Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Periods of extreme heat usually go hand in hand with spikes in ground-level ozone - a lung-irritating pollutant that harms people, crops, and ecosystems.



A new modeling study led by <a href="https://www.fz-juelich.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forschungszentrum Jülich</a> lands with a twist: if global warming becomes strong enough, surface-level ozone could actually decline across large parts of the Northern Hemisphere.



The work doesn’t overturn what we know about heat and smog days today, but it does reveal how future temperature and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-tropical-heat-and-humidity-predicted-this-summer/">humidity</a> shifts might reshape ozone chemistry in unexpected ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-future-clean-air-chemistry">Modeling future clean air chemistry</h2>



The researchers used an innovative “storyline approach,” running climate simulations that play out plausible futures under stronger warming while holding emissions steady. That choice let them isolate the direct effects of temperature and humidity, independent of any changes in pollution.



The experts anchored their scenarios to the weather patterns of Europe’s exceptionally hot summers from 2018 to 2020 and asked a simple, pointed question:



“Our question was: what impact will global warming have on ozone pollution,” said lead author Tamara Emmerichs.



In one set of simulations, global temperatures rose by +2 °C (+3.6 °F) relative to pre-industrial levels; in another, by +2.75 °C (+4.95 °F).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-speeds-ozone-creation">Heat speeds ozone creation</h2>



At +2 °C (+3.6 °F), the model behaves much as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-are-changing-the-quality-of-our-air/">air quality</a> scientists might expect. Warmer air speeds up the photochemical reactions that create ozone from precursor gases.



Plants, stressed by heat and drought, tend to close their stomata, reducing the natural “scrubbing” of pollutants from the air. Vegetation can also emit more volatile organic compounds in hotter conditions, feeding ozone chemistry. The net effect in many regions: higher near-surface ozone.



Push the warming to +2.75 °C (+4.95 °F), though, and something surprising happens. The background concentration of ozone drops markedly across much of the Northern Hemisphere.



The simulations attribute this to a more humid atmosphere, which accelerates ozone destruction higher up, ultimately lowering the amount that reaches the surface.



“This effect becomes more dominant at higher temperatures,” Emmerichs said. “The result is a net decrease in ozone pollution near the ground.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-as-double-agents"><a></a>Plants as double agents</h2>



Vegetation emerges as a pivotal player. Plants can help by absorbing ozone through their leaves and cooling their surroundings via transpiration. 



But under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-the-driving-force-behind-droughts/">drought</a> or ozone stress, they shut down those very pathways - closing stomata to conserve water, which reduces both cooling and pollutant uptake.



“Our study shows that plant responses to stress are a central, previously underestimated factor in the future development of ozone pollution,” said Jülich atmospheric researcher Domenico Taraborrelli.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-shifts-reshape-ecosystems">Ozone shifts reshape ecosystems</h2>



Those chemical and biological shifts carry real-world consequences. In the model world at +2 °C (+3.6 °F), ozone-related mortality increases globally. 



At +2.75 °C (+4.95 °F), the number of ozone-linked deaths declines again - especially in Europe and India.



Ecosystems feel the changes, too: the simulations project increased ozone uptake by plants in certain regions, such as the boreal forests, altering the balance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-secret-weapon-for-surviving-stress/">plant stress</a> and pollutant removal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-forces-drive-clean-air">Many forces drive clean air</h2>



The message isn’t that hotter is healthier. It’s that climate-chemistry-ecology interactions don’t move in straight lines.



&nbsp;“The 'storyline approach' we used makes it clear that the interactions between climate, weather, chemistry, and ecology are complex,” Taraborrelli said.



“Every single aspect of climate change is the result of a large number of these interrelationships and overlapping factors, and is difficult to examine in isolation.”



By fixing emissions in their experiments, the authors highlight just how much meteorology and biology alone can swing air-quality outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-climate-s-air-surprises">Preparing for climate’s air surprises</h2>



For planners and health agencies, the findings offer a sharper lens for regional adaptation. If humidity patterns and plant stress responses can flip ozone trends under stronger warming, then heat-health planning, crop protection, and forest management will need to account for those thresholds and feedbacks.



“It shows that strong warming can have not only negative but also sometimes positive effects on air quality,” Taraborrelli said. “At least in individual cases, such as here for ozone pollution.”



Nothing here suggests that pushing the planet into higher warming is a viable “strategy” for clean air - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-is-pushing-parts-of-earth-beyond-human-survival/">extreme heat</a> carries a cascade of harms well beyond ozone, from lethal heatwaves to wildfire smoke and crop losses.



The study demonstrates that air quality futures hinge on more than just emissions cuts. They also depend on the evolving chemistry of a warmer, wetter - or drier - atmosphere and on how plants across landscapes respond to stress.



Understanding those links now can make tomorrow’s protection of public health and ecosystems more precise and more effective.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44407-025-00019-4">npj Clean Air</a>.



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More heat, cleaner air? The surprising ozone connection

Periods of extreme heat usually go hand in hand with...

Sixty-six million years ago, what is now pine forest and bayou lay beneath a warm inland sea. In that Cretaceous Gulf, the apex hunters were mosasaurs - serpentine marine reptiles that could stretch nearly 50 feet nose to tail.



Research led by <a href="https://www.smu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMU</a> paleontologist Michael J. Polcyn has compiled the first comprehensive portrait of these creatures in Louisiana, combining scattered fossil finds with seismic images and well cores.



“Louisiana is not known for having a great <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-animals-become-fossils-while-others-just-disappear/">fossil</a> record, but when you put it all together, it has a pretty interesting and valuable,” said team member Louis Jacobs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosasaur-in-ancient-seas">Mosasaur in ancient seas</h2>



The rare Cretaceous exposures occur in Bienville Parish, where rising salt domes have tilted ancient strata to the surface.



Among the few bones found is a strong tooth likely from Prognathodon, one of the largest and most powerful mosasaurs - a genus also uncovered by the SMU team along Angola’s coast. 



This connection links Louisiana’s ancient sea directly to the newly forming South Atlantic Ocean basin of the same time period, indicating that these “sea lizards” once had a worldwide presence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disaster-etched-in-the-seabed">Disaster etched in the seabed</h2>



The marine idyll ended in seconds. When a six-mile-wide asteroid slammed into the Yucatán Peninsula, it vaporized rock, ignited worldwide firestorms, and launched <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/20-years-later-remembering-the-worlds-deadliest-tsunami/">tsunamis</a> that echoed around the proto-Gulf.



The SMU-led survey records that violence in an unexpected place: underground. Seismic data gathered by co-author Gary L. Kinsland of the <a href="https://louisiana.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Louisiana at Lafayette</a> reveals buried “ghost-maker megaripples.” 



These tsunami-sculpted dunes stand about 52 feet high and stretch more than a third of a mile crest to crest - likely the largest on record.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/mososaurs_dinosaurs_fossils_louisiana_credit-Judith-Schiebout_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/mososaurs_dinosaurs_fossils_louisiana_credit-Judith-Schiebout_1s.webp" alt="Louisiana mosasaurs and dinosaur fossils. A-C. Partial tooth of a mosasaur Prognathodon. D-J. Mosasaur anterior intermediate caudal vertebra. K-M. Dromaesorid dinosaur tooth. Credit: Judith Schiebout" class="wp-image-1981228"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Louisiana mosasaurs and dinosaur fossils. A-C. Partial tooth of a mosasaur Prognathodon. D-J. Mosasaur anterior intermediate caudal vertebra. K-M. Dromaesorid dinosaur tooth. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Judith Schiebout</figcaption></figure>



“The seismic image showing the megaripples on the ancient seafloor is a wonderful illustration of the tremendous amount of energy introduced into the area by the impact tsunami in a very short period of time,” Polcyn said.



These ripples, frozen beneath younger sediments, serve as Louisiana’s signature of the Chicxulub impact that triggered Earth’s fifth mass extinction. They mark the exact horizon where mosasaurs, ammonites, and countless other Cretaceous species vanished.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chance-discovery-reshapes-the-timeline">Chance discovery reshapes the timeline</h2>



Fast-forward roughly three million years into the Paleocene, and the fossil record picks up a very different protagonist. An oil-well core drilled to 2,460 feet in central Louisiana pierced a layer dating to 63–62 million years ago.



Locked inside was the partial jaw of Anisonchus fortunatus - a hoofed mammal scarcely larger than a cat. The specimen, recovered by chance, underscores how quickly mammals occupied ecological space left vacant by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaurs</a>. It also provides the young state with its oldest known terrestrial mammal.



Polcyn calls the little jaw a “striking bookend” to the extinction narrative. On one end is a tooth from an apex reptilian predator. On the other are the modest remains of a mammal poised to radiate across the planet.



“The contribution of this work reports the first Cretaceous marine reptile fossils known from Louisiana, putting them in a broader geographic and temporal context in the Gulf region,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stitching-the-past-together">Stitching the past together</h2>



The new synthesis is published in the journal <a href="https://repository.lsu.edu/spmns/5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vertebrate Fossils of Louisiana</a>, an LSU Museum of Natural Science tribute volume honoring the late paleontologist Judith A. Schiebout, who championed her adopted state’s fossil heritage.



Schiebout's vision is realized in the way Polcyn, Jacobs, and their collaborators integrate multiple lines of evidence. These include museum collections, fresh fieldwork, well-core microscopy, and petroleum-industry seismic scans.



The result is a timeline stretching from the last flourishing of Cretaceous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/">marine life</a>, through the instantaneous destruction wrought by the asteroid, to the first stirrings of the “Age of Mammals.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/dinosaurs_mososaurs_asteorid-extinction_before-during-after_mosaic-timeline_SMU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/dinosaurs_mososaurs_asteorid-extinction_before-during-after_mosaic-timeline_SMU_1s.webp" alt="(A-C) Prognathodon kianda, based on specimens from Bentiaba, Angola on display in Sea Monsters Unearthed: Life in Angola’s Ancient Seas at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. B. Tooth of shark Squalicorax from Bentiaba with scavenged Prognathodon bone. D. Life reconstruction of the shark Squalicorax scavenging a carcass of Prognathodon kianda. Remains of Prognathodon and Squalicorax are widespread, which suggests that scavenging behavior documented elsewhere also occurred in Louisiana. E. Life reconstruction of Prognathodon kianda. Credit: Smithsonian Institute; artwork by Karen Carr" class="wp-image-1981226"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">(A-C) Prognathodon kianda, based on specimens from Bentiaba, Angola on display in Sea Monsters Unearthed: Life in Angola’s Ancient Seas at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. B. Tooth of shark Squalicorax from Bentiaba with scavenged Prognathodon bone. D. Life reconstruction of the shark Squalicorax scavenging a carcass of Prognathodon kianda. Remains of Prognathodon and Squalicorax are widespread, which suggests that scavenging behavior documented elsewhere also occurred in Louisiana. E. Life reconstruction of Prognathodon kianda. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Smithsonian Institute; artwork by Karen Carr</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosasaur-record-connects-continents">Mosasaur record connects continents </h2>



Although Louisiana contributes only snippets of bone, each piece lengthens a record that links North America to South America and Africa.



The same Prognathodon lineage patrolled both the Gulf and the South Atlantic, an insight made famous in the Smithsonian traveling exhibition “Sea Monsters Unearthed,” co-curated by SMU. Such parallels help paleontologists map ancient ocean currents, climate zones, and continental drift.



The impact story is likewise global. The Louisiana megaripples complement tsunami deposits in Texas and Mexico, collectively illustrating the reach of a single cosmic collision. For geologists today, ancient dunes reveal how quickly and powerfully energy moves through shallow seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-fossil-hunting-in-louisiana">Future fossil hunting in Louisiana </h2>



Polcyn hopes the compilation will spur more fossil hunting in a state better known for oil rigs than dinosaurs. Salt-dome uplifts, riverbanks, and drill cores still hide clues to life’s greatest turnover event.



“When you put it all together, it has a pretty interesting and valuable fossil record," said Jacobs.



Each new discovery can refine models of extinction, recovery, and resilience - lessons increasingly relevant as modern ecosystems face rapid change.



From 50-foot mosasaurs to coin-sized mammal jaws, Louisiana’s deep past captures the drama of both endings and beginnings.



By piecing together shards of tooth, ripples of sand, and slivers of bone, scientists have illuminated how a once-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-reveal-how-humans-completely-changed-caribbean-reef-ecosystems/">tropical sea</a> gave way to a landscape ready for jazz, shrimp boats, and human history. 



But that transformation came only after a cosmic catastrophe rewrote the rules of life on Earth.



The findings were <a href="https://repository.lsu.edu/spmns/5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> in LSU Museum of Natural Science’s “Vertebrate Fossils of Louisiana” in a tribute to the late paleontologist <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/science/geology/people/faculty/schiebout.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Judith A. Schiebout</a>. 



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Life on Earth before, during and after the dinosaur-killing asteroid strike

Sixty-six million years ago, what is now pine forest and...

For more than a decade, sea star wasting disease (SSWD) has ravaged starfish along North America’s Pacific coast. It shreds arms, melts bodies, and pushes iconic species like the sunflower sea star to the brink of extinction.



Now there’s a turning point: researchers have identified a single bacterial species - Vibrio pectenicida - that can trigger the full suite of wasting symptoms. 



This breakthrough offers a path toward earlier detection and, eventually, smarter response strategies, even as the ocean’s “three-dimensional dynamic environment” makes intervention challenging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-starfish-face-collapse">Pacific starfish face collapse</h2>



The scale and speed of SSWD are unprecedented. Since 2013, outbreaks have swept from Alaska to Mexico, striking more than 20 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/terrifying-sea-stars-could-be-the-key-to-kelp-forest-recovery/">sea star</a> species.



Early signs include loss of appetite and small white lesions. Then the animals go limp as the disease hits the water vascular system. Arms detach and sometimes wriggle independently, and the entire body disintegrates into mush within days.



“Sea star wasting disease is pretty horrid,” said Hugh Carter, a marine invertebrate curator at the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> in London and a starfish expert. “It causes the starfish to stop feeding and forms white lesions across the body as the soft tissue starts breaking down.”



The ecological shock is profound. Sunflower sea stars - important predators of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-cant-survive-rising-sea-urchin-numbers/">sea urchins</a> - have lost more than 90 percent of their population, and the cascade is visible on the seafloor.



“When we lose billions of sea stars, that really shifts the ecological dynamics,” said lead author Melanie Prentice from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC). “In the absence of sunflower stars, sea urchin populations increase.”



“This means the loss of kelp forests, which has broad implications for all the other marine species and humans that rely on them. So, losing a sea star goes far beyond the loss of that single species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-marine-mystery">Solving a marine mystery</h2>



For years, scientists pursued competing hypotheses, with a virus suspected early on but later ruled out. One reason the search took so long is that sea stars deteriorate rapidly - often within a week of exposure.



By the time researchers collect samples, secondary infections and generalized stress responses may obscure the primary trigger.



The new study overcomes those obstacles. In controlled laboratory experiments, the team raised <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-sea-stars-are-nearly-extinct-but-scientists-are-growing-them/">sunflower sea stars</a> and exposed them to diseased tissue in different ways.



Simply touching infected parts or being injected with tissue homogenates proved deadly: 92 percent of exposed sea stars died.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-name-the-starfish-killer">Scientists name the starfish killer</h2>



Critically, when the homogenates were filtered or heat-treated first, the starfish did not develop the disease. This was strong evidence that a living microbe was the cause.



The researchers then compared coelomic fluid - the sea stars’ blood-like internal fluid - from healthy and exposed animals. One signal dominated.



“When we compared the coelomic fluid of exposed and healthy sea stars, there was basically one thing different: Vibrio,” said senior author Alyssa Gehman from UBC. “We all had chills, we thought that’s it. We have it, that’s what causes wasting.’”



To satisfy the gold standard of causation, they isolated Vibrio pectenicida from diseased sea stars, cultured it to a pure strain, and injected it into healthy animals. The recipients rapidly developed classic wasting symptoms.



Field data reinforced the lab results: in British Columbia, V. pectenicida appeared in sea star samples only after an outbreak had begun.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-progress-with-no-easy-fix">Progress with no easy fix</h2>



The identification of V. pectenicida marks the first time researchers have reproduced the full disease by introducing a single pathogen.



“There have been lots of competing theories over what causes sea star wasting disease, so it’s great that we know what is actually causing it,” Carter said. “It’s a massive step forward, but we’re still a long way from a solution.”



Pinpointing the bacterium could improve surveillance, allowing diagnostics to target V. pectenicida during early flare-ups. But practical control is far tougher offshore.



“While knowing the bacteria that cause it might allow us to detect new outbreaks earlier, it’s still hard to quarantine or treat the disease in the 3D dynamic environment of the sea. It’ll take a great deal more research until sea star wasting disease can be managed effectively.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-seas-fuel-starfish-disease">Warming seas fuel starfish disease</h2>



Like many vibrios, V. pectenicida appears to thrive in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/">warmer conditions</a>, which aligns with observations that wasting spreads faster during marine heatwaves.



The bacterium is already infamous in aquaculture as a scallop pathogen that secretes toxins. Those same virulence factors may damage sea star tissues and water vascular systems, accelerating the grisly progression.



Unpacking that mechanism - what toxins are produced, how they interact with sea star immunity - will be crucial for forecasting risk and testing interventions.



With oceans warming due to climate change, the stakes are rising. Hotter waters can both boost bacterial growth and stress sea stars, potentially lowering their defenses.



Understanding that one-two punch could help managers anticipate where and when disease pressure will spike, enabling them to prioritize monitoring or protective measures for the most vulnerable populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-future-outbreaks">Fighting future outbreaks</h2>



The immediate priorities are clear. Researchers need to map the distribution of V. pectenicida across species and coastlines and refine rapid tests for early detection. They also need to investigate how environmental variables - temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salinity-is-rising-in-coastal-areas-and-hurting-farmlands/">salinity</a>, organic matter - modulate bacterial bloom-and-bust cycles.



Hatchery and aquarium settings may serve as testbeds for mitigation strategies, from biosecurity protocols to microbiome-based approaches that bolster sea stars’ defenses.



But translating lab breakthroughs into ocean-scale solutions will take time. In the near term, the best defense for kelp forests and the myriad species that depend on them may be vigilant disease surveillance. 



Ecosystem management that reduces compounding stressors, such as overgrazing by urchins, is also crucial.



Even so, science has turned a corner. Identifying the culprit shifts the field from guesswork to targeted investigation and from helpless witness to informed action.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02797-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Bacteria that’s melting starfish alive has finally been identified

For more than a decade, sea star wasting disease (SSWD)...

Biodiversity benefits nature in many ways. A greater variety of plants and animals helps create forests that are stronger and better able to withstand pests, diseases, and changes in climate.



However, exactly how much biodiversity is needed - and in which places - has been somewhat unclear. A global study of forests by scientists at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> brings sharper focus to that question. 



The research suggests that biodiversity isn’t just good - it’s especially important in wetter places. For forest managers and conservationists, that detail could change how we approach <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/">tree planting</a> and restoration around the world.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">Diversity</a> matters everywhere we look. But in our experiments, we see it matters more in the wetter climates," said Peter Reich, professor of environment and sustainability and director of the Institute for Global Change Biology at the University of Michigan. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-trees-one-by-one">Looking at trees, one by one</h2>



The researchers studied 15 forest experiments across the globe through the Tree Diversity Network - the world’s largest of its kind. The analysis included nearly 100,000 trees and close to 130 species in a wide range of climates. 



The University of Michigan team collaborated with co-authors from more than 30 institutions across nearly a dozen countries.



The study was unusually detailed. Instead of treating each forest as one big data point, the scientists zoomed in. They looked at each tree individually, and then took note of its closest neighbors.



“What’s unique about our study is it has 15 long-term experiments with lots and lots and lots of trees,” said Reich. “Then, rather than looking at an entire community, we looked at every individual and eight or so of its neighbors and asked, ‘Are those neighbors diverse or not?’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-biodiversity-boosts-tree-growth">Forest biodiversity boosts tree growth </h2>



The results revealed a clear pattern. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-trees-decide-between-growing-and-breathing/">Trees</a> in wetter climates grew more when surrounded by a mix of different species. The effect was weaker - or even nonexistent - in drier regions.



“This provides a more nuanced insight into how biodiversity works in different environments,” Reich said. “If you’re thinking of restoring or regrowing, it makes a lot of sense to plant diverse trees, especially in wetter areas.”



The “wetter” category is not limited to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-losing-their-carbon-storage-capacity/">tropical rainforests</a> either. By the study’s standard, forests in places like Michigan count as wet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-forest-biodiversity">Benefits of forest biodiversity </h2>



According to the researchers, the benefits of diversity were not just about the number of species.



“We find a tree growth boost in diverse tree neighborhoods with different species and functional traits - for example, specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/standard-cameras-can-now-track-plant-growth-in-3d/">leaf area</a> and wood density,” noted study lead author Liting Zheng, who conducted the research as a postdoctoral fellow at Michigan’s School of Environment and Sustainability.



“Our results highlight the importance of establishing and maintaining high neighborhood diversity in forest management - especially to maximize the potential of biodiversity as a nature-based climate solution in wetter regions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-climate-years">Extreme climate years</h2>



One surprising takeaway: the benefit of diversity didn’t increase during extreme climate years. It seemed more useful in typical conditions. That challenges the common belief that biodiversity is most helpful in tough times.



“Diversity appears to be better suited for the average condition, which matters for management,” Reich said. 



“There’s thinking that biodiversity is really going to help you when you have those extreme years and some evidence supporting this idea, but in our data this was not the case.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversity-as-a-management-tool">Diversity as a management tool</h2>



There’s still more to learn, especially about how older forests behave. The trees studied were still young - just 4 to 14 years old. But the results are strong enough to guide real-world decisions about how we plant and protect forests going forward.



For wetter areas, at least, one thing is now very clear: variety isn’t just the spice of life - it’s how trees grow best.



Given that tree-tree interactions are ubiquitous and likely to interact with climate in both young and old forests, the findings suggest that neighborhood diversity could be incorporated as a management tool to enhance forest productivity, concluded the researchers.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02805-5">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Trees get a boost from diverse neighbors, especially in wet forests

Biodiversity benefits nature in many ways. A greater variety of...

For years, scientists studying Mars from orbit have noticed odd patterns in some sulfate-rich regions. These spots had a unique spectral fingerprint - something that didn’t match any known mineral. Now, researchers think they’ve figured out why. 



A study has identified an unusual type of iron sulfate on the Martian surface that may represent a completely new mineral.



The team behind this discovery comes from the <a href="https://www.seti.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SETI Institute</a> and NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley. Their findings offer new insight into how Mars has changed over time, especially under the influence of heat and water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-dust-holds-an-intriguing-record">Mars dust holds an intriguing record</h2>



The researchers focused on two regions that stood out in orbital data due to unusual sulfate signatures: Aram Chaos and the plateau above Juventae Chasma.



“We investigated two sulfate-bearing sites near the vast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noctis-volcano-buried-glacier-discovered-on-mars/">Valles Marineris</a> canyon system that included mysterious spectral bands seen from orbital data, as well as layered sulfates and intriguing geology,” said Dr. Janice Bishop, senior research scientist at the SETI Institute.



The idea was to understand how these odd signatures formed. The scientists combined lab work with satellite data and uncovered a rare ferric hydroxysulfate that hadn’t been confirmed on Mars before. 



It’s a unique type of iron sulfate that forms only in specific environments, with the potential to reshape our knowledge of Mars’ recent geology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-on-the-edge-of-juventae-chasma">On the edge of Juventae Chasma</h2>



The Juventae Plateau, perched just above the 5-kilometer-deep Juventae Chasma, shows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/">signs of water</a> from long ago. Dry channels wind across the surface, hinting at a wetter past. But the key finding wasn’t the water - it was what the water left behind.



In one small, low-lying patch, scientists spotted hydrated ferrous sulfates. These included ferric hydroxysulfate, which appeared in meter-thick layers both above and below basaltic rock. The pattern suggests they formed from pools of water that later evaporated - and were then heated by lava or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-volcanic-clues-hint-at-ancient-life-on-mars/">volcanic</a> ash.



“Investigation of the morphologies and stratigraphies of these four compositional units allowed us to determine the age and formation relationships among the different units,” said study co-author Dr. Catherine Weitz, senior scientist at the Planetary Science Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-messy-past-with-a-message">A messy past with a message</h2>



Aram Chaos lies northeast of Valles Marineris. It’s one of Mars’ many chaotic terrains - broken-up, rugged landscapes thought to have been shaped by ancient floods. When the water disappeared, it left behind layered deposits of iron and magnesium sulfates.



In this region, the upper levels hold polyhydrated sulfates. Beneath them are layers of monohydrated sulfates and ferric hydroxysulfate. From orbit, each of these sulfates gives off a different spectral signature, allowing scientists to map their presence using an instrument called CRISM.



Lab testing showed that heating polyhydrated sulfates to 50°C creates monohydrated ones. At temperatures above 100°C, ferric hydroxysulfate starts to form. That supports the idea that geothermal heat reshaped the minerals after their initial formation.



Monohydrated and polyhydrated sulfates cover large areas, while ferric hydroxysulfate appears in only a few small patches. Those patches likely mark the warmest areas in the past, possibly still hiding deeper mineral layers below.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-oxidation-of-mars-minerals">Ongoing oxidation of Mars' minerals</h2>



The research team replicated these Martian conditions in the lab. They heated rozenite (an iron sulfate with four water molecules) and watched it transform to szomolnokite (with one water molecule) and then to ferric hydroxysulfate, which contains OH instead of H₂O in its chemical structure.



“Our experiments suggest that this ferric hydroxysulfate only forms when hydrated ferrous sulfates are heated in the presence of oxygen,” said postdoctoral researcher Dr. Johannes Meusburger. 



“While the changes in the atomic structure are very small, this reaction drastically alters the way these minerals absorb infrared light, which allowed identification of this new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-discovery-of-minerals-on-mars-hints-at-a-habitable-past/">mineral on Mars</a> using CRISM.”



The reaction is simple but revealing. It uses oxygen gas and produces water: Mars’ atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide, but it still has enough oxygen to make this reaction possible. That means oxidation of iron minerals continues today, slowly and quietly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-a-new-mineral">Is it a new mineral?</h2>



“The material formed in these lab experiments is likely a new mineral due to its unique crystal structure and thermal stability,” said Bishop. “However, scientists must also find it on Earth to officially recognize it as a new mineral.”



Structurally, this mineral is close to szomolnokite. But it forms more easily from rozenite - especially in oxygen-rich, high-heat environments. And those conditions, it turns out, may not be as ancient as once assumed.



The transformation into ferric hydroxysulfate only happens above 100°C. That’s far hotter than Mars’ surface today. So. if these minerals formed recently, it implies there were geothermal or volcanic heat sources still active during the Amazonian period, less than 3 billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-minerals-on-mars">Significance of minerals on Mars</h2>



This discovery shows that some parts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-mars-atmosphere-may-improve-weather-predictions/">Mars</a> may have been chemically and thermally active more recently than previously thought. 



The sulfates at Aram Chaos and Juventae Plateau weren’t just frozen in place from ancient floods - they were altered later by heat and oxygen.



That adds a new layer to the story of Mars. It suggests there were pockets of energy and chemical change long after the planet’s surface dried out. And where there’s change, there’s always the potential for something more - possibly even the ingredients for life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61801-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ University of Arizona 



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Mineral discovery sheds light on Mars' fiery past

For years, scientists studying Mars from orbit have noticed odd...

Global teams tracking classroom temperatures have found that every degree the mercury rises steals attention from millions of pupils worldwide. That loss, researchers warn, is not a momentary discomfort but a cumulative dent in future earnings, innovation, and social mobility.



A systematic review of 14.5 million student records from 61 nations shows the damage worsens with each hot school year. 



Dr. Konstantina Vasilakopoulou of RMIT University and Professor Mat Santamouris of the University of New South Wales (<a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a>), noted that the findings make <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-warn-that-education-systems-must-change-in-the-age-of-ai/">heat</a> an educational and social justice issue. This view is echoed by experts across climate science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-disrupts-focus-in-classrooms">Heat disrupts focus in classrooms</h2>



Heat forces the body to divert blood toward the skin for cooling, starving the brain of the oxygen-rich flow needed for working memory tasks. Laboratory studies reveal that even modest rises in temperature slow reaction time and decision speed, especially during complex problem-solving.



Cognitive scientists credit the long known Yerkes Dodson curve: performance peaks in a mild thermal “comfort zone,” then drops sharply once the threshold is crossed. 



Children are hit harder because their thermoregulation is still maturing and they sweat less efficiently than adults.



The review confirms the pattern, noting math scores, arguably the most cognitively demanding subject, falter first, while simple reading exercises resist <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-brain-learns-study-reveals-an-unexpected-twist/">heat</a> a little longer. Over years, those small drops add up to sizable deficits in high stakes exams.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-lowers-classroom-scores">Heat lowers classroom scores</h2>



Researchers analyzed U.S. PSAT data, including ten million test takers, and found that a single school year only 1°F hotter cut annual learning by one percent. 



Extreme heat days above 90°F were the main culprits, not warm weekends or holidays, demonstrating that learning is disrupted specifically during classroom hours.



A separate cross-country <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-020-00959-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> that pooled half a million 15 year olds reported that each extra hot school day above 80 °F sliced PISA math scores by 0.18 percent of a standard deviation. 



Because poorer nations rack up more of those days, the authors estimate that Brazilian students learn about six percent less math than their South Korean peers for weather reasons alone.



Looking forward, projections suggest that unchecked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-the-brain-for-the-future-while-protecting-memories-of-the-past/">climate</a> change could depress elementary achievements by nearly ten percent in parts of the United States by 2050. Those forecasts assume no further adaptation. With smart interventions, much of the loss is preventable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poorer-students-suffer-more">Poorer students suffer more</h2>



Hot classrooms do not treat students equally. In U.S. districts lacking reliable cooling, low income and minority pupils experience almost triple the learning erosion of their wealthier classmates - a disparity linked to outdated facilities and hotter neighborhoods.



“Heat stress doesn’t just impact physical health, it undermines educational equity and affects human potential. We must act now to protect the learning potential of future generations,” explained Professor Santamouris.



Internationally, the pattern repeats: schools serving the poorest see the steepest score declines, while elite campuses insulated by modern HVAC and shade stay relatively unscathed. Left alone, rising temperatures threaten to lock disadvantage more firmly in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-measures-protect-learning">Cooling measures protect learning</h2>



Infrastructure can flip the story. Research led by economist Jisung Park shows that classroom air conditioning blunts roughly 73 percent of the heat-related score penalty, an effect large enough to shrink racial achievement gaps markedly.



Ventilation matters too. A <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4552953/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> of 3,109 fifth graders in the U.S. Southwest found that every extra liter per second of fresh air raised math scores by up to eleven points while cooler rooms added another dozen points.



Since retrofitting every school with air conditioning is expensive and energy-intensive, a mix of solutions - such as ceiling fans, high-volume low-speed fans, reflective blinds, and staggered schedules - can provide practical relief now. 



Focusing first on the hottest, most under-resourced classrooms delivers the greatest equity gains per dollar spent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-classrooms-built-for-heat">Classrooms built for heat</h2>



Climate-ready schools require a different blueprint. Light-colored roofs, deep eaves, and generous tree canopies cut surface temperatures by several degrees and ease indoor loads.



The broader <a href="https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/what-are-heat-islands" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban heat island</a> that bakes many campuses can lift daytime city temperatures by up to 7°F above outlying areas. Greener grounds, permeable pavements, and rooftop gardens not only cool buildings but also slash air conditioning bills, creating a virtuous cycle.



Cities such as Singapore and Medellín already weave such measures into school ground redesigns, reporting cooler play yards and calmer classrooms soon after installation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-policymakers-can-do-today">What policymakers can do today</h2>



First, thermal comfort must be treated as part of the basic learning infrastructure, on par with textbooks and broadband. State bond programs and national stimulus packages should earmark funds for heat mitigation retrofits, with priority scoring based on poverty indices.



Second, heat thresholds need to be integrated into emergency planning. Clear protocols such as rescheduling exams, shifting to cooler wings, and supplying hydration protect learning time when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">heatwaves</a> strike.



Finally, transparent reporting should be required. Annual “thermal audits” that track classroom temperatures create public pressure and data for smarter budgeting, ensuring that no student’s education melts away in silence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000618" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Climate</a>.



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Classroom heat makes it physically harder for students to focus

Global teams tracking classroom temperatures have found that every degree...

Imagine being in your eighties and remembering things as clearly as someone in their fifties. That’s the reality for a remarkable group of people scientists call SuperAgers. For 25 years, researchers at Northwestern Medicine have followed them, trying to understand how their minds resist time.



SuperAgers defy the typical story of aging. Their sharp recall is matched by lively personalities and strong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-method-reverses-aging-in-human-cells-without-modifying-dna/">social connections</a>. 



“It’s really what we’ve found in their brains that’s been so earth-shattering for us,” said Dr. Sandra Weintraub, professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences and neurology at Northwestern University <a href="https://www.feinberg.northwestern.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Feinberg School of Medicine</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-superagers-stay-sharp">How SuperAgers stay sharp</h2>



Most people experience a steady decline in memory as the years pass, but SuperAgers are the exception. 



“Our findings show that exceptional memory in old age is not only possible but is linked to a distinct neurobiological profile. This opens the door to new interventions aimed at preserving brain health well into the later decades of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-in-extreme-heat-can-age-your-body-just-like-smoking-does/">life</a>,” said Dr. Weintraub.



Their stories and brain scans are now part of a special issue of Alzheimer’s &amp; Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer’s Association. The work also marks anniversaries of national research efforts into Alzheimer’s disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-inside-a-superager-brain">What’s inside a SuperAger brain</h2>



The term “SuperAger” was coined by Dr. M. Marsel Mesulam in the late 1990s. Since then, nearly 300 participants have joined the program, and 77 have donated their brains for study after death.



Some of these brains carry the same Alzheimer’s-related plaques and tangles found in many older adults, while others are almost completely free of them. Yet both groups show equally strong memory <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/scientists-discover-we-age-in-bursts/">performance</a>.



“What we realized is there are two mechanisms that lead someone to become a SuperAger,” explained Dr. Weintraub. “One is resistance: they don’t make the plaques and tangles. Two is resilience: they make them, but they don’t do anything to their brains.”



This means there isn’t just one formula for preserving memory - there may be multiple biological paths to the same outcome.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traits-that-stand-out">Traits that stand out</h2>



In memory tests, SuperAgers consistently perform like people decades younger, recalling at least 9 out of 15 words after a delay. Brain scans reveal that their cortex (the brain’s outer layer) remains thick and healthy rather than thinning with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-aging-how-some-people-live-past-100-years/">age</a>.



Remarkably, a region called the anterior cingulate cortex is sometimes thicker than in adults 20 to 30 years younger. This area is important for decision-making, emotion, and motivation.



Under the microscope, their brains hold more von Economo neurons (special cells tied to social behavior) and larger neurons in the entorhinal cortex, which is key to memory. These differences may help protect cognitive function, even in the presence of age-related changes.



Lifestyle habits among SuperAgers vary dramatically. Some eat well, exercise regularly, and follow classic health advice. 



Others have smoked, enjoyed drinks, or avoided structured workouts. Yet one trait appears almost universal: they are highly social, rating their relationships positively and staying engaged with others. From book clubs to volunteer work, their calendars tend to be full.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giving-back-to-science">Giving back to science</h2>



Each year, SuperAgers return for evaluations and some choose to donate their brains. 



“Many of the findings from this paper stem from the examination of brain specimens of generous, dedicated SuperAgers who were followed for decades,” said Dr. Tamar Gefen, an associate professor at Feinberg. 



“I am constantly amazed by how brain donation can enable discovery long after death, offering a kind of scientific immortality.”



One participant, followed for more than two decades, kept her memory scores steady from her sixties into her eighties. Even after serious illness, her mind stayed alert, her conversations animated. After her passing, her brain revealed minimal damage from age-related disease - a rare and inspiring sight.



The full journey of this research, and the people behind it, is detailed in “The First 25 Years of the Northwestern SuperAging Program” by Mesulam, Weintraub, Gefen, and Geula. 



For anyone wondering whether a clear, vibrant mind can last a lifetime, the answer from these extraordinary individuals is a resounding yes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://alz-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/alz.70312" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer s &amp; Dementia</a>.



Image Credit: Shane Collins, Northwestern University



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SuperAgers have a brain that can resist Alzheimer’s

Imagine being in your eighties and remembering things as clearly...

Astronomers have uncovered what could be one of the most massive black holes ever detected. It is located in a galaxy so enormous that it bends space itself, twisting the light of a background galaxy into a giant horseshoe-shaped ring. This remarkable sight is known as the Cosmic Horseshoe.



The discovery comes from scientists at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> and the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (<a href="https://www.ufrgs.br/site/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UFRGS</a>) in Brazil. 



The study suggests that this black hole is close to the theoretical upper limit of what is possible in the universe - about 36 billion times the mass of our Sun.



For comparison, that’s roughly 10,000 times heavier than the black hole at the center of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dozens-of-ghost-galaxies-may-be-orbiting-the-milky-way/">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-black-hole-was-measured">How the black hole was measured</h2>



“This is amongst the top 10 most massive black holes ever discovered, and quite possibly the most massive,” said Professor Thomas Collett of the University of Portsmouth.



“Most of the other black hole mass measurements are indirect and have quite large uncertainties, so we really don't know for sure which is biggest. However, we’ve got much more certainty about the mass of this black hole thanks to our new method.”



The team combined two techniques - gravitational lensing and stellar kinematics - to measure the black hole. 



Stellar kinematics, the study of how stars move around black holes, is often called the gold standard for mass measurements. But it rarely works for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-second-most-distant-galaxy-in-pandoras-cluster/">distant galaxies</a> because they appear too small to resolve clearly.



Gravitational lensing, where massive objects bend the path of light, allowed the team to “push much further out into the universe,” Professor Collett explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-a-black-hole-without-light">Finding a black hole without light</h2>



“We detected the effect of the black hole in two ways - it is altering the path that light takes as it travels past the black hole and it is causing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/free-floating-black-hole-appears-to-be-feeding-on-a-star/">stars</a> in the inner regions of its host galaxy to move extremely quickly (almost 400 km/s),” said Professor Collett.



“By combining these two measurements we can be completely confident that the black hole is real.”



According to study lead author Carlos Melo-Carneiro, the black hole was dormant and not actively accreting material at the time of observation. 



"Its detection relied purely on its immense gravitational pull and the effect it has on its surroundings," said Melo-Carneiro.



“What is particularly exciting is that this method allows us to detect and measure the mass of these hidden ultramassive black holes across the universe, even when they are completely silent."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measurements-in-remote-systems">Measurements in remote systems</h2>



The Cosmic Horseshoe black hole is located about 5 billion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-small-planets-discovered-orbiting-the-nearest-single-star-to-earth-barnards-star/">light-years</a> from Earth. 



“Typically, for such remote systems, black hole mass measurements are only possible when the black hole is active,” said Melo-Carneiro. “But those accretion-based estimates often come with significant uncertainties."



“Our approach, combining strong lensing with stellar dynamics, offers a more direct and robust measurement, even for these distant systems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powering-a-massive-galaxy">Powering a massive galaxy</h2>



Scientists believe there is a deep connection between the size of a galaxy and the size of its central black hole.



“We think the size of both is intimately linked, because when galaxies grow they can funnel matter down onto the central black hole," noted Professor Collett.



"Some of this matter grows the black hole but lots of it shines away in an incredibly bright source called a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-took-the-closest-ever-image-of-a-quasar-and-captured-some-weird-things/">quasar</a>. These quasars dump huge amounts of energy into their host galaxies, which stops gas clouds condensing into new stars.”



The Milky Way’s own black hole has a mass of about four million Suns. It’s quiet now, but has likely acted as a quasar in the past. When the Milky Way merges with the Andromeda Galaxy in roughly 4.5 billion years, it could flare up as a quasar again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fossil-galaxy-group">A fossil galaxy group</h2>



The Cosmic Horseshoe’s host galaxy is a “fossil group” - a giant galaxy left behind after smaller galaxies merged into it.



“It is likely that all of the supermassive black holes that were originally in the companion galaxies have also now merged to form the ultramassive black hole that we have detected,” said Professor Collett.



“So we're seeing the end state of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/">galaxy formation</a> and the end state of black hole formation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accidental-discovery-with-big-potential">Accidental discovery with big potential</h2>



The black hole discovery was not the team’s original goal. They were studying the distribution of dark matter throughout the galaxy when evidence of the black hole became clear.



Now that the method has been proven, they hope to use data from the European Space Agency’s Euclid space telescope to spot more of these hidden giants and understand how they influence the birth of stars in galaxies.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://apps.crossref.org/pendingpub/pendingpub.html?doi=10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstaf1036" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA



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Massive black hole pushes the boundaries of what's possible

Astronomers have uncovered what could be one of the most...

Laughter may be a potent ally for mental and physical health. Around the world, scientists are exploring how structured laughter sessions can help calm anxiety and lift life satisfaction, and they're finding that these activities deliver real results.



Laughter is not unique to humans. From apes to rats, many animals share this response, hinting at its deep evolutionary roots. In people, laughter can strengthen social bonds, build trust, and even help babies develop an early sense of self.



Hospitals have also discovered the healing potential of laughter. For example, children who receive visits from clowns often recover and go home sooner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-laughter-therapy">Studying laughter therapy</h2>



Yelsyn-Mauricio Porras-Jiménez of the <a href="https://www.ujaen.es/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Jaén</a> in Spain wanted to improve health in all dimensions. “Not just the physical, but also the spiritual and emotional,” he noted. This led him to study laughter therapy’s role in holistic care.



Porras-Jiménez and his team analyzed 33 studies from the U.S., Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Participants ranged from nursing students to patients in end-of-life care, surgery candidates, IVF patients, and individuals facing depression or burnout.



The laughter therapy methods varied - some joined laughter yoga classes, others watched comedic films, took part in guided group <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-and-the-mind-new-clues-about-how-we-experience-pleasure/">laughs</a>, or enjoyed visits from hospital clowns.



"Unlike spontaneous humour, laughter therapy is a structured and deliberate intervention that uses techniques such as laughter yoga, guided group sessions, or therapeutic clowning to induce laughter as a means of generating psycho-emotional benefits," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-laughter-therapy">Benefits of laughter therapy</h2>



Each study included two groups: one that received laughter therapy and another that continued with standard care or no intervention. The data was striking.



On an anxiety scale from 0 to 100, the control group averaged around 60. The laughter therapy group scored 8 to 10 points lower. Life satisfaction told a similar story - the control group averaged 50, while the laughter group scored 10 to 12 points higher.



Sophie Scott of <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> acknowledged that because participants knew they were part of a special activity, the placebo effect could be influencing results. But this doesn’t discount the measurable physiological effects of laughter. 



Laughing can lower cortisol, the stress hormone, and trigger the release of endorphins - natural brain chemicals that boost mood.



“It’s hard to say whether it’s because of the laughter or because of the social context in which you felt comfortable enough to laugh,” said Scott. “I suspect it’s both.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-laughter-therapy-helps">Why laughter therapy helps</h2>



Positive psychology research shows that humor-based activities can help reframe stressful situations, turning them into challenges that feel less overwhelming. 



Laughter can encourage optimism, which in turn is linked to stronger immune function, better heart health, and more resilience in the face of adversity. Over time, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-who-use-humor-have-better-relationships-with-their-children/">humor</a>-based habits can help people adapt more easily to life’s unexpected turns.



Laughter therapy is increasingly being explored in mental health treatment, palliative care, and rehabilitation. In recovery settings, it can energize patients, improve motivation, and increase participation in therapy. 



In palliative care, it offers moments of connection and joy during difficult times. The affordability and low risk of laughter therapy make it accessible in community programs, workplaces, and educational settings.



Some research even suggests that laughter can improve pain tolerance, partly due to the release of endorphins and the relaxed muscle state that follows a good laugh. Combined with social bonding, it creates a unique emotional buffer against stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-a-mood-boost">More than just a mood boost</h2>



The power of laughter may lie in its ability to work on multiple levels at once - biological, psychological, and social. 



Laughter engages the body’s stress-reduction systems, strengthens relationships, and reframes how we experience challenges. Even if part of the effect is placebo, the benefits remain real and tangible.



Whether it’s through a clown’s antics in a hospital room, a stand-up show with friends, or a spontaneous giggle fit at home, laughter therapy offers a joyful, low-cost way to support mental and emotional well-being - and perhaps add a little more lightness to everyday life.



The study is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10902-025-00934-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Happiness Studies</a>.



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Laughter makes the stress of life feel less overwhelming

Laughter may be a potent ally for mental and physical...

Not all meat-eating dinosaurs used the same tricks to bring down their prey. While they may look similar - big skulls, sharp teeth, and a terrifying presence - their bite strategies were very different.



In a new study, scientists at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> analyzed 18 species of theropod dinosaurs that lived throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/">Mesozoic</a> Era.



These two-legged predators include some of the most famous names in dinosaur history: Tyrannosaurus rex, Giganotosaurus, and Spinosaurus. Despite their similar appearances, the way they hunted was far more varied than previously assumed.



“The feeding strategies of these top predators are more complex than we thought in the past,” said Fion Waisum Ma of the Beipiao Pterosaur Museum of China.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blade-like-teeth-for-slicing">Blade-like teeth for slicing</h2>



To understand how these dinosaurs hunted, the researchers used 3D scans of fossilized skulls. They applied engineering methods that are normally used to test how bridges handle stress. The goal was to investigate how force traveled through the skull bones during a bite.



The researchers found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-had-huge-predatory-dinosaurs-during-the-late-jurassic/">Giganotosaurus</a> had an elongated skull lined with blade-like teeth designed more for slicing than smashing. Instead of crushing bone, it likely hunted by tearing large chunks of flesh from its prey.



Giganotosaurus’ thin, serrated teeth were “like a cross between a great white shark and a Komodo dragon,” said Eric Snively, associate professor of anatomy at Oklahoma State University.



Giganotosaurus lived in what’s now South America during the mid-Cretaceous period. It was one of the largest carnivorous dinosaurs ever discovered, possibly even rivaling T. rex in size. Some scientists believe it may have hunted large sauropods, possibly even in coordinated groups - though that part is still debated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dinosaur-built-for-water">A dinosaur built for water</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spinosaurus-reveals-a-link-between-bone-density-and-hunting-underwater/">Spinosaurus</a>, on the other hand, had a very different lifestyle. Its teeth were conical and not built for slicing or crushing. Its long, narrow snout and retracted nostrils suggest it spent much of its time in or near water.



Spinosaurus was “like a fin-backed heron with the body of a wiener dog, and teeth like a crocodile,” said Snively.



These features point to a diet focused on aquatic prey. It likely snatched up massive fish and other water-dwelling animals, using its jaws more like a fishing spear than a typical predator’s bite.



Its body also supported this role: a long, possibly paddle-shaped tail, short hind limbs, and a sail-like structure on its back. Spinosaurus didn’t dominate on land the way T. rex or Giganotosaurus might have - but in its river systems, it was probably unmatched.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ultimate-skull-smasher">The ultimate skull smasher</h2>



T. rex, though, was a different kind of predator, with a bite that wasn’t just powerful - it was extreme, thanks to its shorter, thicker skull and strong jaw muscles that allowed it to bite down with incredible force.



“It turns out, tyrannosaurs were biting so hard they were actually stressing their skulls more than we expected,” said Snively.



By comparing the skull structure and muscle attachment points with modern relatives like crocodiles and birds, the researchers discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/">T. rex</a> had one of the most intense bites of any land predator in history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-in-a-competitive-world">Survival in a competitive world</h2>



There may be a reason behind T. rex’s brutal efficiency. It wasn’t just about being big or strong - it was about surviving in a world packed with danger and competition.



“T-Rex lived later during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/late-cretaceous-dinosaur-was-sluggish-and-nearly-deaf/">Late Cretaceous</a> Period, when hunting was highly competitive,” Ma said. That environment, she added, may have pushed it to develop a “unique feeding strategy.”



This may explain why T. rex evolved such an overbuilt skull and one of the most powerful bites ever recorded in a land animal. It needed to kill fast, defend kills from rivals, and even crush through bone to reach the nutrients inside. 



Unlike earlier theropods that relied more on speed or slashing, T. rex was built to finish the job. In an ecosystem where hesitation could mean losing a meal - or becoming one - T. rex didn’t just survive. It took control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-skulls-and-hunting-strategies">Dinosaur skulls and hunting strategies </h2>



The study makes one thing clear: just because these dinosaurs shared a body plan doesn’t mean they hunted the same way. 



Some had teeth designed for slicing or crushing, while others were adapted for hunting in water. "Their behavior shouldn’t be thought of as ‘one size fits all,'” said Snively. 



This diversity makes sense considering that these predators lived in different eras and environments, hunting various kinds of prey. Each dinosaur evolved to fit its unique surroundings - and their skulls still reveal that story.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00811-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Giant dinosaur skulls reveal unique hunting strategies

Not all meat-eating dinosaurs used the same tricks to bring...

A new study that tracked more than 205,000 U.S. adults for almost 40 years reports a 20 percent rise in type 2 diabetes among people who eat french fries three times a week.



The same <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/390/bmj-2024-082121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> found no meaningful change in diabetes rates for similar amounts of baked, boiled, or mashed potatoes. This suggests that preparation, not the potato itself, influences diabetes risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooking-styles-and-diabetes-risk">Cooking styles and diabetes risk</h2>



Study lead author Seyed Mohammad Mousavi of the <a href="https://hsph.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health</a> noted that his team wanted to separate cooking style from the crop itself. Boiling or baking leaves the tuber’s structure mostly intact, so more starch resists quick digestion.



That slower breakdown keeps blood sugar steadier, while deep frying breaks starch granules and surrounds them with fat, pushing their glycemic index higher. 



Because the index measures how fast a food raises <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-diabetes-type-5-is-now-officially-recognized-linked-to-nutritional-deficiencies/">glucose</a>, a higher value can translate into more insulin demand and, over time, greater metabolic strain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-french-fries-raise-diabetes-risk">French fries raise diabetes risk</h2>



“Small changes in our daily diet can have an important impact on risk of type 2 diabetes,” said Walter Willett, professor of epidemiology and nutrition. He recommended swapping a side of fries for a salad or whole grain roll.



Deep fried potatoes often arrive salted, sometimes battered, and usually cooked in oils repeatedly heated - creating compounds that may harm pancreatic cells.



Portion size matters too, because a restaurant “serving” can exceed two cups, far more than the study’s single cup baseline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whole-grains-lower-diabetes-risk">Whole grains lower diabetes risk</h2>



Replacing any potato dish with three weekly servings of <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/370/bmj.m2206" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whole grains</a> trimmed diabetes risk by up to 8 percent, and the drop hit 19 percent when the swap targeted fries. 



Whole grain kernels carry fiber, magnesium and phytochemicals that blunt glucose spikes and may improve insulin sensitivity. They also displace refined starches, lowering overall dietary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-this-amount-of-water-per-day-helps-control-blood-sugar-levels-in-people-with-diabetes/">glycemic</a> load. 



Participants who regularly chose oats, farro or true whole grain bread tended to exercise more and smoke less, but the researchers adjusted for these habits. The protective link remained after lifestyle factors were stripped away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-rice-also-raises-risk">White rice also raises risk </h2>



When the same models substituted <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/344/bmj.e1454" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white rice</a> for potatoes, diabetes odds crept upward, a pattern echoed in a 2012 meta analysis of four continents. 



White rice loses bran and germ in milling, leaving almost pure starch that digests quickly.



Its high glycemic index mirrors that of fries, offering little metabolic advantage. Brown rice fared better but was not the standout that whole grain wheat products proved to be, possibly because it contains less fiber per gram.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-diet-and-diabetes-link">Tracking the diet and diabetes link</h2>



Mousavi’s team pooled data from three well-known cohorts: the Nurses’ Health Study, Nurses’ Health Study II and the Health Professionals Follow up Study, covering 5.2 million person years.



Dietary questionnaires repeated every four years enabled the researchers to examine how habits changed, reducing the error that plagues one time food recalls.



The team adjusted for weight, smoking, exercise, alcohol use, family history and dozens of dietary variables, yet the fry signal persisted. Even after carving out early cases to avoid reverse causation, the 20 percent excess risk stood firm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-french-fries-vs-boiled-potatoes">French fries vs. boiled potatoes</h2>



The researchers point to several factors that might explain why fries, but not boiled or baked potatoes, show a clear link with higher diabetes risk. 



Frying increases calorie density, changes starch structure, and introduces compounds formed at high heat that can harm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-sub-type-of-diabetes-discovered-that-will-change-how-the-disease-is-treated/">insulin</a> function over time.



Another factor could be what typically accompanies fries. They are often eaten alongside processed meats, sugary drinks, or refined breads, creating a meal pattern with a higher overall glycemic load and saturated fat intake. This broader dietary context may compound the effects seen in the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tips-for-healthier-fries">Tips for healthier fries</h2>



The experts recommend to choose potatoes that preserve their skin, keep added fat modest, and pair them with vegetables or protein to slow digestion. 



Cold potato salad made from boiled tubers delivers resistant starch, which further tempers post meal glucose.



You don’t have to give up <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/potato-chips-and-fries-will-now-be-a-healthy-snack-with-new-cooking-method/">fries</a> completely, but eating them less often and in smaller amounts can help lower your risk. Instead of a cup of fries, try a cup of barley, quinoa, or air-fried potato wedges to keep your meals tasty without hurting your health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/390/bmj-2024-082121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The BMJ</a>.



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Eating french fries comes with an unexpected health risk

A new study that tracked more than 205,000 U.S. adults...

Tiny metallic beads hiding in deep Arctic mud have reignited a long-running argument about why Earth shivered 12,800 years ago. The new <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0328347" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> comes from four sediment cores lifted out of Baffin Bay, between Greenland and Canada, that capture a razor-thin layer rich in comet-like debris.



The abrupt climate lurch, known as the <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/2021-11/3%20The%20Younger%20Dryas%20-FINAL%20NOV%20%281%29.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Younger Dryas</a>, drove Northern Hemisphere temperatures down roughly 18°F in what ice cores suggest was a matter of months. 



<a href="https://sc.edu/study/colleges_schools/artsandsciences/sc_institute_archeology_and_anthropology/faculty-staff/moore_christopher.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Christopher Moore</a> of the University of South Carolina (<a href="https://sc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SC</a>) says his team’s ocean-core data link that chill to incoming space dust rather than to a pulse of glacial meltwater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comet-or-meltwater-cause-of-ice-age">Comet or meltwater cause of ice age</h2>



Most textbooks trace the cold spell to floods from the collapsing Laurentide Ice Sheet that diluted Atlantic surface water and slowed heat-bearing currents. 



The rival impact idea argues that Earth blundered into a comet stream, causing airbursts, fires, and a short impact winter that tipped the climate until ocean circulation recovered.



That second scenario burst onto the scene in 2007 when scientists <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0706977104" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reported</a> soot, glassy spheres, and a sharp platinum spike at dozens of continental sites. 



Skeptics soon countered that those clues could be contamination or the by-products of ordinary surface processes, and many paleoclimatologists stayed loyal to the meltwater narrative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-cores-show-comet-debris-in-ice-age">Deep cores show comet debris in Ice Age</h2>



Moore’s group hunted for evidence beyond the reach of plows, factories, and foot traffic. 



They sampled cores resting up to 1.5 miles beneath the waves and more than 20 feet below the modern seabed, then dated each layer with foraminifera radiocarbon counts.



At the Younger Dryas boundary the cores show dense clusters of iron-rich glassy balls called <a href="https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/metsoc2023/pdf/6214.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microspherules</a> and nickel-bearing splinters known as metallic dust particles, both typical of flash-melt events. 



They also register peaks in platinum group elements, notably platinum and iridium, whose cosmic abundance dwarfs crustal levels.



“Our identification of a Younger Dryas impact layer in deep marine sediments underscores the potential of oceanic records to broaden our understanding of this event and its climatological impacts,” said Dr. Moore.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mix-of-earth-and-comet-dust-in-ice-age">Mix of earth and comet dust in Ice Age</h2>



The team compared element ratios in the spheres with stardust scooped from <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/comets/81p-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Comet Wild 2</a> and with cosmic dust caught in the upper atmosphere. 



Most spheres carried a terrestrial silicon-iron signature seasoned with about one percent extraterrestrial nickel and chromium, the blend expected when searing shock fronts melt local rock while sprinkling comet grains.



Every year Earth sweeps up roughly 5,000 tons of <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2017JD027143" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space dust</a>, hardly enough to leave a global platinum spike, let alone trigger a centuries-long chill. 



By contrast, the Baffin Bay layer implies a six-month influx of millions of tons, three orders of magnitude above the background drizzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comet-theory-vs-meltwater-theory">Comet theory vs meltwater theory</h2>



Freshwater <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aay2915" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">models</a> can still reproduce the cold if enough melt pours into the North Atlantic at once. A separate <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-021-00228-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> even showed that floods routed through the Hudson Valley could jolt Atlantic circulation without outside help.



<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1313495110" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Critiques</a> of the impact work also persist, noting mismatched dates at some sites and the absence of an obvious crater. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/metallic-beads_young-dryas_comet-impact_ice-age_credit-PLOS-One_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/metallic-beads_young-dryas_comet-impact_ice-age_credit-PLOS-One_1s.webp" alt="Examples of Fe-rich and silica-rich impact microspherules (a and b) and metallic dust particles (MDPs; c and d) interpreted as cometary dust from Baffin Bay cores. Yellow arrows show particles of FeSi, FeS, and FeCr on microspherules (a and b) and NiFe, low-O2 Fe, and native Fe on metallic particles (c and d). Note folded edges of MDP in panel d. Credit: Moore et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0" class="wp-image-1980987"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of Fe-rich and silica-rich impact microspherules (a and b) and metallic dust particles (MDPs; c and d) interpreted as cometary dust from Baffin Bay cores. Yellow arrows show particles of FeSi, FeS, and FeCr on microspherules (a and b) and NiFe, low-O2 Fe, and native Fe on metallic particles (c and d). Note folded edges of MDP in panel d. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Moore et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0</figcaption></figure>



Moore replies that low-altitude airbursts leave little more than tiny glassy fallout, and that glacial erosion would quickly erase shallow craters on an ice sheet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comet-strike-effects-on-life">Comet strike effects on life</h2>



Beyond the immediate cooling, an extraterrestrial strike of this scale could have set off a chain of environmental disruptions. 



Soot from widespread wildfires, combined with fine cometary dust, may have dimmed sunlight long enough to stress plant life and ripple through food webs.&nbsp;



Layers from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-climate-shifts-changed-early-human-migration-patterns/">Younger Dryas</a> period in several regions hold signs of intense biomass burning, adding weight to the idea of global ecological shock.



Large-scale die-offs of megafauna and abrupt changes in human settlement patterns appear in archaeological records from this period. 



While correlation does not prove causation, the overlap in timing between these biological shifts and the impact proxies in the sediment has kept the hypothesis alive in both paleontology and anthropology circles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-age-comet-event-climate-lessons">Ice Age comet event climate lessons</h2>



Understanding how fast the climate can flip is not just academic. If a brief dust veil could stall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cold-spot-in-the-atlantic-could-signal-big-trouble-for-global-climate/">Atlantic circulation</a> once, large volcanic plumes or human-caused soot might hold similar leverage.



The work also widens the hunt for ancient impacts to offshore archives, where mud builds quietly and contamination risks drop. 



Future cores from the North Atlantic, Arctic Ocean, and even the Gulf of Mexico could trace the fallout plume and settle how widely the particles spread.



For now the Baffin Bay cores add a fresh puzzle piece rather than the final picture. Whether that piece fits better with a cosmic hailstorm or with rampaging meltwater remains an open, and lively, question.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0328347" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Metallic beads in Arctic mud suggest a comet slammed into Earth not long ago

Tiny metallic beads hiding in deep Arctic mud have reignited...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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