cas method, the researchers created genetically modified chickens lacking the androgen receptor. This allowed them to study, for the first time, the effects of androgen signaling on the development, appearance, and behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicken-domestication-humans-timeline-silk-road-evidence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chickens</a>.



Chickens were particularly well-suited for this study. They are intelligent and social animals exhibiting gender-specific behaviors, such as roosters crowing in the morning. This made them ideal subjects to observe the consequences of disrupting the androgen signaling pathway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-outcomes-in-modified-chickens">Surprising outcomes in modified chickens</h2>



As expected, examinations of the young roosters showed they were infertile. Additionally, some typical external sexual characteristics were underdeveloped, including the comb, wattle, and earlaps.&nbsp;



Interestingly, other traits remained unaffected by the genetic modification: the tail feathers and the spurs were comparable to normal roosters.



“We were surprised to find that the male traits were only partially lost. The outer appearance of roosters is therefore not solely determined by the androgen signaling pathway,” explained Mekhla Rudra, a co-lead author of the study.



Young hens without the androgen receptor showed a very similar pattern. They were also infertile, and their typical head ornaments were much smaller than normal.&nbsp;



Consequently, young roosters and hens were almost indistinguishable in appearance - quite unlike chickens that carry the androgen receptor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-hormones-in-birds">The role of hormones in birds</h2>



Surprisingly, although adult females continued to produce testosterone, without the androgen receptors they never laid eggs nor ovulated, showing that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-reptile-or-the-egg-come-first-scientists-have-changed-their-minds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">egg</a> formation and laying are androgen-dependent.



The results demonstrate that testosterone plays an important role in both sexes. It is therefore too simplistic to describe it as a pure male hormone. The way the hormone works is complex and not yet fully understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-interplay-in-sexual-development">Complex interplay in sexual development</h2>



The study provides general insights into the sexual development of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polygamous-birds-carry-fewer-harmful-genetic-mutations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, revealing a complex interplay of hormone-dependent and hormone-independent mechanisms. 



By understanding these processes, scientists can better comprehend how hormones influence development and behavior across different species.



“These findings highlight the significance of androgen receptor mechanisms in fertility and sex-specific traits in chickens, challenging the concept of a default sex in birds and emphasizing the dominance of androgen signaling in avian sexual development,” the authors concluded.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52989-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Female birds need a ‘male hormone’ for sexual development 

Why does the rooster crow while the hen remains silent?...

Since its launch in 2021, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has opened new possibilities for detecting signs of life on exoplanets, planets beyond our solar system.&nbsp;



A prime focus in this search is rocky planets orbiting low-mass stars called M-dwarfs, the most common type of stars in the universe. 



Among the nearby candidates is TRAPPIST-1, an M-dwarf located about 40 light years away, hosting a system of planets that has become a focal point in the search for extraterrestrial life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-to-planet-habitability">Challenges to planet habitability</h2>



Past research raised concerns about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitable-worlds-new-strategy-to-identify-planets-that-may-host-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitability</a> of planets around TRAPPIST-1, suggesting that intense ultraviolet (UV) radiation could strip these planets of surface water. 



This desiccation would leave dry surfaces, and if the hydrogen from water vapor escaped into space while oxygen remained, it could result in an atmosphere rich in reactive oxygen, potentially hindering the chemistry needed for life to develop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rocky-planets-with-stable-atmospheres-nbsp">Rocky planets with stable atmospheres&nbsp;</h2>



However, a new study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52642-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a> suggests that certain rocky planets around M-dwarfs might have atmospheres that remain stable over time.



Study lead author Joshua Krissansen-Totton is an assistant professor of Earth and space sciences at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW).



“One of the most intriguing questions right now in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanet</a> astronomy is: Can rocky planets orbiting M-dwarf stars maintain atmospheres that could support life?" 



"Our findings give reason to expect that some of these planets do have atmospheres, which significantly enhances the chances that these common planetary systems could support life," said Krissansen-Totton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rocky-planets-in-the-habitable-zone-nbsp">Rocky planets in the habitable zone&nbsp;</h2>



So far, the JWST has observed some of the hotter rocky planets close to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trappist-1-has-seven-earth-like-planets-that-may-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TRAPPIST-1</a> and found that these do not have significant atmospheres. 



However, the telescope has not yet been able to fully study planets in the “Goldilocks zone” - regions where conditions might allow for liquid water and thus increase the potential for life. 



In this zone, temperatures are just right, not too hot or too cold, making it a prime area for further exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-the-formation-of-rocky-planets">Modeling the formation of rocky planets</h2>



The new study modeled the evolution of a rocky planet from its molten beginnings to its cooling over hundreds of millions of years.&nbsp;



The results indicated that while light gasses like hydrogen initially escaped into space, those further from their star retained some hydrogen through reactions with oxygen and iron in their interiors.&nbsp;



This process led to the formation of water and heavier gasses, creating a stable atmosphere over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-temperate-exoplanets">Searching for temperate exoplanets</h2>



The researchers also found that on planets in the Goldilocks zone, water tends to condense and rain out of the atmosphere, making it less likely to escape. This increases the possibility of maintaining a stable climate and liquid water on the surface.&nbsp;



“It's easier for the JWST to observe hotter planets closest to the star because they emit more thermal radiation, which isn't as affected by the interference from the star. For those planets we have a fairly unambiguous answer: They don't have a thick atmosphere,” said Krissansen-Totton.



“For me, this result is interesting because it suggests that the more temperate planets may have atmospheres and ought to be carefully scrutinized with telescopes, especially given their habitability potential.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-prospects-in-the-search-for-life">Future prospects in the search for life</h2>



While the JWST has not yet confirmed the presence of atmospheres on planets slightly farther from TRAPPIST-1, such a discovery would imply the potential for surface liquid water and a climate favorable for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-expands-the-habitable-zone-where-we-may-find-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>. 



“With the telescopes that we have now, the James Webb and the extremely large ground-based telescopes coming soon, we’re really only going to be able to look at a very small number of habitable zone rocky planets’ atmospheres - it’s the TRAPPIST-1 planets and a couple of others,” Krissansen-Totton said.



He emphasizes that the study supports the value of using current technology to continue exploring the habitability of these planets rather than waiting for future, more advanced telescopes.&nbsp;



“Given the huge interest in the search for life elsewhere, our result suggests that it’s worthwhile investing telescope time to continue studying the habitability of these systems with the technology we have now.”



The findings provide a more optimistic outlook for the possibility of life on exoplanets orbiting M-dwarfs, suggesting that some planets in these systems could harbor conditions suitable for life, making them compelling targets for ongoing and future astronomical research.



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Rocky planets: A new target in the search for extraterrestrial life

Since its launch in 2021, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope...

North Atlantic right whales are at the crossroads of endangerment and proactive resolutions. The latest estimates from the North Atlantic Right Whale Consortium point to a population that is teetering on the brink of extinction.



The data for the year 2023 reveals an alarming number of only approximately 372 of these gentle giants. This is a slight increase from the previous year's figure of 356, but it's clear that the situation is still dire.



These whales face numerous threats, primarily from vessel strikes and entanglement in fishing gear. In 2024 alone, at least four North Atlantic right whales were killed.



This urgent situation demands immediate action from global authorities like the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA), Fisheries and Oceans Canada, and Transport Canada. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-voice-for-the-whales">A voice for the whales</h2>



The troubled plight of North Atlantic right whales triggered hard-hitting reactions from <a href="https://oceana.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oceana</a>, a leading ocean advocacy group.



“While an increase in population is hopeful, the North Atlantic right whales washing up dead on our shores speak for themselves - we must stop killing them," said Gib Brogan, campaign director at Oceana in the United States.



"Five of this year’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-north-atlantic-right-whales-have-fewer-offspring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calves</a> were killed or are missing and presumed dead, including the first calf of the season who was struck by a boat and died a slow, painful, and preventable death."



Brogan noted that NOAA’s proposed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ships-are-disregarding-efforts-to-protect-north-atlantic-right-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vessel speed rule</a> to update slow zones for ships would have protected these whales when they were at their most vulnerable, but this plan is gathering dust&nbsp;after more than 800 days. 



"President Biden must approve and implement the updated vessel speed rule soon, before we see moms and calves on our shores this calving season instead of in our waters."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-halting-two-major-threats-to-whales">Halting two major threats to whales</h2>



Kim Elmslie, campaign director at Oceana Canada, emphasized the need for action. "Today’s news that the North Atlantic right population has increased slightly is positive, but the threats of vessel strikes and entanglement remain present." 



Elmslie noted that right whales have faced a devastating year, with nine deaths and five entanglements. She said that more must and can be done to stop the two major threats to right whale’s survival - vessel strikes and entanglements in fishing gear. 



"To ensure whales and fisheries can coexist in Canada, the government must implement ropeless fishing gear in high-risk areas. Additionally, all vessel slowdowns must be mandatory and be applied throughout the range where right whales are found to reduce ship strikes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-once-thriving-but-now-struggling">Once thriving, but now struggling </h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-atlantic-right-whales-critically-endangered-relocated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Atlantic right whales</a> were once a frequent sight off the shores. Moving at a leisurely pace, they were easy targets for aggressive whalers. Their population spiraled sharply downwards from 21,000 to less than 100 individuals by the 1920s.



Whaling was banned for this species in 1935. By 2010, they showed a promising rebound to about 483 individuals. But their numbers have been dwindling since, placing them back on the endangered list.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deadly-dangers-faced-by-whales">Deadly dangers faced by whales</h2>



Ship strikes are a significant threat, given that these whales swim slowly, close to the surface, and their dark color makes them difficult to spot. This, along with the inability to maneuver quickly, leads to fatal encounters with boats.



The tragic saga continues with many of the whales getting entangled in fishing gear, causing severe physical damage and hindering their mobility, reproduction, and feeding abilities. 



A shocking 85% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/right-whale-populations-reach-new-low/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> has experienced entanglement at least once, making it critical that changes are made in fishing practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overwhelming-public-support">Overwhelming public support</h2>



A recent national poll conducted in 2024 by nonpartisan polling company Ipsos captured the sentiment of the American public. 



The results depicted a unified voice, stating that 86% of American voters believe it is vital to protect North Atlantic right whales from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-face-a-number-of-threats-and-most-are-human-related/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-caused threats</a>.



Overall, 83% of respondents agreed that human activities, specifically those involving shipping, boating, and vertical-line fishing, should be adapted to ensure they do not harm these marine creatures.



This public opinion shines a light on the path forward. We must bring about significant policy changes and implement proactive measures to save these incredible creatures from the brink of extinction. 



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Can we stop the extinction of North Atlantic right whales?

North Atlantic right whales are at the crossroads of endangerment...

Life, as we know it, relies on the balance of energy and essential nutrients. Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), found in insects and arachnids, play a critical role in this equilibrium. 



These organisms are particularly crucial to birds, hedgehogs, and lizards, although the advantages hinge heavily on the kind of insects and spiders consumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-with-fatty-acids">Insects with fatty acids</h2>



You may be surprised to learn that aquatic insects like dragonflies or caddisflies are richer in omega-3 long-chain PUFA than their land-based counterparts.



Why? The base of the food chain in aquatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-light-sustains-biodiversity-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> is algae that are rich in omega-3 LC-PUFA.



Fatty acids pile up in food chains. Take mayflies, for instance, which consume the algae and are subsequently eaten by fish. The mayfly tends to contain more fatty acids than the algae it feeds on; however, the fish that preys on mayflies often has even more. 



There are a plethora of studies on this topic, as well as those exploring how plant or algal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> impacts the biomass in ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-insects-and-fatty-acids">Biodiversity, insects, and fatty acids</h2>



Cornelia Twining is the leader of the Food Web Ecophysiology group at the aquatic research institute Eawag and a professor at ETH Zurich.



"Unfortunately, knowledge about how insect and arachnid biodiversity might influence the availability of fatty acids in a food web is rather scant," said Twining. She, alongside her colleagues, is working hard to bridge this knowledge gap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-use-and-nutrient-availability">Land use and nutrient availability </h2>



Based on data including over half a million observations of approximately 7,600 insect and spider species across Switzerland, the research spanned 400 aquatic ecosystems and 300 terrestrial ecosystems.



These ecosystems varied in terms of land usage, ranging from natural habitats such as meadows and forests to city-center sites and agricultural areas.



“We were interested in how land use shapes energy and nutrient availability and whether there are key differences between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems,” said Ryan Shipley, researcher at the<a href="https://www.wsl.ch/en/about-wsl/locations/slf-davos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> WSL institute for snow and avalanche research SLF</a> and lead author on the study.



“Land use change ranks among the most urgent global challenges, making it essential to understand how human activities impact fundamental ecosystem functions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fatty-acid-content-in-insects">Fatty acid content in insects</h2>



The data analysis showed that in the studied communities, a decrease in insect and spider biodiversity resulted in a decline in biomass and key fatty acids content. 



"In terrestrial communities, we also see significant differences depending on land use," said Twining. Even when biodiversity is the same, insect and spider communities in a city park typically provide fewer omega-3 LC-PUFA than those in a forested area.



"This is partly due to the different species composition of these populations, and partly because the biomass is smaller in urban areas: there are also fewer predators like spiders or large beetles, which accumulate LC-PUFA in terrestrial systems," explained Twining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-use-and-aquatic-ecosystems">Land use and aquatic ecosystems</h2>



What came as a surprise to scientists was that the land use effect is much less pronounced in aquatic communities. 



On land, the differences are more stark if predators like spiders, which accumulate high amounts of essential fatty acids, vanish from the ecosystem, the impact is substantial. "Yet, this does not imply that the diversity of aquatic insects is not equally important," Twining stresses.



Aquatic organisms are crucial sources of fatty acids for terrestrial food webs. In urban areas, where loss of insects and spiders is high due to increased human land use pressure, aquatic insects become an even more important source of essential fatty acids for birds, bats, or lizards. 



But these important "superfoods" are often tainted with pollutants in streams, rivers, and lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-protecting-biodiversity">Importance of protecting biodiversity </h2>



“Our study shows how important it is to protect biodiversity, especially in agricultural and urban areas, and to improve water quality in order to preserve food webs for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-know-far-less-about-four-footed-animals-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> functioning," said Twining.



The research contributes to the Blue-Green Biodiversity Research Initiative - an Eawag-WSL collaboration focusing on biodiversity at the interface of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.



Funded by the ETH Board, the initiative reminds us why biodiversity is so crucial to the interconnectedness of our natural world.



So, next time you swat away a persistent fly or squash a crawling spider, remember, they're an essential link in the food chain, providing valuable nutrients for a multitude of creatures, including ourselves. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp6198" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Insects provide essential fatty acids to other animals

Life, as we know it, relies on the balance of...

Ever felt like you can't remember where you left your keys after a late night of binge-watching your favorite show? That could be more than just a coincidence. 



A new study points to a fascinating, yet slightly alarming, connection between the quality of sleep in your early middle age years and the state of your brain health in late middle age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-s-role-in-brain-health">Sleep's role in brain health</h2>



It turns out that sleep, our nightly escape from reality, might be a significant player in maintaining the health of our most valuable organ - the brain and its age-related changes.



But, as is often the case with scientific research, this study does not claim that sleeping poorly accelerates brain aging. Still, it has highlighted a noteworthy association between inadequate sleep quality and signs of an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging brain</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-sleep-and-brain-health">Unraveling sleep and brain health</h2>



The study was led by Dr. Clémence Cavaillès at the University of California San Francisco. According to Cavaillès, prior research has suggested a link between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reboot-switch-in-brain-activates-as-you-sleep-to-make-room-for-new-memories-barr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep problems</a> and deteriorating cognitive skills, thus increasing the risk of dementia in later years.



"Our study, which used brain scans to determine participants’ brain age, suggests that poor sleep is linked to nearly three years of additional brain aging as early as middle age," noted Dr. Cavaillès.



This enlightening research included 589 participants with an average age of 40 at the beginning of the study.



The individuals were asked to complete sleep questionnaires at the start of the investigation and five years later. The participants' brains were scanned 15 years post the study's commencement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poor-sleep-characteristics">Poor sleep characteristics</h2>



The researchers examined responses to questions such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequency of night awakenings, and waking up too early.



They tracked six poor sleep characteristics, including short sleep duration, poor sleep quality, trouble falling asleep, difficulty staying asleep, early morning awakening, and daytime sleepiness - all related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain age impacts</a>.



Participants were then divided into three groups based on their sleep characteristics - low, middle, and high.



Interestingly, the study found that about 70% of the participants were in the low group, indicating no more than one poor sleep characteristic.



On the other hand, 22% were in the middle group, with two to three bad sleep characteristics, and 8% were in the high group, indicating more than three poor sleep characteristics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-age-assessment">Brain age assessment</h2>



The researchers used cutting-edge machine learning techniques to examine participants' brain scans and determine their "brain age" based on the level of brain shrinkage.



So, does poor sleep quality indeed lead to an "older" brain?



After adjusting for factors such as age, sex, high blood pressure, and diabetes, the experts found that people in the middle group had an average brain age that was 1.6 years older than those in the low group. 



This disparity increased for those in the high group, who had an average brain age that was 2.6 years older.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-sleep-problems-early">Addressing sleep problems early </h2>



With four out of six sleep characteristics - bad sleep quality, difficulty falling and staying asleep, and early morning awakening - linked to greater brain age, the importance of good sleep hygiene in preserving brain health is apparent.



These findings were particularly significant when individuals demonstrated consistent poor sleep characteristics over five years.



Study co-author Dr. Kristine Yaffe is an expert in the epidemiology of dementia and cognitive aging at the University of California San Francisco and a member of the American Academy of Neurology.



“Our findings highlight the importance of addressing sleep problems earlier in life to preserve brain health, including maintaining a consistent sleep schedule, exercising, avoiding caffeine and alcohol before going to bed and using relaxation techniques,” said Dr. Yaffe.



“Future research should focus on finding new ways to improve sleep quality and investigating the long-term impact of sleep on brain health in younger people.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-deprivation-and-brain-health">Sleep deprivation and brain health</h2>



While this study presents compelling findings, it's crucial to note that its basis was participants' self-reported sleep problems. Therefore, it is possible that sleep issues were not reported accurately.



So, the next time you consider stretching your waking hours into the night, remember, your brain might be footing the bill for that sleep deprivation.



As we continue to unravel the mysterious relationship between sleep and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wake-up-in-your-dreams-exploring-the-world-of-lucid-dreaming-sleep-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>, one thing seems clear - better sleep today could mean a healthier brain tomorrow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>.



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Poor sleep habits may age the brain faster

Ever felt like you can't remember where you left your...

The noses of many mammals, including dogs, ferrets, and cows, display intricate networks of grooves forming polygonal patterns.&nbsp;



Researchers at the University of Geneva have now uncovered how these patterns develop during embryonic growth using advanced 3D imaging and computer simulations.



The study reveals that the differential growth rates between skin tissue layers result in dome-shaped structures that are mechanically supported by underlying blood vessels.&nbsp;



This newly described morphogenetic process could provide insights into the formation of other biological structures that are influenced by blood vessels. The findings have been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.09.055" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-natural-patterns">Exploring natural patterns</h2>



The living world is filled with a wide variety of fascinating shapes and patterns. Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oldest-organisms-ever-discovered-show-dazzling-diversity-and-complexity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a> are instantly recognizable by their unique designs, such as the stripes on zebras or the spots on cheetahs. 



Even pine cones display characteristic spiral arrangements. These patterns are shaped by different morphogenetic processes, which govern the development of forms during an organism's early stages.



There are two main types of morphogenesis. One involves self-organizing chemical reactions, as described by Alan Turing's reaction-diffusion model, where interacting chemical substances can create consistent patterns like animal stripes or spots.&nbsp;



Another type is influenced by mechanical forces, such as differential growth rates. An example of this is the folding of the human brain's cortex, where the outer layer grows faster than the inner layers, resulting in convolutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-dog-nose-patterns">Formation of dog nose patterns</h2>



Michel Milinkovitch, a professor in the Department of Genetics and Evolution at the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Geneva</a>, and his research team study the developmental mechanisms behind life's diversity. 



“Finding specific examples of beautiful patterns in living organisms is easy. All we have to do is look around us! Our latest study focuses on the noses of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-see-with-their-noses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, ferrets and cows, which exhibit a singular network of polygonal structures,” he explained.



In particular, the naked skin on the rhinarium - the nose area of many mammals - features a network of grooves that form polygons. These grooves help retain moisture on the nose, aiding in the collection of pheromones and scent molecules.&nbsp;



To better understand how these patterns develop, the Geneva team collaborated with scientists from the <a href="https://www.universite-paris-saclay.fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University Paris-Saclay</a>, the <a href="https://www.vet-alfort.fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfort National Veterinary School</a> (EnvA), and the Institute of Neurosciences in Alicante. They collected samples from dog, cow, and ferret embryos for their study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visualizing-dog-noses-in-3d">Visualizing dog noses in 3D</h2>



The researchers used “light sheet fluorescence microscopy” to observe these samples, allowing them to create three-dimensional images of biological structures. 



They found that the polygonal networks of folds in the outer skin layer, or epidermis, appear during embryonic development in all three <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-mammals-live-depends-more-on-climate-than-human-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal</a> species. 



These epidermal patterns aligned perfectly with a network of stiffer blood vessels in the deeper dermis layer. Additionally, they observed that the cells in the epidermis proliferate more quickly than those in the dermis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-vessels-as-structural-supports">Blood vessels as structural supports</h2>



The research team developed a mathematical model and performed computer simulations to understand this growth process.&nbsp;



The model accounted for the differing growth rates between the epidermis and dermis, their relative stiffness, and the presence of blood vessels in the dermis.&nbsp;



“Our numerical simulations show that the mechanical stress generated by excessive epidermal growth is concentrated at the positions of the underlying vessels, which form rigid support points,” explained study lead author Paule Dagenais, a postdoctoral fellow at UNIGE.



“The epidermal layers are then pushed outwards, forming domes - akin to arches rising against stiff pillars.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-mechanism-in-morphogenesis">New mechanism in morphogenesis</h2>



The findings indicate that in the formation of mammalian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nose</a> patterns, the positioning of polygonal structures in the epidermis is dictated by the layout of rigid blood vessels in the dermis. 



These vessels create local constraints as the epidermis grows, resulting in the formation of grooves and domes at specific sites.&nbsp;



“This is the first time that this mechanism, which we call 'mechanical positional information,' has been described to explain the formation of structures during embryonic development,” said Milinkovitch.&nbsp;



“But we are confident that it will help explain the formation of other biological structures associated to the presence of blood vessels.”



This discovery not only sheds light on the unique patterns seen in mammalian noses but also opens the door to understanding how similar processes might shape other biological forms during development.



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How did dog noses get their unique patterns?

The noses of many mammals, including dogs, ferrets, and cows,...

Rare elephant fossils found in India have illuminated a crucial activity that shaped the survival strategies of our human ancestors - animal butchery. 



Early butchery provides fascinating insights into the history of human evolution. In the late middle Pleistocene period, about 300,000 to 400,000 years ago, a group of ancient elephants died near a river in the Kashmir Valley.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-the-elephant-remains">Discovery of the elephant remains</h2>



The sediment preserved the prehistoric elephant remains for future generations. The scene included 87 stone tools, shining a light on the habits of early humans.



The elephant remains were discovered in 2000 near Pampore, a small town in India. However, the scientists did not know the elephants' cause of death or any possible human involvement. The mysteries surrounding these fossils remained unsolved for two decades.



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> has recently dug deeper into the history of the bones, unveiling findings that contribute significantly to our understanding of early human life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-butchery-and-elephant-bones">Early butchery and elephant bones</h2>



The researchers discovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-behavior-provides-new-insights-into-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> bone flakes that hint at early humans striking the bones to extract rich, fatty marrow.



This finding represents the first evidence of animal butchery in India and provides insights into the diet and survival strategies of humanity's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-coexisted-with-dinosaurs-yes-according-to-shocking-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestors</a>.



The rarity of the fossils amplifies their significance. They belonged to an extinct elephant genus, Palaeoloxodon, which weighed twice as much as today's African elephants.



Only one other set of bones from this species had been found, making these fossils invaluable due to their completeness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-were-the-hominins">Who were the hominins?</h2>



The term "hominin" refers to modern humans, extinct human species, and all immediate ancestors.



"The question is, who are these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-early-hominins-use-stone-tools-like-chimpanzees-do-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominins</a>? What are they doing on the landscape and are they going after big game or not?” said Advait Jukar, a curator of vertebrate paleontology at the Florida Museum.



This question looms large in the paleontology world since the discovery of the Narmada human, the only fossil hominin found in the Indian subcontinent. The remains were discovered on the bank of the&nbsp;Narmada River in 1982.



Considering the Narmada human's intriguing mix of features from older and recent hominin species, early human dispersal in India piqued scientists' curiosity.



“Now we know for sure, at least in the Kashmir Valley, these hominins are eating elephants,” said Jukar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butchery-elephants-and-stone-tools">Butchery, elephants, and stone tools</h2>



Early humans used the basalt <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> found at the Pampore site for marrow extraction.



Basalt is not native to the site's local area, which led the researchers to theorize that early humans brought raw materials in from elsewhere and then shaped them at the site.



The method of construction determined the age of the site and its tools, placing them between 300,000 and 400,000 years old.



Before this find, the first known instance of butchery in India was less than 10,000 years old. The study moves the timeline back considerably.



“It might just be that people haven’t looked closely enough or are sampling in the wrong place,” noted Jukar. “But up until now, there hasn’t been any direct evidence of humans feeding on large animals in India.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-story-of-palaeoloxodon">Story of Palaeoloxodon</h2>



The experts identified the complete specimen found in Pampore as the extinct elephant genus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-skull-found-in-india-adds-a-piece-to-the-evolutionary-puzzle/">Palaeoloxodon Turkmenicus</a>. This type of elephant fossil was discovered only once before.



In the back of the throat, researchers found intact hyoids, which are fragile bones attached to the tongue. Hyoid bones are distinctive between species and helped the experts identify the elephants.



Palaeoloxodon elephants originated in Africa about a million years ago before moving into Eurasia. Unlike living elephant species, Palaeoloxodon was known for its unusually large forehead.



P. turkmenicus showcased an intermediate stage in Palaeoloxodon evolution with an expanded forehead and no crest. This evidence highlighted early butchery practices linked to these elephants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Jukar believes the findings could fill in the story of how the genus migrated and evolved. "You just need a lot more effort to go and find the sites, and you need to essentially survey and collect everything."



This discovery has peeled away a new layer in human history. As researchers continue to explore humans of the past, they begin to understand more about humanity and what it stands to become.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277379124003950" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Science Reviews</a>.



Image Credit: Chen Yu, University of Helsinki



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Extinct elephant fossils reveal early evidence of animal butchery

Rare elephant fossils found in India have illuminated a crucial...

Greenhouse gas emissions continue to drive global temperatures upward. Individuals and organizations worldwide intensify their focus on climate change mitigation and urgently seek solutions to reduce carbon emissions.



Scientists at the University of California, Irvine, have uncovered a unique carbon storage technique in the deep ocean that offers new strategies to combat the climate crisis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-knowledge-from-the-ocean-depths">New knowledge from the ocean depths</h2>



The researchers used an innovative method to observe the cycling of complex organic molecules created by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-bacteria-hunt-with-purpose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine bacteria</a> in seawater. They unraveled how these molecules contribute to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-snow-using-tiny-parachutes-has-a-big-impact-on-ocean-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage in the deep sea</a>.



"Our new technique is great because you're able to look at the composition of all organic molecules in seawater and see how they cycle," said study senior author Brett Walker.



The experts noted that understanding the nature and cycling of dissolved organic matter (DOM) is of paramount importance for constraining the marine carbon cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-matter-and-deep-carbon-storage">Organic matter and deep carbon storage </h2>



Walker and his team did fieldwork in Baffin Bay, an area between Canada and Greenland. They monitored the concentrations of carboxyl-rich alicyclic molecules (CRAM) in the seawater.



The findings suggest that deep ocean storage favors certain organic molecules while recycling others to the surface.



"In the deep ocean, what we find is about one-quarter to half of the CRAM goes away. The only way you can have that removal is biologically, by heterotrophic bacteria eating this material as an energy source," explained Walker.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-understanding-of-carbon-cycling">A better understanding of carbon cycling</h2>



The team initially believed that CRAM accumulates in the deep ocean. However, data collected from Baffin Bay painted a contrasting picture.



The researchers noticed an abundance of CRAM on the ocean's surface, which was consumed at depth.



"If more CRAM can be stored in the deep ocean, presumably it would have the potential to mitigate atmospheric climate on centennial timescales," said Walker.



If half of the CRAM is inert and stored in the deep ocean, then bacteria can store carbon derived from surface CO2 over substantial timescales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-greenhouse-gas-carbon-storage">Enhancing greenhouse gas carbon storage</h2>



The researchers want to uncover methods to boost the extent of CRAM bacteria stores in the ocean depths.



"The goal would be to explore if there's a natural process by which you could enhance the natural production of these inert compounds at depth with native bacterial populations," Walker said.



Even a small enhancement in the deep ocean storage rate could significantly elevate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-influences-coastal-carbon-storage-capacity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage capacity</a> over millennia. Walker and his team plan to investigate whether the same biochemical process is active in ocean waters worldwide.



They also plan to assess the rates of CRAM production or loss in conjunction with deep water formation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-underwater-mountains-impact-ocean-circulation-climate-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean circulation</a>.



Facing daunting climate change challenges, innovative discoveries such as these offer a glimmer of optimism.



With advancements like those made by the <a href="https://uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Irvine</a> team, individuals and organizations worldwide can access new strategies to combat climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-implications-for-greenhouse-gas-management">Future implications for greenhouse gas management</h2>



The discovery of carboxyl-rich alicyclic molecules (CRAM) as key players in deep-ocean carbon storage opens the door to future research opportunities. 



Understanding the role of these molecules in long-term greenhouse gas management could inspire new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-capture-is-a-huge-challenge-but-there-may-be-a-solution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration technologies</a> that mimic or enhance natural processes. 



As the global community races to mitigate climate change, there is growing interest in how marine ecosystems can serve as carbon sinks.



Walker and his team suggest future efforts focus on scaling up the findings globally. By examining other deep-ocean regions and conditions, researchers aim to refine their understanding of CRAM’s contribution to carbon storage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-based-solutions-to-climate-change">Nature-based solutions to climate change </h2>



The knowledge could prove critical for policymakers and environmental planners adopting innovative, nature-based solutions to tackle rising greenhouse gas levels.



This new avenue of research raises questions about the impact of deep-sea exploration and intervention on marine ecosystems.



As scientists push for a deeper understanding of oceanic carbon storage, the potential risks and ethical considerations surrounding deep-sea activities must be carefully weighed to ensure sustainable and responsible advancements.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53132-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Can we mitigate climate change with deep ocean carbon storage?

Greenhouse gas emissions continue to drive global temperatures upward. Individuals...

The audience gasps as sound effects vibrate the seats of a darkened theater. They shake the cup to hear the clinking ice to know how much is left. 



Lost in thought, the moviegoers tap the armrest, contemplating if it's real wood or plastic imitating the real thing. This knack for identifying objects and their makeup through sound is common practice.



Striving to augment the sensory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-with-space-to-think-will-become-more-useful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">abilities of robots</a>, researchers are now replicating this human ability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensing-the-world-through-sound">Sensing the world through sound </h2>



Next month, at the Conference on Robot Learning (CoRL 2024) in Munich, Germany, experts from <a href="https://duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> will introduce the world to SonicSense. This system offers robots a perception capability similar to humans.



"We introduce SonicSense, a holistic design of hardware and software to enable rich robot object perception through in-hand acoustic vibration sensing," wrote the researchers.



"While previous studies have shown promising results with acoustic sensing for object perception, current solutions are constrained to a handful of objects with simple geometries and homogeneous materials, single-finger sensing, and mixing training and testing on the same objects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robots-perception-of-sounds">Robots' perception of sounds</h2>



Study lead author Jiaxun Liu is a first-year PhD student in the laboratory of Boyuan Chen, professor of mechanical engineering and materials science at Duke. 



“Robots today mostly rely on vision to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robot-buddies-encourage-children-to-stay-physical-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interpret the world</a>,” explained Liu. "We wanted to create a solution that could work with complex and diverse objects found on a daily basis, giving robots a much richer ability to 'feel' and understand the world.”



SonicSense is a robotic hand fitted with four fingers and each finger has a contact microphone at the tip. When the robot interacts with an object – tapping, holding, or shaking – the sensors capture the vibrations and tune out ambient noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-process-of-sonic-tuning">Process of sonic tuning</h2>



The SonicSense system identifies objects and determines their shape based on the detected signals and frequency features. 



The system relies on prior knowledge and leverages advancements in artificial intelligence to discern the object's material and three-dimensional shape.



Liu and Chen's laboratory demonstrations of SonicSense reveal its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dancing-robots-the-future-of-human-robot-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impressive capabilities</a>. For instance, it estimates how many dice are inside a box or how much water is contained in a bottle by shaking the objects or tapping their surfaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robot-sensory-perception">Robot sensory perception</h2>



While SonicSense isn’t the first of its kind, it's a unique setup. The four fingers touch-based microphones and advanced AI techniques set it apart from previous attempts on robots.



The integration allows SonicSense to identify objects of varying complexity. It is useful for use with materials challenging for vision-based systems and objects composed of multiple materials with reflective or transparent surfaces.



As SonicSense continues to evolve, researchers focus on enhancing its interaction with multiple objects. The future includes an upgraded robotic hand with advanced manipulation skills, paving the way for robots to perform tasks that need a subtle sense of touch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sonicsense-in-various-environments">SonicSense in various environments</h2>



An exciting avenue for SonicSense's evolution is its use in varied environments outside the laboratory.



Researchers are exploring the potential for SonicSense to function in dynamic and unpredictable environments such as urban landscapes or disaster zones. 



By fine-tuning its sensory capabilities, SonicSense could enable robots to navigate through debris, assess stability, or identify materials essential for rescue operations. 



Incorporating external data sources and environmental adaptability algorithms is essential for advancement, allowing SonicSense to broaden the range of scenarios for beneficial robotic intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-robots-that-use-sound">Benefits of robots that use sound </h2>



Ethical consideration and societal impacts become paramount as SonicSense moves towards greater integration in autonomous robotic systems.



Robots discerning and interacting with the world using sound elevates questions regarding privacy, ownership of generated data, and potential biases intrinsic to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-deception-how-do-humans-respond-to-lying-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI systems</a>.



As robots play larger roles in healthcare, retail, and domestic spaces, it's critical to ensuring transparency in how SonicSense interprets sensory data.



The development process must incorporate diverse perspectives, aiming for inclusive technology that respects individual rights and maximizes the societal benefits of SonicSense's capabilities.



The ability to bring robots closer to human-like adaptability is a testament to advances in robotics and artificial intelligence.



The technology's potential to bridge the gap between contrived lab settings and real-world complexity could revolutionize how people think about robots and their role in the world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.arxiv.org/abs/2406.17932" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ArXiv</a>.



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Robots that sense the world through sound are more human-like

The audience gasps as sound effects vibrate the seats of...

The Neotropics is one of Earth's richest vessels of biodiversity. It contains a colorful and diverse array of bird species and is home to around 30% of all bird species worldwide. 



Despite the ecological complexity and biodiversity of the region, climate change poses a severe threat to bird diversity in the coming decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unsettling-forecast-for-birds">Unsettling forecast for birds</h2>



Jeff Brawn, co-lead author of a recent study on birds of the Neotropics, is a professor emeritus in the <a href="https://nres.illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences</a> at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign.



“Compared to a more optimistic future precipitation scenario, we predict the ‘business-as-usual’ scenario will be potentially catastrophic for resident forest birds in the Neotropics,” said Brawn, noting that birds are just one part of a larger picture.



"We're just using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> as an illustration. We will likely see similar threats for mammals, reptiles, amphibians, arthropods, fungi, and plants. And the implications for agriculture are not insignificant either."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-scenarios-for-the-neotropics">Climate scenarios for the Neotropics </h2>



Brawn's team, including Professor David Luther from George Mason University (GMU) and Rong Fu from UCLA, predicted precipitation changes under two climate scenarios in the Neotropics by 2100.



The business-as-usual scenario, known as SSP-8.5, paints a grim future where greenhouse gas emissions continue unabated. 



On the other hand, the SSP-2.6 scenario represents an optimistic view where aggressive climate action leads to the transition to a low-carbon economy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-ranges-and-climate-challenges">Bird ranges and climate challenges</h2>



The team investigated how bird ranges overlap with climate issues by mapping predicted changes in dry season lengths across the Neotropics and overlaying the distribution of 3,000 forest bird species.



"We were able to say where the dry season is going to get longer or shorter, and to what extent, and how many species currently living in those places will be affected," explained Luther.



The SSP-8.5 scenario is discouraging. It projects that dry seasons will be extended by at least 5% across three-quarters of Neotropical lowland forests, impacting 2,000 species of resident birds. 



By contrast, only 90 bird species face longer dry seasons in the SSP-2.6 scenario, where just 10% of lowland forests become drier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-dry-seasons-in-the-neotropics">Longer dry seasons in the Neotropics </h2>



Longer dry seasons due to climate change could have far-reaching implications for tropical ecosystems and bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-behavior-productivity-being-directly-impacted-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species distributions</a>. 



"Think of a closed canopy rainforest. If it gets too dry, there's going to be a threshold where it'll open up and become a savannah,” Brawn said.



For Luther, the maps highlight areas of relative stability. "If we're going to plan future conservation efforts, we should put extra effort into those areas because they're less likely to dry out."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-deforestation">Climate change and deforestation</h2>



Despite the unsettling findings on the loss of bird diversity and ecosystems, the team believes the study paints a "rosy picture" as it doesn't account for the impact of deforestation from climate change. Therefore, the reality of the situation is even more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-species-are-shifting-their-habitats-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">critical</a>.



“If there's fewer trees, it's hotter and drier,” Brawn said. “Unfortunately, thousands of hectares of tropical forest disappear every year."



The researchers hope these alarming insights expedite policy action. However, climate policy is just one piece of a larger puzzle.



The good news? "These are all things we can solve, if we choose to. We can do the right thing," Luther said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-birds-in-the-neotropics">Saving birds in the Neotropics </h2>



The complex challenges facing the Neotropics demand a concerted and multi-disciplinary approach.



Researchers, conservationists, policymakers, and local communities must collaborate to implement sustainable solutions. Integrated strategies that combine scientific research with traditional ecological knowledge provide the most effective avenues for positive change.



Efforts to preserve biodiversity must consider the socioeconomic realities of the region, ensuring economically viable and culturally inclusive conservation initiatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technological-innovations">Technological innovations</h2>



Technological advancements play a role in addressing environmental and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-birds-can-handle-climate-variability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate challenges</a>. Remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) technologies enable more precise monitoring of ecosystem changes and effective conservation planning.



Moreover, advancements in renewable energy and sustainable agricultural practices offer opportunities to mitigate the impact of climate change.



Brawn and his colleagues advocate for harnessing these technologies. They argue adopting innovative tools empowers communities and helps safeguard the Neotropics biodiversity.



Humanity stands at the crossroads of a monumental decision. Will it transition towards a world of mitigated carbon emission and preserve the ecology of places like the Neotropics or continue on a path of unbridled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-records-shatter-2024-set-to-be-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> change, risking thousands of bird species?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.17544" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Hundreds of bird species face extinction risks in the Neotropics

The Neotropics is one of Earth's richest vessels of biodiversity....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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