Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

What if you could watch your brain at work while it sorts your memories? Not just broad recollections, but the moment it identifies an image. Thanks to a breakthrough study at the University of Southern California, that scenario is now a reality.



The new study reveals how the human brain organizes visual memories using category-based codes in the hippocampus.



The researchers combined recordings from 24 epilepsy patients with a powerful machine learning model. The goal was to uncover how the brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-the-brain-for-the-future-while-protecting-memories-of-the-past/">stores</a> and retrieves different types of visual memories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-sorts-image-memories">Brain sorts image memories</h2>



The hippocampus cannot store every image as a unique file. Instead, it sorts images into categories like "animal" or "tool." This helps the brain manage the vast flood of visual information it receives daily.



Dong Song and Charles Liu from the <a href="https://www.usc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern California</a> conducted the research. Their team recorded brain activity while patients viewed images. 



“We let the patients see five categories of images: ‘animal,’ ‘plant,’ ‘building,’ ‘vehicle,’ and ‘small tools.’ Then we recorded the hippocampal signal,” Song said. 



“Then, based on the signal, we asked ourselves a question, using our machine learning technique. Can we decode what category image they are recalling purely based on their brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-brain-learns-study-reveals-an-unexpected-twist/">signal</a>?” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-signals-show-memory-categories">Brain signals show memory categories</h2>



The model accurately identified which category a person was remembering. This proved that brain signals during memory tasks carry category-specific information. 



The results also confirmed that neurons in the hippocampus use spike timing, not just firing rate, to store memory.



“It’s like reading your hippocampus to see what kind of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-has-a-meal-memory-that-controls-hunger/">memory</a> you are trying to form,” said Song.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-memory-is-decoded">How memory is decoded</h2>



The researchers used a two-layer memory decoding model. The first layer extracted spike features across many time scales. 



The second layer combined these to predict the image category. This setup allowed the system to find the best time window for decoding memory.



Unlike black-box models, this one is fully interpretable - it reveals exactly when and where in the brain the memory signal occurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recording-setup-and-patient-details">Recording setup and patient details</h2>



Each patient had electrodes surgically implanted in their brain as part of their treatment for epilepsy. 



In some cases, the devices were specifically positioned to target the CA3 and CA1 regions of the hippocampus - areas known to play key roles in memory processing.



The team recorded about 30 neurons per patient. Subjects performed 100 to 150 trials using a touchscreen task involving short memory delays.



According to the researchers, the spatial and temporal sparseness metrics showed that only 20 to 30 percent of each neuron's activity window contributed to memory coding. Yet across the population, 70 to 80 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/">neurons</a> participated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-of-spikes-matters">Timing of spikes matters</h2>



The experts found that the timing of spikes carries more weight than how often neurons fire. Even brief bursts of activity, lasting just milliseconds, were enough to encode category-level memories.



Rate-coding models using fixed bin sizes (like 100 ms or 2000 ms) performed worse. Fine-grained timing (20 to 50 ms bins) worked better, but not as well as the multi-resolution model.



The study supports developing brain-computer tools to aid memory in patients with cognitive decline. With this spatio-temporal coding model, future devices could "read" or even "write" memories in the brain.



“With this knowledge, we can begin to develop clinical tools to restore memory loss and improve lives,” Liu said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-limitations-and-future-research">Study limitations and future research</h2>



"Several limitations of this study should be acknowledged, along with opportunities for future research," wrote the researchers.



The study used only five image categories and focused on short-term memory. Long-term memory processes like forgetting and memory replay were not addressed. Future research might explore more complex categories and naturalistic settings.



The authors also suggest studying how memory representations evolve over time. For now, this work lays the groundwork for decoding and potentially repairing human memory.



This research shifts how we understand memory. The brain doesn’t just record what we see. It builds organized, efficient maps. With the right tools, scientists can now read and one day restore those maps, one memory at a time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/advs.202502047" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Science</a>.



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Our brain has a 'filing system' to sort visual memories

What if you could watch your brain at work while...

Millipedes rarely make headlines. Their many legs and secretive lifestyles keep them in the background. Yet a closer look reveals something extraordinary. These ancient arthropods produce chemical compounds that may lead to new therapies for neurological disorders and pain relief.



Emily Mevers and her team from <a href="https://www.vt.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a> recently isolated new molecules from the secretions of Andrognathus corticarius. This millipede species was discovered on campus in Stadium Woods.



The new molecules include two rare classes of alkaloids - andrognathanols and andrognathines. The findings demonstrate how millipede compounds may help with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pain-relief-breakthrough-as-scientists-discover-a-safer-non-addictive-approach-trpv1/">pain</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-compounds-found-in-millipedes">Rare compounds found in millipedes</h2>



Millipede chemistry belongs to a narrow lineage. Only species from the subterclass Colobognatha produce terpenoid alkaloids. This group includes four species-rich orders. Among them, Platydesmida stands out for its structural diversity.



Earlier research focused on just one order, Polyzoniida. But more recent studies revealed that Platydesmida millipedes produce a much wider variety of complex alkaloids. Some of these compounds are structurally unique in the animal kingdom.



Andrognathines&nbsp;have a chemical structure made of two connected rings. One ring has five atoms, and the other has six. Together, this makes a "5,6-heterocyclic core." Attached to this core are small chemical groups called&nbsp;ester side chains, which help the molecule interact with other substances.



Andrognathanols&nbsp;are even more complex. Their core structure connects four rings in a pattern labeled&nbsp;6,6,6,5&nbsp;(based on the number of atoms in each ring). What makes them special is that they contain&nbsp;seven continuous stereogenic centers. 



That means there are seven spots in a row where the 3D shape of the molecule can flip, making it highly detailed and difficult to recreate in the lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millipede-chemicals-may-target-pain">Millipede chemicals may target pain</h2>



Each compound was carefully analyzed using high-resolution liquid chromatography and NMR techniques. The scientists noted key mass fragments that indicated differences between andrognathines and other millipede alkaloids.



These compounds form part of the millipede's defense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-drugs-target-zombie-cells-to-relieve-back-pain/">strategy</a>. When disturbed, the animal releases the secretions through ozopores on its sides. The alkaloids affect ant behavior, causing them to freeze or slow down. This is a likely defense tactic.



But that is not all. Some andrognathanols showed structural similarities to pumiliotoxins. These molecules are known to act on sodium channels in nerve cells. That similarity raised hopes for possible biomedical uses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millipede-secretions-change-ant-behavior">Millipede secretions change ant behavior</h2>



The researchers tested the secretions' effects on ants (Aphaenogaster sp.), a predator often found near these millipedes. During controlled assays, ants exposed to these compounds exhibited prolonged freezing behavior compared to control groups.



The compounds did not significantly change how long ants stayed near the chemical source. But their altered movement hinted at neural interference, possibly through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tapping-into-the-pain-relief-potential-of-cannabis-without-the-high/">receptor</a> modulation.



Every mature&nbsp;A. corticarius&nbsp;millipede secretes these alkaloids in large amounts. Their secretion quantity correlates with body size and the number of ozopores. These are small glands that release the compounds when the millipede is threatened.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-millipede-compounds-target-pain">Some millipede compounds target pain</h2>



The findings are hopeful because of the Sigma-1 receptor. This receptor helps regulate pain and neuroplasticity. It is also linked to diseases such as Alzheimer’s and neuropathic pain.



Previous research found that similar compounds from another millipede,&nbsp;Ischnocybe plicata, potently bind to Sigma-1. That work sparked interest in millipede alkaloids as potential drug candidates.



Mevers’ team tested two andrognathines and three andrognathanols. Compound 1 showed mild binding to Sigma-1, with some selectivity over Sigma-2. Others showed less activity. But their unique structures and neuroactive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-women-experience-more-chronic-pain-than-men/">effects</a> still make them promising.



“These compounds are quite complex, so they're going to take some time to synthesize in the lab,” said Mevers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millipedes-and-future-pain-drugs">Millipedes and future pain drugs</h2>



The path from chemical discovery to drug approval is long. First, scientists must replicate the molecules in the lab. Then they can test their effects on human cells and animal models. 



Eventually, these efforts may lead to treatments for chronic pain or neurodegenerative diseases.



Millipedes, with their fossil record stretching back to the Cretaceous, may soon help modern medicine. Their secretions are not just defense tools. They are blueprints for the next generation of drugs.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.5c08079" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a>. 



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Millipede chemicals may unlock a new generation of drugs

Millipedes rarely make headlines. Their many legs and secretive lifestyles...

What dinosaurs ate has long fascinated scientists. Now, fossilized teeth tell the story in surprising detail. By analyzing chemical traces in tooth enamel, researchers have uncovered distinct diets among Late Jurassic dinosaurs.



A study from The University of Texas at Austin shows that different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-guts-reveal-the-eating-habits-of-sauropod-dinosaurs/">species</a> did not just live side by side. They also had unique food preferences. These eating habits helped them thrive together without competing for the same plants.



Calcium isotopes in enamel carry chemical fingerprints from ancient meals. Different plants, and even plant parts like bark or buds, leave different traces. This evidence reveals which dinosaurs ate what and how their diets shaped their ecosystem.



“The idea is that they were all eating different things, and now we have found proof of that,” said study lead author Liam Norris, a recent doctoral graduate from UT’s <a href="https://www.jsg.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jackson School of Geosciences</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dinosaurs-lived-together">How dinosaurs lived together</h2>



Norris studied fossils from a single deposit at Carnegie Quarry in northeast Utah. This site, rich with bones from herbivorous and carnivorous species, likely formed during an intense drought. Its rapid fossil preservation made it ideal for comparing diets across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-poop-reveals-the-diet-of-dinosaurs-200-million-years-ago/">species</a> living at the same time and place.



The herbivores in the study included Camarasaurus, Camptosaurus, and Diplodocus. Carnivores included the Allosaurus and the croc-like Eutretauranosuchus. 



Norris collected enamel samples from 17 individual animals, either accessed in the field or loaned by local museums. At the Jackson School, he conducted isotope analysis with support from co-authors John Lassiter and Aaron Satkoski.



Professor Rowan Martindale called the site “a unique paleontological gem.” The research deepens our understanding of ancient ecosystems and dietary preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-eating-dinosaurs-had-different-diets">Plant-eating dinosaurs had different diets</h2>



Earlier theories assumed large herbivores ate from different vertical zones of the forest canopy. But Norris found that diet separation was more nuanced. For example, Camptosaurus favored soft, nutritious plant parts like leaves and buds. 



Camarasaurus preferred conifers and tougher, woody plant tissues. Diplodocus had a more varied menu of low-lying ferns, horsetails, and coarse materials.



“This differentiation in diet makes sense with what we see from the morphology of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jaw-fossil-reveals-fruit-eating-mammal-from-the-dinosaur-age/">animals</a>: the different height, the different snout shape. Then, we bring in this geochemical data, which is a very concrete piece of evidence to add to that pot,” said Norris.



These findings support the idea that long-necked dinosaurs had flexible necks allowing them to reach different plant levels. Instead of competing, they targeted specific vegetation patches suited to their anatomy and energy needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-choices-of-carnivore-dinosaurs">Diet choices of carnivore dinosaurs</h2>



The two carnivores in the study, Allosaurus and Eutretauranosuchus, showed overlapping isotope values, suggesting some dietary similarities. But subtle differences hinted at distinct prey choices and ecological roles. 



Allosaurus, a large bipedal predator, likely hunted herbivorous dinosaurs, including Camptosaurus and other smaller or juvenile plant-eaters within the same region. Its size, jaw structure, and teeth suggest active predation or scavenging of large-bodied prey.



Eutretauranosuchus, in contrast, was smaller and more crocodile-like. Its isotope signature indicates it may have consumed fish or small terrestrial vertebrates, likely along rivers or shallow wetlands. 



The hunting strategy and habitat of Eutretauranosuchus likely differed greatly from the Allosaurus, reducing competition between the two carnivores despite their coexistence.



These dietary contrasts reflect ecological separation shaped by behavior, anatomy, and environment. Such distinctions help reconstruct predator-prey dynamics within this Jurassic ecosystem. 



The overlapping yet diversified food chain reveals how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-have-evolved-to-eat-ants-and-termites-12-different-times-since-the-dinosaurs/">balance</a> existed even during environmental stress, such as the severe drought that led to the rapid fossil preservation at Carnegie Quarry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-dinosaurs-shared-one-ecosystem">Many dinosaurs shared one ecosystem</h2>



The fact that so many massive animals thrived together points to a lush, productive ecosystem teeming with plant life. Their dietary specialization hints at a world where resource use was efficient and competition was minimal.



“It’s really just more proof that this ecosystem was as spectacular as we thought it was,” Norris said.



The study offers not just a clearer view of dinosaur life and diet but also a method for understanding other prehistoric ecosystems through geochemistry. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018225003888?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</a>.



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Jurassic dinosaurs had specialized diets to coexist peacefully

What dinosaurs ate has long fascinated scientists. Now, fossilized teeth...

Covid-19,And,Dementia.,Neuropsychiatric,Sequelae,Of,Covid-19.,3d,Illustration.,Coronaviruses

Scientists watched the pandemic reshape hospitals, jobs, and politics, but a new set of brain scans hints that it also reshaped the organ inside our skulls.



People who were never infected with SARS-CoV-2 showed brains that looked a few months older than expected. 



This suggests that merely living through lockdowns, uncertainty, and social upheaval left a subtle neurological signature. 



The findings come from a new investigation by Dr. Ali-Reza Mohammadi-Nejad of the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nottingham’s School of Medicine</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pandemic-stress-aged-the-brain">Pandemic stress aged the brain</h2>



Nearly 1,000 healthy adults enrolled in the UK Biobank underwent two MRI sessions - one before March 2020. For half of them, a second scan took place between 2021 and 2023.



Researchers used machine learning models built from 15,334 pre-pandemic scans to estimate each volunteer’s brain age gap, the difference between predicted brain age and chronological age. A positive gap means the brain appears older on imaging, a negative gap younger.



“What surprised me most was that even people who hadn’t had Covid showed significant increases in brain aging rates,” said Mohammadi-Nejad.&nbsp;



Participants who weren’t infected but lived through the pandemic showed an average increase in brain age of about five and a half months compared to similar individuals who were scanned twice before 2020.



Older age, male sex, and lower income made the acceleration steeper, demonstrating that biology and biography travel together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-accelerates-brain-aging">Stress accelerates brain aging</h2>



The study adds to a growing collection of research that links chronic stress hormones to faster structural decline in white matter.



Elevated allostatic load, the body’s cumulative stress score, correlates with brains that look a year or two older than they should.



Isolation compounds the problem. A study of 24,867 adults found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-harms-health-more-than-alcohol-obesity-or-smoking/">loneliness</a> and poverty were linked to higher brain age and worse physical health. Lockdowns amplified both stress and isolation, so a slight pandemic era uptick in brain age is biologically plausible.



Animal studies support the idea. Rodents under constant stress show brain inflammation and damage in areas used to estimate brain age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infected-brains-show-more-decline">Infected brains show more decline</h2>



Covid-19 infection had its own costs. Participants who caught the virus took longer on the Trail Making Test (TMT), a timed task of mental flexibility, than both controls and pandemic peers who were never infected with the virus.



A separate Japanese cohort <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7563673/">study</a> confirms that slower trail making times flag early cognitive change in older adults.



Brain scans of infected people elsewhere echo the pattern. A 2022 report comparing 401 infected volunteers with 384 controls found greater gray matter loss in orbitofrontal and parahippocampal regions, areas tied to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-your-brain-decides-what-smells-good-or-bad/">smell</a> and memory.



In the Nottingham analysis, only the infected subgroup linked larger brain age jumps with worse trail making scores, hinting that viral effects and stress effects overlap but are not identical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-hits-the-vulnerable-harder">Stress hits the vulnerable harder</h2>



Living in a disadvantaged neighborhood, working an unstable job, or lacking higher education magnified the brain aging-signal. 



Employment insecurity, for example, added almost six extra months to the gap compared with securely employed peers.



These scans make visible a truth social scientists have charted for decades: financial strain and limited social capital seep into physiology. When economic cushions thinned during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-lockdowns-weakened-our-immune-systems/">lockdowns</a>, the impact may have sped up.



The data support protecting vulnerable groups during crises, as stress leaves measurable effects on the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-depends-on-lifestyle">Healing depends on lifestyle</h2>



“We can’t yet test whether the changes we saw will reverse, but it’s certainly possible, and that’s an encouraging thought,” said Professor Dorothee Auer, senior author of the study.



Brain age models capture averages, not destinies. Earlier studies of stress recovery suggest that gray matter volume and brain connectivity can rebound when stress is reduced. Recovery is more likely when lifestyle factors like sleep, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-bursts-of-intense-exercise-can-slow-brain-aging/">exercise</a>, and social contact improve.



Longer follow-ups will reveal whether the pandemic’s neural footprint fades, stays put, or predicts later cognitive trouble. 



For now, the scans remind us that global emergencies do not end at the ICU door - they echo inside healthy brains, too, in ways only careful imaging can catch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-scans-reveal-policy-impact">Brain scans reveal policy impact</h2>



The study adds weight to the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brains-age-might-be-older-than-you-are/">brain age</a> could become a routine marker in population health. 



If small changes in daily life - or major global events - show up clearly on brain scans, public health leaders might one day use brain age metrics to evaluate policy impacts over time.



The research also raises the question of how resilience works at a neural level. Some people weathered the pandemic with little psychological or neurological wear, while others showed sharper declines.



Understanding what protects brain health under chronic stress could shape future treatments or community interventions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61033-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Covid aged our brains, even if you weren't infected - here's how it happened

Scientists watched the pandemic reshape hospitals, jobs, and politics, but...

Woman,Using,Daily,Activity,Tracking,App,On,Mobile,Phone,Showing

A fitness tracker doesn’t care whether you run for the bus or wander through the grocery store. It simply counts. Those digital tallies have become a barometer of personal health and wellness, yet the “magic” 10,000-step goal that pops up on so many screens never came from a medical textbook. 



New evidence now suggests that you can bank most of the same benefits with a target that feels far more doable.



Daily movement is still critical. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cardiorespiratory-fitness-linked-to-greater-cognitive-performance/">Cardiorespiratory fitness</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/squats-vs-walking-the-definitive-winner-for-reducing-blood-sugar/">blood sugar control</a>, and mood all improve when people spend less time sitting. The question has always been how much walking is enough to tip the scales toward better health. 



A sweeping review published in The Lancet Public Health turns that puzzle on its head, offering a fresh benchmark that's easier to reach for schoolchildren, office workers, and older adults alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-benefits-of-daily-steps">Health benefits of daily steps</h2>



After combing through data collected between 2014 and 2025 in Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, and several other nations, researchers at the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> weighed information from fifty-seven studies that tracked step counts with pedometers, accelerometers, and popular wrist-worn sensors. 



Lead author <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/medicine-health/about/our-people/academic-staff/melody-ding.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Melody Ding</a> explains, “Aiming for 7,000 steps is a realistic goal based on our findings, which assessed health outcomes in a range of areas that hadn’t been looked at before.”



The analysis compared people who logged about 2,000 steps per day with peers who reached higher brackets in 1,000-step increments. 



It found that moving up to roughly 7,000 steps lowered the risk of dying from any cause by 47 percent, almost matching the advantage seen at 10,000 steps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-numbers-reveal">What the numbers reveal</h2>



Walking around 3½ miles a day also trimmed dementia risk by 38 percent, while an extra 3,000 steps beyond that shaved only seven additional percentage points. 



<a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-2-diabetes/symptoms-causes/syc-20351193" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Type 2 diabetes</a> showed a different curve: incidence dropped 22 percent at 10,000 steps and 27 percent at 12,000. Importantly, the biggest jump in protection happened when people climbed from 2,000 to between 5,000 and 7,000 steps. 



<a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/medicine-health/about/our-people/academic-staff/katherine.owen.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Katherine Owen</a>, the study’s chief analyst, notes, “For people who are already active, 10,000 steps a day is great, but beyond 7,000 steps, the extra benefits for most of the health outcomes we looked at were modest.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-gains-and-step-goals">Health gains and step goals</h2>



The review did more than tally deaths. Researchers linked a 7,000-step habit to lower odds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/">cardiovascular disease</a>, certain cancers, depression, and mobility problems. 



“We know daily step count is linked to living longer, but we now also have evidence that walking at least 7,000 steps a day can significantly improve eight major health outcomes - including reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease, dementia, and depressive symptoms,” Professor Ding says. 



Those findings back up earlier work showing that even light-intensity activity improves insulin sensitivity, blood-pressure regulation, and the release of brain-boosting neurochemicals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-the-goalposts-again">Moving the goalposts (again)</h2>



Why did 10,000 steps take root in the first place? Historians trace the figure to a Japanese pedometer marketed in the 1960s under the name manpo-kei, or “10,000-step meter.” 



Marketers rounded the idea into a neat slogan, and fitness culture never looked back. Science, however, keeps refining the target. 



By pooling millions of person-years of follow-up, the Sydney team demonstrated that the curve of risk reduction begins to flatten once people cross 7,000 steps. 



Hitting higher numbers still helps, especially for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-a-cellular-switch-mitochondria-that-could-reverse-type-2-diabetes/">blood-glucose</a> control, yet the incremental payoff shrinks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-increases-big-payoffs">Small increases, big payoffs</h2>



Most adults in high-income countries average fewer than 5,000 steps on workdays. That leaves substantial room for improvement without marathon ambitions. 



Professor Ding reminds readers, “However, for those who cannot yet achieve 7,000 steps a day, even small increases in step counts, such as increasing from 2,000 to 4,000 steps a day, are associated with significant health gains.” 



The same principle holds for those edging toward retirement: replacing a couple of car trips each week with short walks or choosing stairs instead of elevators can push step totals into the protective zone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-what-fits">Finding what fits</h2>



Public health agencies have long advised at least 150 minutes of moderate activity weekly, a metric many people find hard to translate into daily life. 



Steps provide a simpler yardstick, and the Australian government is already exploring how to fold the new evidence into future guidelines. 



Researchers also want to know whether age, chronic illness, or regional differences should tweak the threshold. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/to-get-fit-and-stay-healthy-walk-this-exact-distance-every-day/">Step counters</a> miss swimming and cycling, and most studies still overrepresent wealthier nations, so widening the research net will sharpen advice for diverse communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-steps-and-the-future">Health, steps, and the future</h2>



The main lesson is one of progress rather than perfection. 



“Our research helps to shift the focus from perfection to progress. Even small increases in daily movement can lead to meaningful health improvements,” Professor Ding concludes.



A stroll with the dog, an extra loop around the block during lunch, or pacing the sidelines at a child’s soccer game all add to the tally. 



Cross the 7,000-step mark most days, and you are likely protecting your heart, mind, and metabolic health. Go further if you enjoy it, but remember that the steepest gains come early. 



Your sneakers - and your body - will thank you.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2468266725001641" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Public Health</a>.



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No more counting to 10,000 every day - study shows equal health benefits in fewer steps

A fitness tracker doesn’t care whether you run for the...

Out near the icy frontier of our solar system, astronomers have spotted a small world that keeps near-perfect time with Neptune. 



The object, known as 2020 VN40, circles the Sun once for every ten laps completed by the blue giant, making it the first confirmed 10:1 partnership ever observed.



The <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/addd22">discovery</a> adds a fresh piece to the outer-solar-system puzzle and hints at unseen swarms of bodies hiding in similar rhythms. This is a big step in understanding the outer solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-resonance">The power of resonance</h2>



In celestial mechanics a mean motion resonance occurs when two bodies complete orbits in a simple ratio. Neptune’s 3:2 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-may-not-be-real-planet-but-has-real-big-ocean/">Pluto</a> resonance is classic, but the new 10:1 beat extends that pattern nearly nine billion miles farther.



Neptune needs about 165 Earth years to circle the Sun, so 2020 VN40 takes roughly 1,650 years to complete its orbit. Yet the pair realign in space in a way that prevents close encounters.



Such locks protect fragile worlds and show how giant planets once migrated through the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-announce-evidence-suggesting-that-our-solar-system-has-nine-planets-again/">Kuiper Belt</a>.



Computer simulations show that Neptune’s strongest outer resonances, are prime parking spots for objects that wander outward and get caught in a process called scattering sticking. 



Theory suggests up to 40 percent of scattered bodies between 30–100 AU are briefly trapped before drifting off again.



Resonances form when Neptune’s repeated tugs fall at the same point in an object's path, much like a child’s timed pushes on a swing. Over thousands of cycles those gentle nudges pile up and lock the orbit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-neptune-s-partner-object">Finding Neptune’s partner object</h2>



2020 VN40 popped up during the Large inclination Distant Objects, or <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023AAS...24110421A/abstract">LiDO</a>, survey. The project uses the 3.6-meter Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (<a href="https://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/">CFHT</a>) on Maunakea to sweep sky patches well above the ecliptic.



By searching these high latitudes researchers target orbits that standard surveys often miss.



Follow-up snapshots with the <a href="https://www.gemini.edu/news/press-releases/noirlab2509">Gemini</a> Observatory and Magellan Baade (<a href="https://www.lco.cl/magellan-instruments/">IMACS</a>) extended its observed arc to more than six years, nailing down a semimajor axis near 140 AU and an eccentricity of 0.73. 



At that distance the world receives less than one-tenth of one percent of the sunlight that warms Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-bodies-on-tilted-orbits">Small bodies on tilted orbits</h2>



After refining its path, the team combed archival Subaru images and spotted 2020 VN40 faintly shining in exposures from 2017. That pre-discovery catch stretched the observational arc to eight years and slashed the orbital uncertainty.



“It has been fascinating to learn how many small bodies in the solar system exist on these very large, very tilted orbits,” noted Dr. Samantha Lawler of the <a href="https://www.uregina.ca/">University of Regina</a>.



She was referring to 2020 VN40’s 33-degree inclination, a tilt that takes it far above and below the plane of planetary traffic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-that-breaks-the-rules">A path that breaks the rules</h2>



Most resonant objects approach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/widest-high-resolution-photo-of-the-sun-ever-captured-solar-orbiter/">Sun</a> when Neptune is far away, creating a safe orbital arrangement. By contrast 2020 VN40 reaches perihelion when Neptune looks nearby in projection, though the two never share the same altitude because of the pronounced tilt.



“This new motion is like finding a hidden rhythm in a song we thought we knew,” said Ruth Murray-Clay from the University of California Santa Cruz (<a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UCSC</a>).



Surprisingly, simulations show 2020 VN40 follows a rare “eyehole” path, once thought possible only for the most extreme orbits.



The zero-degree state appears only when the object’s tilt and eccentricity fall within a narrow range, making it a natural laboratory for testing high-inclination dynamics. Its behavior opens the possibility that other hidden islands exist in the dynamical map.



Simulations show the object stays in resonance for tens to hundreds of millions of years before drifting off again. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-how-neptune-roamed">Clues to how Neptune roamed</h2>



Distant resonators act like breadcrumbs left by the planet’s slow stroll outward billions of years ago. The newly filled 10:1 slot hints that Neptune’s migration shepherded debris much farther than the classical 3:2 and 2:1 regions.



Because the resonance itself sits more than 8.6 billion miles out, the mere detection of a modest-sized body there implies a far larger unseen population. 



Simulations suggest hundreds or even thousands of kindred objects share the orbit, their faintness hiding them from today’s telescopes.



As Neptune moved outward, its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gravity-could-be-the-definitive-clue-that-the-universe-is-a-computer-storing-information/">gravity</a> scooped up distant debris like a snowplow - just as planet-migration theories predict. Each newly confirmed resonance gives modelers another point for tuning the planet’s migration speed and timing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-neptune-drawing-objects-in">Is Neptune drawing objects in?</h2>



Next-generation surveys with the <a href="https://rubinobservatory.org/">Vera C. Rubin</a> Observatory are expected to multiply the tally of high-inclination resonators manyfold. “This is just the beginning,” said Kathryn Volk of the Planetary Science Institute (<a href="https://www.psi.edu/">PSI</a>).



Rubin’s ten-year Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) will reach several magnitudes deeper than current searches and will scan the full southern sky every few nights. That cadence will allow rapid tracking before objects drift into twilight.



Each find will sharpen orbital models and help tell whether Neptune nudged these objects into place early on or simply lures them now and then. Either outcome teaches us how planets sculpt their neighborhoods.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/addd22">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



Image Credit: Rosemary Pike, CfA 



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Mysterious object is moving in sync with Neptune

Out near the icy frontier of our solar system, astronomers...

Wildlife crime scenes rarely feature fingerprints or cameras. Instead, investigators are turning to bits of tissue, feathers, and soil-stained knives that hide genetic clues linking poachers, poisoned bait, and endangered animals.



A study from the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> detailed a toolkit that pulls those clues together and makes them stick in court.



Dr. Gila Kahila Bar-Gal of the Koret School of Veterinary Medicine is leading the work, and her team’s methods are already changing how rangers collect evidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-crimes-are-often-overlooked">Wildlife crimes are often overlooked</h2>



Wildlife trafficking ranks among the five largest illicit trades worldwide, generating up to $23 billion each year. Its profits rival narcotics and arms, yet detection rates remain low.



Biodiversity loss accelerates when poachers target endangered species already stressed by habitat loss or climate change. The endangered mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urgent-call-to-save-mongolian-gazelles-from-habitat-loss/">gazelle</a>, for example, has fallen to roughly 5,000 animals in its last habitat in Israel.



Poisons add a second, silent threat. Forty-five percent of griffon vulture injuries or deaths documented in Israel from 2010 to 2021 were linked to carbamate or organophosphate toxins. 



Population surveys now count only about 230 wild birds, down from several hundred just two decades ago. 



Because a single carcass can kill a flock of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scavengers-clean-up-wetlands-and-boost-their-health/">scavengers</a>, every unsolved poisoning undermines years of conservation work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-clues-at-the-crime-scene">Genetic clues at the crime scene</h2>



Traditional autopsies stop at cause of death. Wildlife forensics asks a tougher question: Who is responsible? The first layer uses mitochondrial DNA markers to name the endangered species even when the sample is degraded or mixed. 



Kahila Bar-Gal’s team relies on two short gene fragments, 16S and CytB, to cross-check results and avoid false matches.



After species comes identity. The lab amplifies Short Tandem Repeats, tiny, highly variable stretches of nuclear DNA, to build an individual genetic profile. 



A five-dye, 22-STR panel has shown it can spot just 10 percent of a target species in a mixed sample.



“Our protocols are designed to be accurate and practical, because saving a species often comes down to solving forensic cases,” said Kahila Bar-Gal. 



Researchers run each profile against a local DNA library built from both wild and domestic animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-poachers-caught-through-dna">Wildlife poachers caught through DNA</h2>



Case records released with the study read like a detective novel. Rangers once raided a desert camp after spotting fresh ibex horns. 



Twenty-one blood-stained knives and shirts all pointed to Nubian ibex, not goats, ending the hunters’ main defense.



A second file describes gazelle poachers who let trained dogs do the killing. Swabs from each dog’s muzzle carried mountain-gazelle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/">DNA</a>, while dog hairs in the suspect’s pickup matched the animals seized onsite. 



That chain of evidence supported criminal charges even though the carcass itself was never recovered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-vulture-poisoning-mystery">Solving a vulture poisoning mystery</h2>



The most dramatic case involved seven griffon vultures that collapsed after feeding on a goat laced with pesticide. STR analysis proved the meat in a vulture’s crop came from the same goat carcass found nearby.



Although the herd owner escaped indictment - since the goat’s profile differed from his animals - the link let prosecutors treat the poisoning as an intentional wildlife crime rather than an accidental spill.



“When a vulture is found poisoned or a gazelle is killed out of season, you’re not just looking for a suspect, you’re often dealing with mixed evidence that may include multiple species, some protected, some not,” explained Kahila Bar-Gal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-local-dna-libraries-matter">Why local DNA libraries matter</h2>



Global databases such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/">GenBank</a> hold millions of sequences, but many lack precise location data or quality control. Using the wrong reference, researchers can mistake a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vanishing-vultures-may-threaten-public-health/">vulture</a> feather from Galilee for one from Spain



Israel’s wildlife lab avoids that pitfall by curating voucher specimens from every region and by adding common livestock breeds. 



The approach means rangers can tell a wild Nubian ibex from a feral hybrid and can rule out claims that confiscated meat came from someone’s goat.



Other countries have begun to copy the model, especially in Africa’s bushmeat hotspots and in Southeast Asian ports where reptile skins move through freezers by the ton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-endangered-species-with-science">Saving endangered species with science</h2>



Kahila Bar-Gal wants faster turnarounds. Portable sequencers that read long DNA fragments in the field could shave weeks off an investigation and let rangers link samples before suspects disappear.



Policy work matters too. INTERPOL estimates that wildlife crime funds organized networks that also traffic weapons and people. Convictions backed by genetic proof raise the risks for traffickers and can shift the cost-benefit calculus.



The study recommends expansion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/livestock-grazing-is-changing-soil-plants-and-insect-populations/">livestock</a> genetic surveys in poisoning hotspots, tighter controls on agricultural pesticides, and forensic training for customs agents. 



Those steps will not restore every lost vulture, but they can keep future carcasses from becoming lethal bait.



Wildlife crimes once hinged on eyewitnesses willing to testify. Today, molecules tell the story. Each cell recovered from a knife blade or scavenged bone now speaks for endangered species that cannot.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2025.1525957/full">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Wildlife crime cases can be solved with genetic forensics

Wildlife crime scenes rarely feature fingerprints or cameras. Instead, investigators...

Deep underground, far from any ray of sunlight, microbes stay alive thanks to energy released when rocks crack. A new study traces that energy to hydrogen and oxidants created during fault movements, challenging the persistent view that “all life depends on sunlight.”



Lead investigators Professor He Hongping and Professor Zhu Jianxi at the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences (<a href="http://english.gig.cas.cn/">GIGCAS</a>), used high-pressure experiments to mimic earthquakes. 



The researchers watched free radicals tear water apart, producing hydrogen gas and hydrogen peroxide.



“Hydrogen production driven by earthquake-related faulting was up to 100,000 times greater than that from other known pathways,” said study first author Xiao Wu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracks-in-rocks-beat-sunshine">Cracks in rocks beat sunshine</h2>



Sunlight fades within a few yards of bedrock, yet the deep biosphere hosts roughly 15 percent of Earth's biomass, mainly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bacteria-get-hungry-they-turn-on-each-other/">bacteria</a> and archaea. 



Two billion years of plate movements and daily microquakes keep that hidden ecosystem supplied with freshly fractured surfaces.



When quartz or basalt breaks, it creates reactive radicals that split water into hydrogen gas and peroxide - an energy source microbes can use.



Because the deep crust is full of silicate grains with hidden peroxy bonds, each seismic slip has a big effect. It’s like flipping millions of nanoscale switches at once.



Breaking those bonds converts about 0.005 percent of the mechanical energy into chemical energy. The authors argue that’s enough to keep underground microbes active between major quakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-thrive-on-rock-cracks">Microbes thrive on rock cracks</h2>



The team’s laboratory faults generated up to 160 micromoles of hydrogen in just four hours, dwarfing the yield from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/serpentinization">serpentinization</a> or natural radiolysis under similar volumes. 



Production hit 33.1 moles per square yard yearly - enough to sustain dense microbial biofilms, the authors say.



Such bursts matter because many subsurface cells scrape by on barely 10⁻¹² watts apiece, near the threshold estimated by astrobiologist <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00033.x">Tori Hoehler</a> for metabolic maintenance. 



A single quake therefore provides millions of times the power one microbe needs, turning fresh rock cracks into temporary oases.



Seismologists have recorded hydrogen spikes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hot-springs-may-have-played-a-key-role-in-the-emergence-of-life/">hot spring</a> gas just hours before moderate quakes on the Tibetan Plateau. This highlights the strong connection between tectonic activity and underground chemistry.



Field evidence supports the lab results, showing tiny amounts of oxygen forming as hydrogen peroxide breaks down - even in the dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rust-fuels-life-below">Rust fuels life below</h2>



Hydrogen alone is not enough; life also needs an electron acceptor. The experiments showed that reactive hydrogen atoms easily convert ferric iron (Fe³⁺) back into ferrous iron (Fe²⁺). 



At the same time, hydrogen peroxide turns Fe²⁺ back into Fe³⁺ in nearby pores, creating a self-sustaining iron cycle. In nature, some bacteria use this iron exchange to get energy and support the carbon cycle. 



Lab tests on granite showed that some microbes can grow by pulling electrons from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-coating-makes-iron-almost-completely-rust-resistant/">iron</a> in the rock. They turn the iron into rust, revealing how vital this process is for underground life.



Once established, the gradient persists as slow weathering and diffusive mixing blur the initial burst, giving communities time to stabilize and spread. 



The study indicates that these self-renewing redox interfaces may dot fault networks worldwide, vastly enlarging habitable volume. Field samples from deep Canadian Shield boreholes show iron shifting between forms over several years. 



This suggests underground microbes stay active by using hydrogen from fractured rock. Such evidence backs the lab findings that iron redox shuttles act as long-term batteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-energy-below-ground">Hidden energy below ground</h2>



Global <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25519136/">estimates</a> say processes like radiolysis and serpentinization produce up to 18 billion moles of hydrogen each year. 



Though earthquakes are rare, they release intense energy in small areas - enough to rival other sources and power surface-dwelling microbes.



Glaciers provide a similar example. As they grind up basalt rock beneath the ice, they release hydrogen that can support microbial life in the water below. 



Together, these findings recast mechanical energy as a prime mover in parts of the biosphere once thought inert.



With countless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-found-alive-sealed-inside-rock-after-2-billion-years/">microbes</a> living underground, even rare quakes can recharge their energy and reshuffle communities until power runs out again.



When chemistry slows, some microbes go dormant and survive on tiny energy for thousands of years. This has been seen in deep South African gold mines, showing how adaptable underground life is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hints-for-life-on-other-worlds">Hints for life on other worlds</h2>



Rocky planets with brittle crusts experience fracturing from impacts, tides, and cooling, so similar chemistry could run beneath Mars, Europa, or Enceladus. 



Mars orbiters have already mapped rock cracks in the surface that stretch for hundreds of miles, and rovers have found types of iron that can switch between two different forms. 



Studies reviewing rock-hosted life on Earth argue that such interfaces, not surface oases, may offer the best hope of past or present Martian life.



Tools that detect hydrogen, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-new-source-of-methane-emissions-discovered-glacial-fracking-arctic/">methane</a>, or changes in iron might spot signs of life - even in dry, barren landscapes. The new data give mission planners quantitative targets, narrowing the search to cracks in rocks where chemistry and biology intersect.



Back on Earth, the work broadens our picture of the deep biosphere, showing that tectonic stirrings, glacier creep, and landslide-grinding all seed underground food chains. Once again, life proves it can run its circuits wherever electrons find a path.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adx5372">Science Advances</a>.



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Cracked rocks power life deep on Earth - and possibly other planets

Deep underground, far from any ray of sunlight, microbes stay...

Most of us assume attention keeps a constant watch on the scene in front of us. New work shows that the gaze of the mind actually flickers in bursts, about eight times every second.



“Our environment bombards us with visual information, but our brain can’t process everything at once,” explained Professor Ayelet N. Landau of the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/">Hebrew University</a> of Jerusalem.



Her team calls this rhythmic stop-start style of focus attentional sampling, and sees it as the brain’s way of staying on top of overload.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-attention-can-t-stay-still">Why attention can’t stay still</h2>



Classic studies revealed that neurons representing different objects fight for limited processing capacity, a principle known as biased competition. Sampling reframes that duel as a time-share instead of a knockout.



Landau and her co-authors showed that when people keep their eyes on one target, their detection accuracy oscillates at 8 Hz, in sync with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-brain-region-that-connects-all-the-senses/">cortical rhythms</a> recorded by brain scanners. Peaks mark moments of heightened sensitivity, valleys mark brief lapses.



These lapses last only a tenth of a second, so awareness feels continuous. Under the surface, though, the cortex is alternately excitable and quiet, allowing each snapshot to settle before the next one arrives.



Legacy reaction-time studies hinted at this pulsing decades ago, yet their coarse sampling disguised the regular pattern. Modern high-speed methods finally caught what earlier chronometry could not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-rhythm-of-attention">The brain’s rhythm of attention</h2>



Electroencephalography (EEG) confirms that the flicker rides on a low-frequency <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/classical-music-orchestrates-a-mood-lifting-dance-in-the-brain/">theta rhythm</a> that sways neural firing across wide areas. The rhythm acts like a metronome for perception, motor plans, and even memory formation.



In the visual cortex, low points in the cycle dampen irrelevant input, while high points enhance signals that match current goals. That alternating gate may be why attention can pivot so quickly without losing the thread.



Importantly, the beat is intrinsic; it shows up even when volunteers merely stare at a blank screen. Task demands then bend the phase toward whatever matters at the moment.



Parallel psychophysics work finds that attention also binds an object’s separate features into a single percept in the same 4-8 Hz window, linking the timing of sampling to the act of integrating color, shape, and motion. That overlap suggests a common master clock rather than multiple isolated timers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-the-rhythm-between-targets">Sharing the rhythm between targets</h2>



When two objects appear in view, the brain still operates with the same eight-beat budget. Instead of speeding up, it splits the beat, granting each item four looks per second.



That division keeps important features alive on the neural stage, yet prevents either stream from hogging resources. It also explains why multitasking always costs a little time.



Researchers see the same halved tempo when the competing items overlap in space and differ only by color or motion. The brain prioritizes information channels over physical locations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-splitting-focus-slows-the-clock">Splitting focus slows the clock</h2>



In one experiment, two colored dot clouds sat on top of each other while participants watched for a flicker in either <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clouds-are-shrinking-and-making-the-earth-hotter/">cloud.</a> Detection accuracy for each cloud rose and fell at 4 Hz, showing clean alternation between the color channels.



When only one cloud remained, the rhythm doubled back to 8 Hz, proving that the slower pace was not fatigue but a deliberate split of a fixed clock. Sampling behaves like a budget, not a throttle.



Mathematical models now predict further slowdowns, to about 2.6 Hz, when three objects compete. Laboratory evidence for that prediction is starting to emerge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-your-brain-switches-without-you-knowing">Your brain switches without you knowing</h2>



Sampling goes on even when we have no clue that two images differ. When researchers delivered different inputs to each eye, detection still swung at 4 Hz, proving that the rhythm begins inside monocular channels long before conscious vision.



That covert alternation shows the system is always juggling alternatives, even if the conscious mind thinks it sees only one scene. Awareness is what emerges after the rhythm resolves the contest.



The finding rules out eye movements or deliberate strategies, because participants never realized the trick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-real-world-impact-of-brain-rhythm">The real-world impact of brain rhythm</h2>



Interface engineers are exploring whether synchronizing warning flashes with the natural peaks could shave milliseconds off reaction times. 



Early cockpit simulations show modest gains, hinting that the brain’s own timing may become a design parameter.



In medicine, clinicians studying attention-deficit disorders report that the 8 Hz rhythm appears intact in most children but weakens when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-and-adhd-disorders-directly-linked-amount-of-time-kids-spend-on-screens/">ADHD</a> co-occurs with autism, suggesting a therapeutic target.



Such applications depend on a better map of which brain circuits drive the cycle and how disease reshapes it. For now, the rhythm is a fingerprint of healthy processing, and its disruption is a promising biomarker.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-rhythm-s-source">The search for rhythm’s source</h2>



Some laboratories trace sampling to control hubs in the frontal cortex that send eight-beat bias signals to sensory areas. Others observe the rhythm emerging locally from inhibitory loops inside the primary visual cortex, a pattern that could arise even without top-down input.



Both stories might be true, because the human brain often builds the same behavior with redundant layers. Global conductors can steer local circuits that already possess their own pulse.



Resolving the argument will need laminar recordings that capture signals from every level of the hierarchy at once, something now being tried in patients preparing for epilepsy surgery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-brain-rhythm-research">Future of brain rhythm research</h2>



Future projects aim to test whether sampling operates in audition, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-touch-molecular-basis-elkin1-discovery/">touch</a>, and smell, suggesting a domain-general scheduler.



Early audiovisual work already hints at cross-modal alignment of the 4 Hz alternation when two objects compete.



Meanwhile, computational neuroscientists are building digital models that replicate the switching behavior and predict how many streams the cortex can handle before bottlenecks appear.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(25)00150-0">Trends in Cognitive Sciences</a>.



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Multitasking messes with your brain’s natural rhythm

Most of us assume attention keeps a constant watch on...

Exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is almost unavoidable in the United States. A new study finds that people with more of these PFAS chemicals in their blood are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes later on.



Researchers working with Mount Sinai’s BioMe biobank examined 180 adults who recently received a diabetes diagnosis and compared them with 180 matched participants who remained diabetes free. Each step up the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-that-eat-forever-chemicals-discovered-in-contaminated-soil/">exposure</a> ladder carried a 31 percent jump in future diabetes risk, the team reports.



The project was led by Dr. Vishal Midya in the Icahn School of Medicine at <a href="https://www.mountsinai.org/">Mount Sinai</a> and Dr. Damaskini Valvi, who studies environmental drivers of metabolic diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-pfas-comes-from">Where PFAS comes from</h2>



<a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pfas/data-research/facts-stats/index.html">PFAS</a> make fabrics stain resistant, food wrappers grease proof, and pans easy to clean. Nearly every American carries trace amounts of these "forever chemicals" in their blood.



The molecules linger for years because their carbon fluorine bonds do not break down under normal environmental conditions. 



Production of older long chain PFAS is declining, yet replacement compounds are showing up in water, soil, and consumer goods.



“PFAS are synthetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-offer-new-hope-against-forever-chemicals/">chemicals</a> that resist heat, oil, water, and stains, and are found in countless everyday consumer products,” said Midya. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-pfas-links-to-diabetes">How PFAS links to diabetes</h2>



The study used a nested case control study <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7845919/">design</a>, pulling incident cases and matched controls from a wider cohort of more than 70,000 New York City patients. 



Blood samples that were collected about six years before diagnosis provided a snapshot of chemical load.



The scientists tested for seven common PFAS chemicals using an extremely precise technique. Next, they used a method called metabolomics to scan about 650 tiny molecules. 



To understand the results, the experts used a type of analysis that combined all the PFAS data into one overall score, while also taking into account how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/safe-forever-chemicals-may-impair-brain-development/">chemicals</a> might be connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pfas-raises-diabetes-risk">PFAS raises diabetes risk </h2>



Earlier reviews already hinted at a link between PFAS and poor glucose control, but most relied on European or Asian cohorts. A 2024 narrative <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11836584/">review</a> concluded that several PFAS classes “show potential associations” with diabetes and other metabolic problems.



The new work strengthens the evidence by adding a multiethnic U.S. sample and by measuring exposures well before disease onset. Its 31 percent odds ratio sits within the range reported by previous prospective studies that tracked single PFAS compounds.



Diabetes remains a major public health burden, affecting 38.1 million U.S. adults according to the latest National Diabetes Statistics <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/php/data-research/index.html">Report</a>. Any exposure that nudges risk upward is therefore relevant at the population level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-pfas-may-cause-diabetes">How PFAS may cause diabetes</h2>



Metabolomic signals pointed to disrupted amino acid pathways, especially glutamate, arginine, and proline metabolism. The same pathways surfaced when the team compared metabolite profiles between future diabetes cases and controls.



One molecule, sulfolithocholylglycine, linked both to higher PFAS burdens and to later diabetes, surviving stringent statistical correction. Bile acid conjugates like this one help regulate lipid and glucose homeostasis, supporting the idea of a mechanistic bridge.



PFAS can also bind peroxisome proliferator activated receptors, which fine tune fat storage and insulin sensitivity. Laboratory studies show that long chain PFAS alter <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10412865/">cytochrome P450</a> enzymes in mouse liver, a key hub for drug and hormone metabolism.



The Mount Sinai data showed signs that PFAS may affect the way the body processes drugs, possibly by interfering with detox enzymes. This could also impact how the body handles blood sugar. 



While the researchers did not confirm that the chemicals directly caused the metabolic changes, the findings provide important clues for future research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications">Public health implications</h2>



According to Dr. Valvi, the results of the study can help experts design more effective interventions for the early prevention of type 2 diabetes. She emphasized the need to account for environmental chemicals alongside diet, activity, and genetics.



Several states have begun to set drinking water limits for PFAS, and the Environmental Protection Agency (<a href="https://www.epa.gov/sdwa/and-polyfluoroalkyl-substances-pfas">EPA</a>) proposed national standards earlier this year. Reducing industrial releases and monitoring municipal water could lower population exposures over time.



Health agencies may also consider biomonitoring high risk communities, particularly where water contamination or occupational use is documented. Such surveillance can flag hotspots and guide remediation before disease patterns emerge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-reduce-personal-exposure">How to reduce personal exposure</h2>



Consumers can swap aging nonstick pans for stainless steel or cast iron and choose untreated textiles when possible. Checking local water reports and using certified filters that remove PFAS adds another layer of protection.



Microwave popcorn bags, fast food wrappers, and some waterproof cosmetics still contain fluorinated coatings. Limiting these products can chip away at cumulative intake, even though no single action eliminates risk entirely.



Pregnant women and children, whose metabolic systems are still developing, may benefit most from exposure cuts. Public advisories already warn against eating fish from heavily polluted waters, and similar guidance could apply to other food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-and-global-policies">Future research and global policies</h2>



The Mount Sinai team plans larger exposome projects that integrate genes, lifestyle, and a wider range of chemicals. Replication in bigger samples will refine risk estimates and test whether certain PFAS mixtures hit harder than others.



International cooperation will be crucial because manufacturing shifts often move production to regions with looser regulations. Global treaties that phase out persistent chemicals have worked before, as seen with leaded gasoline and certain pesticides.



Scientists also call for better labeling so consumers can recognize fluorinated ingredients. Transparency can drive market demand for safer alternatives, nudging industries toward less persistent chemistry.



For now, the potential link between PFAS and diabetes reminds clinicians to keep an eye on environmental exposures when counseling patients at elevated metabolic risk. 



Policymakers, scientists, and families all have a part to play in cutting the chemical clutter that may push blood sugar in the wrong direction.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/EBIOM/article/PIIS2352-3964(25)00282-8/fulltext">eBioMedicine</a>.



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Common cookware chemicals linked to greater diabetes risk

Exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is almost unavoidable...

Complaining is universal. Whether it’s about the weather, a late bus, or a frustrating coworker, venting is part of being human. But how we complain - and what our voices reveal when we do it - can vary more than you might think.



New research from a team of scientists in Switzerland and Canada shows that complaining has a recognizable tone of voice. Even more interesting, the emotional signals behind that tone shift depending on cultural background.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vocal-expressions-of-complaints">Vocal expressions of complaints</h2>



The study, led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/">University of Geneva</a>, sheds light on how vocal expressions of complaints differ between French and Québécois speakers. 



Dr. Maël Mauchand is a neuroscientist at the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences at the University of Geneva.



“Complaining is differentiated from neutral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-speech-is-full-of-melodies-that-create-language-like-patterns/">speech</a> by changes in vocal expression. Complainers tend to change their intonation, pitch, rhythm, and emphasis, making them sound more emotive and expressive,” said Dr. Mauchand.



“We show that complaining strategies show specific variations across two francophone cultures, with Québécois sounding more angry or surprised and French speakers sounding sadder.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complaining-across-cultures">Complaining across cultures</h2>



To explore how complaints differ between cultures, researchers recorded eight native speakers - four from France and four from Quebec.



The participants read 84 simple sentences in both a neutral and complaining tone. The content of the sentences stayed the same; only the vocal delivery changed.



Next, 40 listeners living in Quebec, including both native Québécois and individuals who grew up in France, were asked to assess the emotional tone of selected recordings. They rated them across six emotional categories: happy, sad, angry, surprised, fearful, and disgusted.



“Complaining strategies seem consistent towards defining a general ‘complaining tone of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-our-voice-gives-us-a-greater-sense-of-control/">voice</a>,' with a few specific cultural variations,” noted Dr. Mauchand.



French speakers tended to use a higher pitch. Québécois speakers, meanwhile, showed more variation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-have-a-hidden-musical-talent-for-singing-on-pitch/">pitch</a> - making their tone more dynamic and emotionally charged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anger-versus-sadness">Anger versus sadness</h2>



Complaining, at its core, is a way to relive or express a negative experience. That means it’s often full of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-emotions-build-in-the-brain-and-why-they-linger/">emotion</a> - and those emotions came through loud and clear in the study.



Listeners judged Québécois speakers as sounding angrier, more surprised, and more disgusted. French speakers, by contrast, were consistently rated as sounding sadder.



“There may be cultural norms on what a complaint sounds like in France or in Quebec, influenced by their use,” said Dr. Mauchand. 



“The French are said to complain quite often - if complaining is frequent and ritualized, it makes sense that complainers try to make their voice sound less aggressive, for example by using higher intonation and sounding more sad than angry.”



In Quebec, expressiveness is often more pronounced in everyday speech. That might be why high-energy emotions like anger and surprise come through more strongly in complaints.



“There may be social conventions on what a complaint sounds like in a particular culture, which can be learned as we grow up,” noted Dr. Mauchand. “How we complain is a subtle interplay between emotion, social context, and cultural display rules.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-tone-of-complaints">Understanding the tone of complaints</h2>



The researchers acknowledged that their sample was small - only eight speakers and two cultural groups. This means that the results might not apply universally. Still, the findings offer a useful lens for thinking about emotional communication. 



The study also raises bigger questions: How do complaints function in different cultures? How often do people complain? And how are those complaints received by others?



The answers could be useful far beyond linguistics. Understanding the tone of complaints could help in fields like communication disorders, psychotherapy, and emotional training.



“As an immediate application, it could encourage people to be more attentive,” said Dr. Mauchand. “Not just to what people say, but how they say it - and what it implies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complaining-as-emotional-communication">Complaining as emotional communication</h2>



Complaining isn’t just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venting-does-not-reduce-anger-psychologists-advise-doing-this-instead/">venting</a> - it’s a way of expressing emotion. Whether it’s anger, sadness, frustration, or even surprise, the tone we use when complaining tells others how we feel, often more clearly than the words themselves.



That’s why these subtle vocal shifts matter. A sad-sounding complaint might invite comfort. An angry-sounding one could trigger defensiveness. How we sound when complaining can influence how others react, whether they feel empathy, annoyance, or something in between.



This is especially important in multicultural environments where people may interpret emotional tones differently. What sounds like a mild complaint to someone from France might come across as intense or aggressive to someone from Quebec - and vice versa.



Understanding these patterns could help improve cross-cultural communication, emotional awareness, and even professional training in areas like counseling, mediation, or caregiving.



As the study suggests, there’s more going on in complaining than meets the ear. And being aware of that might change how we listen - and how we speak - when emotions run high.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2025.1592994">Frontiers in Communication</a>.



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Sad or angry? Complaining sounds different across cultures

Complaining is universal. Whether it’s about the weather, a late...

Hair and feathers transformed the way animals lived - providing insulation, enabling flight, and offering a means of display. In birds and mammals, these features are known to arise from complex genetic programs. 



Reptiles, however, were believed to lack such sophisticated structures. That view is now being challenged. A remarkable fossil from the Middle Triassic reveals a small, tree-dwelling reptile adorned with a tall, feather-like crest.



Named&nbsp;Mirasaura grauvogeli, this creature lived about 247 million years ago. It had a slender bird-like skull, a long tail, and a striking dorsal display. 



New fossils from France show that&nbsp;Mirasaura’s skin structures weren’t just decorative. They evolved from a genetic toolkit present in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/">early</a> amniotes, well before feathers or hair ever appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mirasaura-had-odd-skin">Mirasaura had odd skin</h2>



Two nearly complete skeletons and over 80 isolated skin fragments reveal an upright crest of overlapping appendages. 



These are not feathers, but they resemble them in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptile-ancestors-appeared-40-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/">form</a>. Each appendage had a narrow central ridge and two distinct curved layers on either side.



Unlike bird feathers,&nbsp;Mirasaura’s structures didn’t branch into barbs. Instead, they formed continuous surfaces with delicate ridges, or rugae, along their lengths. 



SEM scans show these features were not stiff scales. Their flexible, wrinkled texture suggests they bent easily, maybe to catch light or motion.



"The fact that we have discovered such complex skin appendages in such an ancient group of reptiles sheds a new light on their evolution," said Dr. Stephan Spiekman, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="http://www.naturkundemuseum-bw.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beautiful-mirasaura-crest-was-for-show">Beautiful Mirasaura crest was for show</h2>



The skull was just 17 millimeters long and had large, forward-facing eyes. These features suggest excellent depth perception that is useful for a life in trees. The snout was mostly toothless and likely helped it pick insects out of bark.



Mirasaura’s body was long and barrel-shaped. Its limbs were adapted for grasping, and its claws were large and curved. It was agile, able to cling to branches much like a monkey.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/ancient-reptile_Mirasaura-grauvogeli_changes-family-tree_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/ancient-reptile_Mirasaura-grauvogeli_changes-family-tree_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1s.webp" alt="Reconstruction and illustration of Mirasaura in its natural forested environment, hunting insects. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto" class="wp-image-1979068"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Reconstruction and illustration of Mirasaura in its natural forested environment, hunting insects. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto</figcaption></figure>



The crest sat right above a noticeable hump in the spine. This area may have supported the upright posture of the appendages, giving&nbsp;Mirasaura&nbsp;its showy backline. Researchers rule out flight or insulation. Instead, the crest likely played a role in display.



"Mirasaura grauvogeli shows us how surprising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-predatory-marine-reptile-identified-as-a-completely-new-species-traskasaura-sandrae/">evolution</a> can be and what potential it holds," said Professor Rainer Schoch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feather-like-pigments">Feather-like pigments</h2>



Some preserved tissue on the crest contains fossilized melanosomes. These tiny pigment carriers resemble those found in bird feathers, not in reptile scales or mammal hair. Analysis shows a wide variety in shape, common in feathers, rare in scaly skin.



"The melanosomes found in Mirasaura soft tissues are more similar in shape to those found in extant and fossil feathers than melanosomes found in mammalian hair and reptilian skin," noted Dr. Valentina Rossi.



This could mean&nbsp;Mirasaura&nbsp;displayed some form of coloration, perhaps even patterns for mating or recognition. Still, no color has been confirmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-reptile-with-a-similar-crest">A reptile with a similar crest</h2>



The only other reptile with a similar dorsal crest is&nbsp;Longisquama insignis, another Triassic diapsid. Like&nbsp;Mirasaura, it had long, midline skin appendages. The two are now confirmed to be close <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-reptiles-are-more-colorful-in-open-habitats/">relatives</a> in the group Drepanosauromorpha.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/ancient-reptile_Mirasaura-grauvogeli_fossil_credit-Stephan-Spiekmann_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/ancient-reptile_Mirasaura-grauvogeli_fossil_credit-Stephan-Spiekmann_1s.webp" alt="A fossil from the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart, Germany, preserving the skeleton of Mirasaura. Credit: Stephan Spiekmann" class="wp-image-1979072"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A fossil from the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart, Germany, preserving the skeleton of Mirasaura. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Stephan Spiekmann</figcaption></figure>



The similarities between their crests, including bilateral symmetry, a central axis, and consistent patterning, suggest a shared origin. 



Still, their appendages are not feathers. They evolved separately, shaped by similar genetic programs but on different paths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mirasaura-rewrites-reptile-family-tree">Mirasaura rewrites reptile family tree</h2>



Mirasaura pushes back the origin of <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/verts/archosaurs/drepanosauromorpha.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drepanosauromorpha</a> by nearly 20 million years. These reptiles, previously known only from the Late Triassic, now have roots in the early Middle Triassic.



Phylogenetic analysis places Mirasaura outside the major modern reptile lineages. It lived before lizards, crocodiles, or birds. It was not part of Sauria, the group that includes all living reptiles. This makes its advanced skin structures even more surprising.



‘Mirasaura provides the first direct evidence that such structures actually did form early on in reptile evolution, in groups <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/">not closely related</a> to birds and extinct dinosaurs,’ said Dr. Spiekman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-evolution-in-reptiles">Skin evolution in reptiles</h2>



Louis Grauvogel collected fossils in Alsace starting in the 1930s. Among them were pieces of&nbsp;Mirasaura, though no one recognized them at the time. 



In 2019, the Grauvogel family donated the collection to the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart. There, researchers uncovered this unexpected gem.



The name&nbsp;Mirasaura grauvogeli&nbsp;means “Grauvogel’s wonder reptile.” This ancient climber, with its feather-like crest, changes what we know about skin evolution in reptiles. It shows that nature can invent similar solutions in distant lineages, again and again.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09167-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Fossil discovery of a 'wonder reptile' rewrites the history of evolution

Hair and feathers transformed the way animals lived - providing...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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