Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Ozempic, Wegovy, and their sister drugs have leapt from pharmacy counters to dinner-table conversations in record time. 



These injectable medicines belong to a class called GLP-1 agonists. The drugs were originally designed to control blood sugar in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-a-cellular-switch-mitochondria-that-could-reverse-type-2-diabetes/">type 2 diabetes</a>, but are now more famous for helping users shed significant pounds.



A survey of 8,793 adults conducted by the nonprofit <a href="https://www.rand.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RAND Corporation</a> shows just how far the trend has spread - and who is feeling the side effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glp-1-drugs-gain-traction-nationwide">GLP-1 drugs gain traction nationwide</h2>



RAND researchers asked members of their <a href="https://www.rand.org/education-and-labor/survey-panels/alp.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Life Panel</a> whether they are currently taking or have ever taken a GLP-1 agonist such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drug-ozempic-may-help-protect-the-brain-from-stroke/">Ozempic</a>, Wegovy, Mounjaro, or Zepbound.



Exactly 11.8 percent said yes - virtually unchanged from the 12 percent figure KFF found in 2023. Another 14 percent said they were interested in trying the drugs, while about three-quarters reported that they did not plan to take them.



That 11.8 percent translates to roughly 30 million adults, underscoring the meteoric rise of medications approved for diabetes in 2017 and for obesity in 2021. Prescription numbers have tripled since 2020, according to IQVIA sales data quoted by RAND.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-and-age-divide-in-prescriptions">Gender and age divide in prescriptions</h2>



Usage differs sharply by age and sex. GLP-1 prescriptions are most common among Americans aged 50 to 64, with 18.5 percent of everyone in that bracket having tried them. Among women in this age group, the share climbs to a striking one in five.



Men between 50 and 64 are not far behind at 16.8 percent, while adults over 65 show similar rates for both sexes at about 13 percent. Young adults lag well behind: only 3.3 percent of people aged 18–29 reported ever using a GLP-1.



In the 30- to 49-year age range, women at 15.1 percent are more than double their male peers at 7.2 percent. This suggests that body-image pressures or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-suggests-menopause-can-be-delayed-or-even-eliminated/">menopause-related</a> weight gain may play a role.



Although overall uptake has plateaued nationwide, curiosity remains high. More than one in seven adults say they were interested in the injections even if they had never taken them.



High demand continues to strain supply chains; sporadic shortages have led the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to list several doses of Wegovy and Ozempic as “in limited availability” throughout 2024 and 2025.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-side-effects-of-weight-loss-drugs">Side effects of weight-loss drugs </h2>



GLP-1 drugs mimic a hormone that slows stomach emptying and triggers satiety signals in the brain, but those same mechanisms can cause digestive distress.



The RAND survey asked the 1,262 respondents who had used one of these drugs about four well-known side effects: nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, and the rapid loss of facial fat popularly called “Ozempic face.”



Roughly half said they had experienced nausea, while a little over a third reported diarrhea. About one in five had suffered vomiting, and fewer than one in ten mentioned facial hollowing.



Most users described their side effects as mild rather than serious, though nearly nine percent of all users labeled their nausea severe and more than seven percent said the same about their diarrhea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drugs-remain-expensive-and-restricted">Drugs remain expensive and restricted</h2>



These statistics matter because GLP-1 agonists cost roughly $1,000 per month without insurance and remain subject to insurer restrictions and prior authorization hurdles. 



Knowing who is actually taking them helps forecasters estimate spending for Medicare and private health plans.



Medicare currently covers the drugs for diabetes and, since 2024, to reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-one-thing-about-this-everyday-task-cuts-heart-disease-risk-in-half/">cardiovascular risk</a>, but not explicitly for weight management. Bipartisan bills introduced in Congress could change that and further expand access.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-and-body-image-influence-use">Age and body image influence use</h2>



The demographic split also hints at cultural factors. Women in early retirement years may be eager to mitigate health risks associated with midlife weight gain. 



Younger men’s low uptake could reflect lower healthcare engagement or simply fewer prescriptions for weight loss in that cohort.



Although uptake has stabilized for now, the survey indicates sustained interest that could push rates higher if costs fall or coverage broadens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-use-and-inequities">Tracking use and inequities</h2>



The American Life Panel is a probability-based cohort of roughly 11,000 people aged 12 and up. RAND fielded its GLP-1 questions online and by telephone in April and May 2025, weighting answers to align with U.S. Census benchmarks.



Because the data rely on self-report, some misclassification is inevitable; nevertheless, the large sample size yields the most detailed snapshot yet of this new pharmaceutical landscape. The FDA is reviewing new GLP-1 drugs that may allow longer dosing or cause fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-c-may-reduce-adverse-effects-of-cancer-treatment/">side effects</a>.



Meanwhile, researchers are tracking rare but serious complications such as pancreatitis and intestinal obstruction. 



Public health experts also warn of disparities in access. High prices and limited insurance coverage may keep these medications out of reach for lower-income and rural Americans, even though obesity rates are highest in those communities. RAND’s finding that interest outpaces actual use hints at these barriers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-weight-loss-hype">Beyond the weight-loss hype</h2>



Doctors advise patients considering GLP-1 therapy to review cardiovascular history, pancreas issues, and gallbladder disease. They also emphasize that lifestyle changes - particularly diet, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-in-a-pill-is-now-closer-to-reality/">exercise</a>, and adequate sleep - remain crucial for long-term success.



The injections suppress appetite but do not build muscle or improve nutrition on their own.



Just eight years after Ozempic’s debut, GLP-1 agonists have become household names, waistlines have shrunk, and supply chains have grown.



RAND’s new numbers confirm that the medications have reached one in eight adults and one in five middle-aged women, while side effects are common yet generally mild.



As more formulations win approval and insurers reconsider coverage, usage rates could climb or plateau. Either way, the survey offers a valuable baseline for clinicians, policymakers, and consumers navigating America’s rapidly evolving weight-loss drug frontier.



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Nearly 30 million Americans are using weight-loss drugs

Ozempic, Wegovy, and their sister drugs have leapt from pharmacy...

Human eyes are masterpieces of biological engineering, but once damaged, they cannot rebuild themselves. Golden apple snails, by contrast, routinely replace an entire camera-type eye within a month.



In a new study, molecular and cellular biologist Alice Accorsi and colleagues at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, show that snail and human eyes share both anatomical architecture and many of the genes that guide development.



By pairing those insights with new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/">CRISPR-Cas9</a> genome-editing tools, the team has created a tractable system for probing the genetic logic of whole-eye regeneration. This knowledge could ultimately inform therapies for people who lose vision through injury or disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasion-becomes-inspiration">Invasion becomes inspiration</h2>



Pomacea canaliculata, native to South America but now invasive across the tropics, breeds fast, thrives in captivity, and possesses large, lens-bearing eyes mounted on stalks.



“Apple snails are resilient, their generation time is very short, and they have a lot of babies,” Accorsi said. 



Those practical advantages overcome many of the hurdles that have deterred previous attempts to use gastropods in regenerative biology.



“When I started reading about this, I was asking myself, why isn’t anybody already using snails to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-sheds-light-on-the-pathways-of-plant-regeneration/">regeneration</a>? I think it’s because we just hadn’t found the perfect snail to study - until now,” she explained.



Unlike planarians, which can regrow primordial light-sensing spots, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-salamander-fossil-reveals-deep-roots-of-appalachian-diversity/">salamanders</a>, which regenerate a functional retina but not an entire globe, the apple snail rebuilds every element of a complex camera-type eye. These include the transparent cornea, refractive lens, layered retina, and optic nerve.



That layout mirrors the vertebrate eye and sets the stage for meaningful cross-species comparisons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snail-eyes-mirror-ours">Snail eyes mirror ours</h2>



Accorsi’s group combined high-resolution histology with transcriptome sequencing to map the similarities.



“We did a lot of work to show that many genes that participate in human eye development are also present in the snail,” she noted.



Canonical regulators such as the pax6, sox2, otx, and six gene families appear in the mollusc’s genome and activate during eye formation. Once regeneration is complete, “the morphology and gene expression of the new eye is pretty much identical to the original one.”



From the moment an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-technology-lets-us-see-colors-of-the-world-through-the-eyes-of-animals/">eye</a> stalk is amputated, the snail initiates replacement through coordinated phases. Wound closure seals the cut within 24 hours. Proliferating undifferentiated cells then invade the site, and by about day 15 the nascent organ shows recognizable lens fibers, retinal layers, and a reconnecting optic nerve.



Although fully formed, the tissue continues to mature for several more weeks. RNA profiling captured this transition: roughly 9,000 genes change expression early, but 1,175 remain different after 28 days, suggesting late-stage remodeling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-editing-snail-genes-for-answers">Editing snail genes for answers</h2>



To test gene function directly, the researchers established CRISPR-Cas9 mutagenesis in apple snail embryos.



“The idea is that we mutate specific genes and then see what effect it has on the animal,” Accorsi said.



As proof of principle, they knocked out pax6. Hatchlings carrying two inactive copies lacked eyes altogether. This demonstrates that, as in vertebrates and flies, pax6 is indispensable for initial eye assembly in snails.



The lab can now deploy the same strategy to explore whether pax6 or other regulators are also critical during regrowth in adults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rebuilding-eyes-from-scratch">Rebuilding eyes from scratch</h2>



Imaging shows that regeneration begins with a burst of cell migration and proliferation near the stump. Accorsi hypothesizes that some of those cells originate from a reserve of stem-like cells at the base of the eye stalk. Others may derive from the surrounding epidermis or even blood-borne hemocytes.



Unraveling their lineage, and what signals tell them to adopt lens versus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-retinal-cells-explain-complex-color-perception/">retina</a> fates, will be a next challenge. With CRISPR, the team can tag cells or block signals to observe how regeneration stalls or progresses.



Behavioral tests are also on the agenda. “We still don't have conclusive evidence that they can see images, but anatomically, they have all the components that are needed to form an image,” Accorsi said.



Designing assays that reveal light-guided behavior - perhaps tracking movement toward shaded refuges - will confirm functional recovery. These tests will also set benchmarks for comparing successful and failed genetic manipulations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-snails-to-human-sight">From snails to human sight</h2>



Humans carry the same developmental genes, but in mammals they're mostly silenced after embryogenesis ends. Identifying reactivation signals may reveal molecular switches to coax human eye tissues into self-repair.



“If we find a set of genes that are important for eye regeneration, and these genes are also present in vertebrates, in theory we could activate them to enable eye regeneration in humans,” Accorsi remarked.



That long-term vision will require bridging vast evolutionary and physiological gaps, yet the new model provides a rare example of full organ restoration in a complex eye.



Because the apple snail’s genetics, life cycle, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-killifish-regeneration-may-help-us-heal-humans/">regenerative</a> capacity are now accessible, it offers a powerful research model. It promises to illuminate not only ophthalmology but also broader questions of stem-cell plasticity, immune modulation, and scar-free healing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-pest-becomes-a-pioneer">A pest becomes a pioneer</h2>



Accorsi’s project also illustrates how curiosity-driven exploration can expand the experimental repertoire of biomedicine. 



A problem that seems intractable in standard lab rodents may yield to an unexpected organism with the right combination of traits.



As Accorsi’s lab continues to map the genetic circuitry of eye regrowth - and perhaps inspire other groups to adopt the apple snail - what began as an invasive pest could become a luminous guide to restoring sight.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61681-6">Nature Communications</a>.



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Apple snails regrow their eyes - and may help humans do the same

Human eyes are masterpieces of biological engineering, but once damaged,...

Ever since William Harvey outlined the circulation of the blood, textbooks have assigned distinct roles to blood’s cellular cast. 



Platelets served as the tiny workhorses that pulled clotting protein threads tight, white cells patrolled for infection, and red blood cells (RBCs) mostly hauled oxygen while passively filling space inside a forming clot.



A collaborative study from the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a> now overturns that familiar picture. Using a blend of biochemical tricks, high-resolution imaging, and mathematical modeling, the investigators show that red blood cells actively generate the forces that make a clot shrink and toughen once it has sealed a wound.



“This discovery reshapes how we understand one of the body’s most vital processes,” said senior author Rustem Litvinov from the <a href="https://www.med.upenn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perelman School of Medicine</a> (PSOM).



The project drew on expertise that spans hematology, cell biology, and soft-matter mechanics, illustrating how interdisciplinary science can upend long-held assumptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clots-shrink-without-platelets">Clots shrink without platelets</h2>



John Weisel, a professor of cell and developmental biology at PSOM, has spent decades probing fibrin - the insoluble, rope-like protein network that glues a clot together.



In previous studies, he and Litvinov had dissected how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-stem-cells-grown-in-the-lab-for-first-time-ever-leukemia-treatment/">platelets</a> tug on fibrin fibers. So when they decided to revisit that system without platelets, they expected an inert mass. 



Professor Weisel said the team did not expect anything to happen. "Instead, the clots shrank by more than 20 percent."



To rule out platelet activity, the team used blood treated to block the platelets’ ability to contract. Once again, the clots pulled inward. At that point, the researchers confronted the unanticipated culprit.



“Red blood cells were thought to be passive bystanders,” Weisel said. Far from passive, the cells appeared to be doing mechanical work. 



“That’s when we realized red blood cells must be doing more than just taking up space,” Litvinov explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-cells-act-like-gels">Red cells act like gels</h2>



How could flexible discs with no contractile proteins of their own produce force? The Penn biologists enlisted Prashant Purohit, a professor of mechanical engineering and applied mechanics who specializes in the behavior of gels and other squishy materials.



“Red blood cells have been studied since the 17th century,” noted Purohit. “The surprising fact is that we’re still finding out new things about them in the 21st century.”



Purohit constructed a mathematical model grounded in colloid physics. As a clot forms, fibrin polymerizes into a porous mesh. This mesh traps RBCs along with plasma proteins such as albumin and fibrinogen.



When the mesh compacts, large protein molecules are squeezed out of the tight spaces between adjacent red cells faster than they can leave the surrounding fluid. That imbalance, known as an osmotic depletion force, produces an external pressure that pushes the trapped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hemifusome-newly-discovered-organelle-inside-human-cells-with-immense-potential/">cells</a> into even closer contact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-packed-blood-cells-shrink-the-clot">Packed blood cells shrink the clot</h2>



“Essentially, the proteins in the surrounding fluid create an imbalance in pressure that pushes red blood cells together,” Purohit said. 



The packed cells transmit the pressure back to the fibrin scaffold, making the entire clot shrink and stiffen.



“This attractive force causes them to pack more tightly, helping the clot contract even without platelets,” he added.



The model also permitted the team to quantify a second, previously proposed mechanism: molecular bridging. In this process, complementary molecules on neighboring RBC membranes bind together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clot-behavior-matches-math">Clot behavior matches math</h2>



Study first author Alina Peshkova, now a postdoctoral researcher in pharmacology at Penn, designed a series of clotting assays to test the model head-on.



When she blocked the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-activated-molecules-kill-cancer-cells-with-precision/">membrane molecules</a> required for bridging, clots still contracted robustly. When she manipulated the chemical environment to eliminate the osmotic pressure gradient, contraction was largely abolished.



“We experimentally confirmed what the model predicted,” Peshkova said. “It’s an example of theory and practice coming together to support each other.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-findings-may-impact-stroke-care">Findings may impact stroke care</h2>



Most acute clotting problems in medicine trace back to an imbalance between clot formation and dissolution. 



If RBC-driven contraction proves to be a major determinant of clot strength in vivo, it could help explain why patients with anemia or sickle cell disease sometimes experience unusual clotting complications.



Conversely, individuals with very low platelet counts (thrombocytopenia) might still achieve adequate clot retraction if their red cells provide compensatory force.



A better grasp of clot mechanics is also relevant to thromboembolism. A clot that retracts too vigorously can become so dense that fragments break off and travel downstream, lodging in the lungs, coronary arteries, or brain.



Understanding how osmotic forces affect clot architecture may therefore inform strategies to prevent strokes or pulmonary emboli.



“Ultimately, our model is going to be helpful in understanding, preventing, and treating diseases related to clotting inside the bloodstream,” Purohit said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-forces-reshape-biology">Physical forces reshape biology</h2>



The Penn study showcases the power of looking at a biological question through a physical lens. Osmotic depletion had long been recognized in industrial colloids - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/egyptian-blue-pigment-recreated-after-100-years/">pigment</a> particles in paint, milk proteins in dairy science - but had received little attention in hemostasis research.



By merging classic hematology with contemporary soft-matter theory, the investigators revealed that an abundant, well-studied cell type still harbors surprises that matter for human health.



“This attractive force causes them to pack more tightly, helping the clot contract even without platelets,” Purohit emphasized.



The remark captures the study’s dual message: mechanical laws operate inside living tissues, and basic science can still revise what clinicians think they already know.



With platelet-free contraction now firmly established, the field can move on to explore how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-technology-could-safely-treat-hundreds-of-genetic-diseases/">genetic diseases</a>, pharmaceuticals, or blood storage conditions influence this newly recognized RBC function. 



Researchers can also investigate whether tweaking it might tip the balance between life-saving hemostasis and life-threatening thrombosis.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://ashpublications.org/bloodadvances/article/9/14/3418/536731/Red-blood-cell-aggregation-within-a-blood-clot">Blood Advances</a>.



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Red blood cells found to squeeze clots tight using physical force

Ever since William Harvey outlined the circulation of the blood,...

Thinking of the rainforest, you probably picture parrots, orchids, maybe a lazy jaguar on a branch. What you don’t see - because most of us never notice them - are the multitudes of insects, spiders, millipedes, and other arthropods that make the rainforest run.



These little laborers till the soil, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-disappearing-and-its-bad-news-for-plants/">pollinate flowers</a>, recycle dead leaves, and serve as breakfast, lunch, and dinner for just about everything that hops, flies, or slithers.



For years, scientists in Europe and North America have sounded alarms that insect numbers are sliding. But no one knew whether the planet’s richest wildlife real estate - the tropical belt - was suffering the same fate. A new study argues it is, and that should set off alarms well beyond the equator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-detective-story"><a></a>A global detective story</h2>



The research stitched together results from more than 80 long-term projects in undisturbed rainforests stretching from the Amazon to Borneo. 



No chainsaws, no pesticides, no plantations - just old-growth jungle. By stacking decades of moth counts here and spider surveys there, the team could spot patterns that any single project would miss.



Those patterns are, unfortunately, grim. Whether you look at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-populations-are-disappearing-and-its-happening-fast/">butterflies</a>, beetles, or orb-weaving spiders, the story is the same: fewer species, fewer individuals.



Leaf-eating caterpillars are chewing less foliage these days, and the tiny cleanup crews that shred fallen leaves are also dwindling. Even in forests so remote you need days of hiking or a helicopter to reach them, life in miniature is thinning out.



Adam Sharp, the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hong Kong</a> (HKU) data scientist who wrangled the spreadsheets, didn’t sugarcoat it: “To find such large declines over many studies is really bad news."



"Our results strongly suggest that the immense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/">biodiversity</a> of tropical forest arthropods is immediately threatened,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncut-forests-still-losing-arthropods">Uncut forests still losing arthropods</h2>



Because these field sites are virtually untouched, the usual villain - direct habitat destruction - doesn’t explain the loss. Instead, the researchers traced the problem to the sky.



Tropical weather is famously moody thanks to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-climate-shifts-date-back-250-million-years/">El Niño</a>–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the swing between hot, dry El Niño years and cooler, wetter La Niña years. Historically, that back-and-forth kept communities in balance. Some insects love soggy conditions, while others thrive in drought, but neither side ever totally disappears.



Climate change is messing with that rhythm. El Niño events are arriving more often and hitting harder, stretching dry seasons and scorching understory plants. 



Arthropod groups that prefer the gentler La Niña phase are getting pummeled each time the pendulum sticks on the hot, dry side. 



“In these tropical forests that haven’t otherwise been physically modified by humans, we can rule out habitat loss, pesticides, pollution, and various other threats," said lead author Mike Boyle, a biologist at HKU. "In these places, El Niño seems to be the prime suspect.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arthropods-hold-the-forest-together">Arthropods hold the forest together</h2>



It may be hard to feel sentimental about a stick insect, but your well-being is more entangled with them than you might guess. Insects and their kin keep nutrient cycles turning. 



Arthropods are the garbage disposal that prevents the rainforest from choking on their own leaves. They pollinate cacao trees and coffee bushes. They are the protein bars that power baby birds and hunting frogs. Lose enough, and you don’t just lose species - you hobble entire ecosystems.



“Arthropods are essential components of functioning ecosystems, carrying out vital processes including decomposition, herbivory, and pollination," said study co-author Louise Ashton.



When those processes sputter, forests store less carbon, streams change course, and the dominoes keep falling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-lessons-from-global-loss">Local lessons from global loss</h2>



Roger Kitching at <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a> helped lead the Australian part of the study and sees a lesson for his own backyard.



The Wet Tropics of Queensland and the lush forests of northern New South Wales haven’t been logged in decades, yet nobody is really counting their insects.



“The crucial message for Australia is the need to monitor the biodiversity in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/">rainforests</a> – revisiting previous surveys is the key,” said Kitching.



Long-running datasets like the ones underpinning this study are important because they reveal slow, silent shifts that annual snapshots miss. Without them, declines can cruise under the radar until they’re drastic - and harder to fix.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-the-rainforest-s-smallest-workers">Helping the rainforest’s smallest workers</h2>



First, keep forests intact and healthy. Dense canopies maintain cooler, moister microclimates that offer insects a refuge when El Niño roasts the region. Restoring battered edges and stamping out invasive plants add extra buffers.



Second, get serious about monitoring. New gadgets - automated camera traps that “listen” for insect wingbeats, DNA snippets caught in river water - could track populations without needing an army of taxonomists.



Most importantly, tackle the root problem. The runaway greenhouse gases heating up oceans are also increasing El Niño’s effects. Curbing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cutting-emissions-could-save-250000-lives-a-year-in-europe/">emissions</a> slows that feedback loop and gives forests - and their six-legged stewards - a fighting chance.



 Rainforest arthropods survived asteroid strikes and ice ages, but the speed of modern climate change is a different beast. Their decline isn’t just a tropical tragedy - it’s a preview of broader ecological unraveling.



The bugs may be small, but their absence would leave a very big hole in the biosphere - and in the services humans quietly rely on every day.



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Moths to millipedes: Why are arthropods declining in untouched forests?

Thinking of the rainforest, you probably picture parrots, orchids, maybe...

The full moon this August is more than just a pretty sight - it’s part of a long-standing seasonal rhythm tied to both tradition and survival. 



Known as the Sturgeon Moon, it will reach peak brightness at 3:55 a.m. Eastern Time on Saturday, August 9, but the best time to catch it is Friday night.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apollo-samples-reveal-what-really-created-the-moons-atmosphere/">moon</a> isn’t just putting on a solo performance. It will have some company - including some of the brightest planets in the solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-meaning-behind-the-name">The meaning behind the name</h2>



The full moon in August has traditionally been called the Sturgeon Moon. That name comes from the giant freshwater fish that once filled the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain.&nbsp;



Native American communities who lived in the region knew that this time of year was when lake sturgeon were easiest to catch. The fish were a major source of food in late summer and early fall.



The name itself has staying power. The <a href="https://www.almanac.com/content/full-moon-august" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Old Farmer’s Almanac</a> helped preserve the tradition, which blends Native American, Colonial American, and European influences.&nbsp;



These names weren’t just poetic - they were practical. The full moon marked a moment in time, signaling what kind of work needed doing that month. Whether that meant harvesting crops, drying herbs, or going fishing, people used the moon to keep track of the season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-fish-with-a-modern-struggle">Ancient fish with a modern struggle</h2>



Sturgeon aren’t just any fish. They’ve been swimming in Earth’s waters for about 136 million years, earning them the nickname “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-fossil-reveals-clues-about-how-animals-learned-to-breathe/">living fossils</a>.” 



Their bodies still look like something from a prehistoric age - armor-like scales, long snouts, and massive size. Some sturgeon are as small as a bass, while others can grow to the size of a Volkswagen.



Female lake sturgeon don’t start reproducing until they’re about 20 years old. Even then, they only spawn once every four years. Despite that slow start, they can live for over a century - up to 150 years in some cases.



But their long lifespan hasn’t protected them. In the 19th century, sturgeon were overfished heavily. Their populations took a major hit, and they’ve struggled ever since.&nbsp;



Pollution and habitat destruction have made things even worse. Today, they’re rare in many parts of their original range, especially the massive lake sturgeon that once dominated the Great Lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saturn-and-neptune-join-the-moon">Saturn and Neptune join the moon</h2>



There’s more to this month than just the full moon. On August 12, just a few days after the moon peaks, it will appear close to both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-has-128-new-moons-with-odd-orbits-and-mysterious-origins/">Saturn</a> and Neptune in the sky. They’ll share what’s called a right-angle conjunction - a kind of visual alignment - which will make them seem huddled together in the night sky.



To the naked eye, the view might be subtle. But a decent pair of binoculars should reveal a better view of the trio. Saturn will likely be the easiest to spot with its bright, steady glow. Neptune, much fainter, will appear close by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-another-conjunction-venus-and-jupiter">Another conjunction: Venus and Jupiter</h2>



Saturn and Neptune aren’t the only planets making an appearance this month. Venus and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-past-how-the-young-gas-giant-shaped-our-solar-system/">Jupiter</a> have been gradually drawing closer to one another. 



Around August 11 and 12, they’ll appear to be just one degree apart - which is about the width of your pinky held out at arm’s length.



These kinds of planetary alignments aren’t rare, but they do offer a special chance to see multiple bright objects packed into a small section of the sky. Venus will be the brightest of the bunch, with Jupiter glowing just behind it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-moon-with-many-names">A moon with many names</h2>



While “Sturgeon Moon” is the name most people associate with August, it’s far from the only one. Different communities had their own ways of labeling this time of year. 



According to <a href="https://moon.nasa.gov/news/196/the-next-full-moon-is-a-supermoon-the-sturgeon-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>, it has also been called the Red Moon, Corn Moon, Herb Moon, Grain Moon, and Dog Moon.



In medieval Europe, it was often referred to as the Barley Moon or Fruit Moon - a signal that it was time to harvest grain and preserve fruit before the season changed.&nbsp;



All of these names tie the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/">moon</a> to survival. They reflect a time when people closely followed natural cues to know when to sow, reap, or fish.



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This weekend's Sturgeon Moon marks a turning point in summer

The full moon this August is more than just a...

Great white sharks almost didn’t make it. Around 25,000 years ago, with sea levels 130 feet lower than they are today, the oceans shrank. 



Much of the oceanic habitat white sharks relied on disappeared under massive glaciers. What was left became a tight squeeze for one of the world’s top predators.



White sharks survived - but just barely. And how they bounced back still puzzles scientists today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happened-to-great-white-sharks">What happened to great white sharks?</h2>



A new genetic study sheds light on that history. The work reveals that great whites were once reduced to a single, mixed population in the southern Indo-Pacific. Then, around 7,000 years ago, that group began splitting into smaller, isolated populations. 



Today, there are three genetically distinct populations of white sharks: one around Australia and South Africa, one in the North Atlantic, and one in the North Pacific. They are widespread, but still scarce.



Study co-author Gavin Naylor is director of the Florida Program for Shark Research at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>.



“There are probably about 20,000 individuals globally,” said Naylor. “There are more fruit flies in any given city than there are great white sharks in the entire world.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-mystery-of-white-sharks">Genetic mystery of white sharks </h2>



Back when glaciers covered huge parts of the planet, sea levels dropped drastically. This left white sharks boxed into limited areas with shrinking access to food and breeding grounds. 



As apex predators, they were already few in number. When space got tight, their numbers plummeted even further.



Something odd happened when the climate warmed. Sea levels rose, and white sharks rebounded. Yet when scientists tried to understand the genetic changes during this rebound, they found something that didn’t add up.



The researchers expected to find evidence of philopatry - a breeding pattern in which females return to the same location to reproduce. 



This behavior had previously helped explain why nuclear DNA (inherited from both parents) appears nearly identical across white shark populations, while mitochondrial DNA (passed down only from mothers) shows striking variation.



But when Naylor and his team searched for signs of philopatry using the largest dataset of white shark DNA to date, it didn’t hold up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-shark-dna-doesn-t-make-sense">White shark DNA doesn’t make sense</h2>



The story starts in 2001. A research team analyzed DNA from white sharks in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. They saw that while nuclear DNA was similar, mitochondrial DNA - passed down only from mothers - showed clear differences between regions.



The results suggested that male sharks roamed freely and spread their genes, while females stayed close to home when it came time to breed. That would explain why mitochondrial DNA looked more isolated and unique, while nuclear DNA looked more mixed.



The theory made sense and held up for years. But no one had done a full test on great whitesharks - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-data-same-genetic-mystery">New data, same genetic mystery</h2>



In 2012, the Florida team began sequencing the white shark genome using samples collected from across the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. They analyzed both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA.



What they found matched older patterns: nuclear DNA was consistent across regions, but mitochondrial DNA showed sharp regional differences.



To test if philopatry was causing this, the team looked at the nuclear DNA from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-whale-sharks-grow-slower-yet-larger-than-males/">female sharks</a>. If females returned to the same location to breed, a subtle signal should show up in that data too.



“But that wasn’t reflected in the nuclear data at all,” Naylor said. So, the experts ran simulations to see if 10,000 years - roughly the time since the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/">last Ice Age</a> - was enough for philopatry to drive the changes seen in the mitochondrial DNA. Turns out, it wasn’t.



Next, the team considered reproductive skew - the possibility that only a few female white sharks were producing most of the next generation. This has been seen in species like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decoding-secret-language-of-meerkats/">meerkats</a> and some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/">fish</a>, but the explanation didn't fit for great white sharks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-selection-is-an-unlikely-cause">Natural selection is an unlikely cause</h2>



The team also considered natural selection. Maybe specific versions of mitochondrial DNA helped some sharks survive better than others. 



That would mean any slight difference in a mitochondrial sequence could be deadly, weeding out variation and locking each population into its own genetic path. It’s possible, but unlikely.



For selection to be that powerful in such small populations, the pressure would have to be overwhelming. If it is the causative agent, the selective force would have to be brutally lethal, explained Naylor. 



“If you collect enough mass in a concentrated space, say on the order of a black hole, the otherwise benign force of gravity becomes powerful enough to devour light."



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/">Natural selection</a>, in this case, would need to act like that - destroying any slight deviation from the favored mitochondrial type before it had a chance to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-remains-unsolved">The mystery remains unsolved</h2>



White sharks still keep much of their history hidden beneath the surface. The mitochondrial mystery remains. 



None of the known explanations - philopatry, reproductive skew, or natural selection - fully accounts for the genetic disconnect. "The honest scientific answer is we have no idea,” Naylor said.



There’s a lot to learn. But with more data, scientists hope to finally piece together how these rare and powerful animals survived near-extinction and bounced back.



“These white sharks come along, get a nice blubbery sausage. They fatten up, they breed, and then they move off around the ocean,” Naylor said. That part, at least, is clear. The rest is still out there - waiting to be found.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2507931122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Great white sharks survived the Ice Age - but it changed them forever

Great white sharks almost didn’t make it. Around 25,000 years...

Tyrannosaurus rex had a skull like a sledgehammer. The skulls of spinosaurs and allosaurs, by contrast, worked like blades. A new study shows that giant meat-eating dinosaurs didn’t all crush bones with their skulls like T. rex. Some dinosaurs sliced flesh instead.



Researchers examined bite strength in 18 species of theropod <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-tracks-reveal-tyrannosaurs-stalking-their-prey/">dinosaurs</a>. They found that while T. rex had a skull suited for short, powerful bites, others relied on different strategies. 



Despite their massive size, spinosaurs and allosaurs had much weaker bites. They didn’t need to crush prey. They slashed and ripped instead.



“Tyrannosaurs evolved skulls built for strength and crushing bites,” said Andrew Rowe of the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>. “Other lineages had comparatively weaker but more specialized skulls.”



These findings challenge the idea that all giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shri-rapax-dinosaur-discovered-that-killed-with-potent-thumbs-instead-of-foot-claws/">predators</a> hunted the same way. Instead, large carnivorous dinosaurs followed separate evolutionary routes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-ways-to-hunt">Two ways to hunt</h2>



The researchers used advanced 3D models to test skull biomechanics. Their work reveals two main strategies among giant predators. Tyrannosaurs had strong skulls with high stress tolerance. Others evolved to reduce skull stress instead of increasing power.



The skull of T. rex allowed powerful muscles to deliver bone-crushing bites, even at the cost of stress. By contrast, megalosauroids and allosauroids developed slender skulls that dispersed pressure more evenly. They focused on slicing flesh rather than smashing bone.



These two feeding strategies reflect deep ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-predator-dissacus-praenuntius-ate-bones-adapting-to-climate-shock/">divergence</a>. Tyrannosaurs likely hunted large, armored prey. They needed brute strength. Spinosaurs and allosaurs, on the other hand, went for mobility and flexibility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-skulls-and-bite-strength">Dinosaur skulls and bite strength</h2>



The study also tested how skull stress changed with dinosaurs body size. Surprisingly, bigger skulls didn’t always mean more stress. In fact, smaller theropods often experienced more cranial strain. That happened because their skull shapes weren’t built to manage strong bite forces.



The researchers scaled all skulls to the same size to isolate shape effects. Herrerasaurus and Ceratosaurus, both small, showed the highest stress. In contrast, giants like Spinosaurus and Acrocanthosaurus had low stress levels.



T. rex stood out. Despite high stress levels, its skull could manage the pressure. Its anatomy - fused bones, deep jaws, expanded skull rear - helped stabilize the force. This let it crush bones efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dinosaurs-used-their-skulls">How dinosaurs used their skulls </h2>



“I tend to compare Allosaurus to a modern Komodo dragon in terms of feeding style,” Rowe said. “Large tyrannosaur skulls were instead optimized like modern crocodiles with high bite forces that crushed prey.”



Unlike their bone-crushing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/with-teeth-like-knives-this-giant-kept-the-young-tyrannosaurs-at-bay/">cousins</a>, allosaurs had wider gapes and more flexible skulls. They likely used a slash-and-tear technique. Spinosaurs, possibly semi-aquatic, had long snouts and narrow skulls. These helped them twist and shake prey, possibly even catching fish.



Even among tyrannosaurs, not all had the same build. Some, like Alioramus, kept slender skulls into adulthood. They may have gone after smaller, faster prey, avoiding direct conflict with bulkier relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-mechanics-of-large-dinosaurs">Jaw mechanics of large dinosaurs </h2>



The researchers also studied jaw mechanics. T. rex and its relatives had jaws that got more stressed with size. But other dinosaurs didn’t follow that trend. Allosaur jaws, for instance, showed a clear pattern of reduced stress as they grew.



The mandible played a key role in feeding. In tyrannosaurs, stress built up in the back of the jaw. In others, like Allosaurus, pressure concentrated near the front. This difference hints at how they bit, held, and processed food.



Interestingly, the study found that mandibles generally experienced more stress than skulls. That makes sense, since jaws deal directly with the prey during feeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skull-shape-mattered-more-than-size">Skull shape mattered more than size</h2>



The research also explored the role of skull shape. Even when scaled to equal size, differences remained. Shape - not just size - affected how much stress the skulls endured. Spinosaurus and Acrocanthosaurus performed well, showing strong but low-stress skulls.



Some medium-sized predators, like Neovenator, had surprisingly high stress levels. Others, like Giganotosaurus, managed stress better, suggesting a more balanced design.



Skull ornamentation didn’t seem to affect stress much. Features like crests or horns, seen in dinosaurs like Dilophosaurus, had little impact on bite mechanics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-shaped-more-than-looks">Evolution shaped more than looks</h2>



These findings show that dinosaur feeding performance was shaped by more than size or skull strength. Tyrannosaurs evolved skulls built for force and domination. Other dinosaurs survived through flexible skulls and specialized feeding. The coexistence of different dinosaurs likely reduced direct competition.



This biomechanical diversity suggests dinosaur ecosystems supported many hunting strategies. 



“Carnivorous dinosaurs took very different paths as they evolved into giants in terms of feeding biomechanics and possible behaviors,” said Rowe.



In the end, evolution didn’t choose one right way to hunt. It allowed many. Some dinosaurs crushed bones, and others sliced meat. Their success as apex predators came through diverse biomechanical adaptations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00811-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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How giant dinosaurs turned their skulls into weapons

Tyrannosaurus rex had a skull like a sledgehammer. The skulls...

Volcanic eruptions are known to blast heat and ash into the sky but, oddly, they can also cool the planet. Now, scientists have found fresh evidence of this effect hidden in Antarctic ice.&nbsp;



A new analysis of polar ice cores detected signals from five major volcanic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-a-volcano-be-stopped-before-it-erupts-to-give-ample-warning-to-citizens/">eruptions</a> that occurred in the 13th century. It turns out that, while volcanoes burn hot in the moment, their lasting impact can be chilling.



Jihong Cole-Dai, lead author of the study, is an expert in the Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Physics at <a href="https://www.sdstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South Dakota State University</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-volcanic-eruptions-affect-the-climate">How volcanic eruptions affect the climate</h2>



When a volcano erupts, it emits particles and gases into the atmosphere. These substances do not just vanish. They alter the properties of the atmosphere, including the critical energy balance, which is the equilibrium between the incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared rays.



One of the most important gases released during volcanic eruptions is sulfur dioxide. In the atmosphere, it reacts with water to form tiny droplets called sulfate aerosols. They scatter the incoming sunlight away from the Earth, reducing the solar energy that reaches its surface.&nbsp;



This can lead to temporary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-cooling-wont-be-a-quick-fix-for-the-state-of-our-oceans/">global cooling</a>. That is why volcanoes are seen as powerful agents of natural climate change. Records of past climatic shifts and volcanic eruptions help scientists understand this volcano-climate connection.



So, how do we uncover these ancient eruptions and their climatic footprints? The answers lie buried in ice. That is where the frozen archives of the polar regions come in, offering a timeline of global volcanic history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-cores-reveal-five-volcanic-eruptions">Ice cores reveal five volcanic eruptions</h2>



Volcanic particles can spread globally through atmospheric circulation. When they fall to the ground in polar regions, they get stuck in the snow. As the snow piles up, year after year, these particles become buried.&nbsp;



Over time, the snow compacts into ice. This forms distinct layers called strata, which preserve these particles.



The five volcanic eruptions identified in the study were classified as Large or Very Large, depending on the amount of sulfate they deposited. Large eruptions deposited 914 to 2,740 ounces of sulfate per square mile, while deposits from Very Large eruptions exceeded 2,741 ounces per square mile.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eruptions-with-a-strong-cooling-effect">Eruptions with a strong cooling effect</h2>



The study showed that the strongest volcanic eruption signal appeared in 1259. This matches the massive 1257 Samalas eruption in Indonesia. Because volcanic aerosols from tropical eruptions take time to travel to the poles, the ice core signal can appear one to two years after the eruption itself.



The unusually high sulfate levels found in the ice indicate that these eruptions likely had a strong cooling effect. Only the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0377027322002190" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Samalas eruption</a> has been definitively linked to a specific volcano. The remaining four eruptions remain unattributed, and identifying their sources could help clarify their climate impact.



But it was not just one volcanic eruption shaking up the climate. What stood out was how close together these events occurred.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-cluster-cooled-the-earth">A rare cluster cooled the Earth</h2>



The scientists also got an idea about the timing of the eruptions. Surprisingly, four of the five eruptions happened just a decade apart, suggesting a rare burst of volcanic activity.



This kind of decadal pacing of large eruptions is unusual. Even the 19th century, with eruptions like Tambora (1815) and Krakatau (1883), did not have such closely spaced events.



In the ice cores, the sulfate signals lasted between two and four years, depending on snowfall rates and sampling resolution. In some cases, slower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snowfall-drops-in-hindu-kush-himalayas-water-crisis-may-follow/">snowfall</a> and shifting particles stretched these signals even further.



Volcanic particles can only last in the atmosphere for up to two or three years. But in this case, since a cluster of eruptions happened, the cooling effects were compounded, which led to lasting climate changes.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-13th-century-matters-nbsp">Why the 13th century matters&nbsp;</h2>



Researchers analyzed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europes-oldest-ice-core-reveals-12000-years-of-climate-change/">ice cores</a>, cylindrical ice samples drilled out of ice sheets or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-glaciers-unleashed-floods-that-reshaped-the-planet/">glaciers</a>, from both Antarctica and Greenland, to confirm the scale of these ancient eruptions. They measured the levels of sulfur compounds, such as sulfates and sulfuric acid, which are the fingerprints of past eruptions.



The ice core records show that the 13th century had the highest frequency of massive eruptions in the past 1,000 years. This makes it a key period for understanding the past climate changes due to natural phenomena and how they compare with the modern climate changes due to human influence.



These findings highlight how natural forces can drive major shifts in the climate. By studying past events, scientists gain valuable context for understanding today's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/">climate changes</a> and what might lie ahead.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/15/6/661" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atmosphere</a>. 



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How volcanic eruptions cooled the planet 800 years ago

Volcanic eruptions are known to blast heat and ash into...

Arctic rivers are sending a warning. Climate change is changing the type of nitrogen they carry. This shift matters because marine life depends on a specific form of nitrogen to survive.



A new study led by Bridger J. Ruyle at<a href="https://engineering.nyu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> NYU Tandon</a> reveals what’s going wrong. His team tracked the six largest Arctic rivers for 20 years. What they found: these rivers now deliver much less of the usable, inorganic nitrogen. Instead, they carry more of the harder-to-use, organic kind.



"This is a red flag for the Arctic," said Ruyle. "Rapid changes in river nitrogen chemistry could completely transform how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-climate-will-permanently-change-by-2050-scientists-warn/">marine</a> ecosystems function."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-rivers-have-less-useful-nitrogen">Arctic rivers have less useful nitrogen</h2>



From 2003 to 2023, Ruyle and his team measured nitrogen in rivers like the Ob’, Lena, Mackenzie, and Yukon. These rivers used to deliver enough inorganic nitrogen to feed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-winters-are-starting-to-look-more-like-spring/">coastal</a> food webs. Now, not so much.



They found that the amount of inorganic nitrogen (DIN) is dropping. At the same time, dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) is rising. But organic nitrogen isn’t as helpful. Marine organisms struggle to use it.



The mix is shifting. In four of the six rivers, DON now dominates the nitrogen flow. That’s a problem for organisms that rely on nutrients that are easy to absorb and process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-permafrost-thaw-and-arctic-nitrogen">Permafrost thaw and Arctic nitrogen</h2>



Permafrost is thawing. That’s one major reason behind the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-fjords-show-signs-of-struggle-in-a-warming-world/">change</a>. When frozen ground melts, it releases more organic matter. Rivers pick it up, but this process seems to suppress the delivery of inorganic nitrogen.



Models show that rivers in areas with thawing permafrost tend to carry more dissolved organic nitrogen and less inorganic nitrogen. That means the warming Arctic is feeding marine systems with the wrong kind of nitrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heavy-rain-adds-more-organic-nitrogen">Heavy rain adds more organic nitrogen</h2>



It’s not just heat. Extreme rain matters too. The study found that heavy rainfall days - not just total rainfall - increased nitrogen loads. These intense events now make up 24% to 42% of yearly rainfall across the six river basins.



As climate change continues, extreme rain will likely become more common. That will push even more nitrogen into rivers. But again, it's mostly the organic type that rises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-nitrogen-levels-change-each-year">Arctic nitrogen levels change each year</h2>



Some years, rivers discharge more water. Those years usually see higher organic nitrogen levels. Inorganic nitrogen, on the other hand, doesn’t follow the same pattern.



In the Ob’ River, fires also played a role. As the amount of land burned decreased between 2007 and 2013, so did DIN. 



Wildfires can temporarily spike nitrogen levels, especially nitrate, but their long-term effect is unpredictable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-and-soil-affect-nitrogen-flow">Land and soil affect nitrogen flow</h2>



Rivers that flow through wetlands and cultivated land carry more nitrogen overall. These features, along with the amount of thawed permafrost, explain why nitrogen levels vary between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-fuels-dangerous-methane-feedback-loop/">rivers</a>.



Soils with long histories of warming show more variability in the kind of nitrogen they export. These areas may lose more inorganic nitrogen due to denitrification or other microbial processes.



Ruyle studies how environmental change affects water. That includes Arctic rivers and also urban drinking water.



"Whether we're looking at PFAS contamination in drinking water or nitrogen cycling in Arctic rivers, the common thread is understanding how environmental changes propagate through water systems," Ruyle explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study </h2>



While the total amount of nitrogen flowing into the Arctic Ocean remains steady, levels of inorganic nitrogen are falling. That means marine life, especially species at the bottom of the food web, might struggle.



"This work demonstrates why we need to think about water quality and climate change as fundamentally linked challenges," Ruyle said. "As climate change intensifies, we must understand these interconnections to protect both human health and ecosystem integrity."



Indigenous communities depend on these ecosystems. Less available nitrogen means weaker food webs. That could affect the fish, mammals, and people that rely on them.



The Arctic is heating up quickly. As permafrost thaws and storms intensify, Arctic rivers are already reflecting the strain - and they could become even more disrupted as climate change accelerates.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025GB008639" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Biogeochemical Cycles</a>.



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Warming rivers are starving the Arctic Ocean of usable nitrogen

Arctic rivers are sending a warning. Climate change is changing...

Cicadas are early risers. Their synchronized choruses often mark the start of a summer morning. But new research has revealed just how precisely they coordinate this ritual. 



Scientists have found that cicadas begin singing not just around dawn - but exactly when the sun is 3.8 degrees below the horizon. This moment, called civil twilight, creates just the right light level to trigger their song.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cicadas-sing-at-early-morning-light">Cicadas sing at early morning light</h2>



The study was conducted by researchers from India, the UK, and Israel. They recorded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-47-million-year-old-cicada-fossil-with-preserved-wing-details/">cicada</a> sounds over several weeks near Bangalore, India. 



The team analyzed the data using tools from physics. Their approach was similar to how phase transitions in materials are studied.



Study co-author Raymond Goldstein is a professor in the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at the <a href="https://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/damtp">University of Cambridge</a>.



“We’ve long known that animals respond to sunrise and seasonal light changes. But this is the first time we’ve been able to quantify how precisely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cicadas-grew-super-wings-to-dodge-ancient-birds/">cicadas</a> tune in to a very specific light intensity - and it’s astonishing," noted Professor Goldstein.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cicadas-sing-at-the-same-light-level">Cicadas sing at the same light level</h2>



Cicadas don’t just start singing slowly. The full intensity of their chorus builds within 60 seconds. The midpoint of that rise occurs consistently at the same solar angle, no matter when sunrise actually happens. 



The research showed that cicadas respond when light intensity hits a narrow range, varying by just 25 percent.



This means <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cicada-wings-inspire-new-antibacterial-technologies/">cicadas</a> are not just reacting to vague brightness. They are tuned to a precise visual signal in their environment. Direct measurements placed this critical light intensity at about 4–6 lux. The timing remains stable even with minor shifts in temperature or humidity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-tells-cicadas-when-to-sing">Light tells cicadas when to sing</h2>



To analyze cicada decision-making, the researchers used a signal-processing method. They calculated an “order parameter” based on the chorus sound's amplitude over time. This parameter grew in a sigmoidal pattern, rising sharply during the transition from quiet to full chorus.



When the light levels crossed a specific threshold, the sound amplitude jumped rapidly. This suggested the presence of a narrow decision window. 



The researchers described this transition using a susceptibility curve - a concept borrowed from thermodynamics. The peak in this curve indicated high sensitivity to small changes in light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cicadas-listen-to-each-other">Cicadas listen to each other</h2>



This sharp transition could not be explained by individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trillions-of-cicadas-set-to-emerge-in-historic-u-s-invasion/">reactions</a> alone. The scientists proposed a group decision-making process. Cicadas rely not just on light, but also on the sounds of nearby insects. This idea mirrors how midge swarms or firefly groups coordinate.



To support this theory, the team built a statistical model inspired by magnetism. In this model, each cicada behaves like a “spin” influenced by both the external light field and the activity of others. 



As light increases, individual cicadas become more likely to sing - especially when others already have.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-working-together-to-sing-better">Working together to sing better</h2>



The model showed that moderate levels of interaction between cicadas created the best match to real-world data. Too little interaction resulted in slow, disorganized responses. Too much created spontaneous singing unrelated to light levels.



When tuned just right, the group amplified weak signals and responded swiftly and accurately. This behavior mimics a type of “group intelligence.” 



According to the model, the strength of this interaction determines how precisely the entire chorus reacts to dawn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-of-decision-making">The science of decision making</h2>



This work ties insect choruses to broader theories of collective behavior. Similar dynamics appear in ant colonies choosing new homes, birds flocking, and even human financial decisions. Each system involves individuals with partial information, guided by shared cues and local signals.



By studying cicadas and their singing patterns, researchers now better understand how organisms balance personal perception and social feedback. As the Earth rotates and light levels change, these insects make fast, precise choices - together.



“Rakesh’s observations have paved the way to a quantitative understanding of this fascinating type of collective behavior,” said Professor Goldstein. “There’s still much to learn, but this study offers key insights into how groups make decisions based on shared environmental cues.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/4y4d-p32q" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review E</a>.



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Cicadas wait for this exact moment each morning to sing

Cicadas are early risers. Their synchronized choruses often mark the...

Neanderthals may not have relied as heavily on meat in the diet as previously believed. Earlier studies, based on analysis of nitrogen isotope ratios in their bones, suggested a diet that was dominated by animal protein.



However, new interpretations indicate they may have followed a more balanced and varied omnivorous diet that included plants and a hitherto unexpected ingredient: maggots.



“Masses of maggots are these easily scoopable, collectible, nutrient-rich resource,” said Melanie Beasley at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a>, Indiana. These insects offered essential nutrients and were likely simple to harvest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-maggots-the-basics">Understanding maggots - the basics</h2>



Maggots are the squirmy, legless larvae of flies - usually houseflies or blowflies. They hatch from eggs laid in decaying organic matter, like rotting food, animal carcasses, or even open wounds. 



As gross as they seem, maggots serve a real purpose in nature. 



They devour dead tissue and break down decomposing material, playing a key role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-involved-in-decomposition-may-help-solve-crimes/">circle of life</a>. Without them, our environment would pile up with organic waste far quicker than you'd expect.



But maggots aren’t just trash cleaners. In medicine, doctors have used sterile maggots in a therapy called maggot debridement to clean out infected wounds. 



These little creatures eat only dead tissue, leaving healthy cells untouched. It’s creepy, but effective. People may recoil at the sight of them, but maggots can be surprisingly helpful - both in hospitals and in the great outdoors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-delicacy-across-cultures">A delicacy across cultures</h2>



Evidence shows that maggots have long been part of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-species-face-structure-evolved-differently/">human</a> diets in various cultures. Beasley explained that reindeer hunters still cultivate the maggots of particular fly species as a delicacy.



In Sardinia, a traditional cheese called casu martzu even contains live maggots and remains highly prized.



Ethnohistoric accounts suggest that Indigenous groups not only tolerated but actively sought out maggot-infested animal foods - often regarding them as a delicacy despite the overpowering smell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-nitrogen-wrong-conclusions">High nitrogen, wrong conclusions</h2>



Nitrogen has two stable isotopes: nitrogen-14 and nitrogen-15. As organic matter moves up the food chain, the proportion of nitrogen-15 increases.



When scientists examined the isotope ratios in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-skull-traits-cause-modern-brain-conditions/">Neanderthal fossils</a>, they discovered a very high ratio of nitrogen-15 - higher than the ratios found in apex predators like lions and hyenas.



“So there became this narrative that Neanderthals were these hypercarnivores, very focused on big game hunting,” explained Beasley.



But not all researchers accepted this conclusion - especially since prehistoric Homo sapiens had similar isotope levels, despite their varied diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthals-required-maggots">Neanderthals required maggots</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-evolution-was-more-complex-than-previously-thought/">Humans</a> cannot survive on lean meat alone. “It’s actually physically not possible,” said Beasley.



"If humans eat as much protein as hypercarnivores do over long periods, without consuming enough other nutrients, it can lead to protein poisoning - a debilitating, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4165(83)90006-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">even lethal</a> condition historically known as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6733-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rabbit starvation</a>.”



High protein diets cause dangerous levels of toxic byproducts like ammonia, which make survival unsustainable without fats and carbohydrates.



Studies of Neanderthal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-influence-the-development-of-modern-teeth/">dental</a> calculus also revealed plant remains, supporting the theory that they consumed more than just meat. This raises questions about the cause of their unusually high nitrogen-15 levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rot-brought-protein-rich-maggots">Rot brought protein-rich maggots</h2>



Ethnographic evidence suggests that Neanderthals likely cached or stored animal foods for long periods, often in rock piles, pits, or aboveground structures.



Over time, these caches would rot and attract flies, leading to maggot infestations. This behavior explains both the presence of maggots and the nitrogen isotope anomalies.



In 2017, John Speth from the <a href="https://www.umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> proposed that consuming rotting meat might explain the isotope enrichment. 



Beasley tested this idea at the University of Tennessee’s “<a href="https://fac.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body farm</a>,” where she also studied maggots feeding on decomposing remains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maggots-raised-nitrogen-levels">Maggots raised nitrogen levels</h2>



Together with Speth and Julie Lesnik at <a href="https://wayne.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wayne State University</a>, Beasley found that while rotting meat showed only modest nitrogen-15 increases, the maggots that fed on that meat showed extremely high enrichment.



Their values often exceeded two trophic levels above typical herbivores, reaching as high as 43.2 percent.



“These are just initial results, but they show that eating a diet very high in meat isn’t the only possible explanation for the isotope ratios in Neanderthals and ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tinshemet-cave-discovery-neanderthals-early-humans-sharing-and-complex-interactions/">Homo sapiens</a>,” said Beasley.



She believes their diets likely combined multiple factors: meat storage, processing, cooking, and maggot consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maggots-helped-stretch-neanderthal-resources">Maggots helped stretch Neanderthal resources</h2>



The study also highlights that Neanderthals, like other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/">hunter-gatherers</a>, could not sustain high protein intake. They would have deliberately targeted fatty prey parts like tongues, marrow, entrails, and organs, often discarding lean muscle.



Maggots, rich in both protein and fat, would have been a valuable dietary supplement for Neanderthals, especially during resource-scarce seasons.



“This is an exciting new study, and I think it goes a long way toward making sense of the strange results that have come out of isotope studies in Neanderthals and other Stone Age hominins over the last couple of decades,” said Herman Pontzer of <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> in North Carolina.



“I find the evidence here pretty convincing, that consumption of maggots and similar larvae explains the ‘hypercarnivore’ signal we’ve been seeing in previous fossil isotope work.”



The findings suggest that those following a so-called paleo diet may need to reconsider their choices. 



“All the people who want to go true ‘palaeo,’ they need to start thinking about fermenting their meat and letting the flies access them,” suggested Beasley.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthals-complex-food-system">Neanderthals' complex food system</h2>



This research reframes how we view Neanderthal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/each-neanderthal-community-had-their-own-food-and-butchery-traditions/">diets</a>. High nitrogen-15 levels do not necessarily mean they were strict carnivores.



Instead, their eating habits likely involved a mix of fatty animal parts, plants, rotting meat and maggots from stored and decomposing food.



This complex food system reflects both survival needs and cultural practices shaped by unpredictable hunting returns.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt7466" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Neanderthals got most of their protein from a nauseating food source

Neanderthals may not have relied as heavily on meat in...

A sprawling colony of brain coral (Mussismilia hispida) rings the main island of the Alcatrazes Archipelago Wildlife Refuge off the northern coast of São Paulo. A new study reveals that this coral colony stores more than 20 tons of carbon every year.



Marine biologists from the <a href="https://portal.unifesp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of São Paulo</a> (UNIFESP) conducted five years of painstaking work that combined underwater surveys, seabed sonar, and hospital-grade CT scans of coral skeletons.



These numbers are thought-provoking: the carbon held in these corals is equivalent to the emissions produced by burning roughly 85,600 gallons of gasoline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scanning-coral-for-climate-clues">Scanning coral for climate clues</h2>



“We wanted to understand the growth of brain coral, but it’s very difficult to cut the skeleton in a way that allows this measurement to be made," said Luiz de Souza Oliveira, the first author of the study. "So we did CT scans, in which it’s possible to observe the so-called annual growth bands.” 



By analyzing dozens of three-dimensional images captured between 2018 and 2023, Oliveira and his colleagues could count yearly bands - much like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-show-amazon-rainfall-is-getting-more-extreme/">tree rings</a> - and calculate how much calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) the colonies add each season.



Scaled up to the whole island, that translates into about 170 tons of new CaCO₃ a year. Because carbonate contains <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-ocean-holds-carbon-hidden-mechanisms-revealed/">carbon</a>, the team estimated how much is locked in minerals before it can become atmospheric CO₂.



Crucially, the researchers also needed to know how much of the island’s seafloor the coral actually covers. That task fell to co-author Mónica Andrade da Silva, who used side-scan sonar to map the benthic landscape and calculate the total footprint of Mussismilia around Alcatrazes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-growth-in-cool-waters">Unexpected growth in cool waters</h2>



“The growth rate of the corals was higher than we expected, similar to that of corals in tropical regions,” said Guilherme Henrique Pereira Filho, who supervised the work and runs the Marine Ecology and Conservation Laboratory at UNIFESP.



Scientists often label subtropical reefs in the South Atlantic “marginal” because cooler water, lower light, and frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cyclones-impact-coral-reefs-as-far-as-1000-kilometers-away/">storms</a> push corals close to their physiological limits.



Yet the Alcatrazes colonies are piling on skeletal mass as fast as their tropical counterparts, which raises an intriguing puzzle: why do they not build towering reef frameworks like those in Abrolhos or Fernando de Noronha?



One idea is simply that they have not had time. Geological records suggest that Mussismilia may have spread into these latitudes only two or three millennia ago. 



Another possibility is mechanical. The same storms that occasionally topple entire colonies might prevent long-term accretion of large reef mounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corals-as-carbon-storage">Corals as carbon storage</h2>



The Alcatrazes Refuge protects more than 40 at-risk species and helps reduce fishing pressure on overexploited stocks. The new study argues that it should also be valued as a blue carbon sink.



In tropical reef belts, intense biological respiration can make coral systems net emitters of CO₂. In subtropical waters, however, photosynthetic macroalgae cloak much of the rock while the corals themselves are smaller and more scattered. This balance may tip the whole ecosystem into negative-emission territory.



Moreover, corals sequester carbon in the most durable way imaginable: as mineral. Once locked into CaCO₃, carbon can stay out of circulation for centuries. That’s far longer than the organic carbon held by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-seaweed-day-2025-saving-the-oceans-sustainable-powerhouse/">seaweeds</a> or mangroves, which cycles back into the air as plant matter decomposes.



“Society tends to value an area like Alcatrazes mostly for what it’s protecting from fishing. However, this environment may be providing another essential service in a context where tons of carbon are emitted every day through the burning of fossil fuels,” Pereira Filho said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-coral-science">Next steps in coral science</h2>



The team found nearby sediments rich in carbonate from broken coral skeletons and mollusk shells. Those grains settle onto the seabed and can persist there for millennia, further enhancing the refuge’s carbon vault.



With new funding from FAPESP, Pereira Filho’s group plans to investigate other carbonate-forming organisms along the São Paulo coast. They hope to assemble a comprehensive ledger of how much carbon Brazil’s subtropical shelf quietly stores each year.



The work, the researchers argue, could inform both conservation priorities and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-mitigation-strategies-may-be-endangering-biodiversity/">climate mitigation strategies</a> - showing that, in the global effort to balance the carbon books, even a single species of brain coral can make a difference measured in tons.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0141113625002752?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Environmental Research</a>.



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Brain corals are quietly storing massive amounts of carbon

A sprawling colony of brain coral (Mussismilia hispida) rings the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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