Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Sad,Adult,Woman,Look,In,Window,Distance,Thinking,Or,Pondering

In an eye-opening study led by the University of Otago, researchers have discovered a fascinating aspect of biology that connects exposure to odors and pheromones from the opposite sex with the aging process in animals. 



Spearheaded by Associate Professor Mike Garratt of the <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/anatomy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Anatomy</a>, this investigation delves into how the mere presence of sensory cues can significantly influence aging and health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-the-effects-of-odors-on-aging">Uncovering the effects of odors on aging</h2>



Previous research has hinted at the idea that interactions with the opposite sex could accelerate aging. Building on this foundation, Garratt's study takes a step further by demonstrating that even without direct interaction, sensory cues alone are potent enough to drive these aging effects. 



"This study sheds light on the profound impact that sensory information -- what we see, hear, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-sense-smell-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smell</a> -- can have on our bodies, potentially influencing our health and the way we age," Garratt explains.



The research, which has been published in the prestigious journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B, involved a collaborative effort with the University of New South Wales. 



The team focused on understanding whether exposure to female odors could affect mortality and reproductive aging in male mice. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensory-cues-and-the-human-condition">Sensory cues and the human condition</h2>



To explore this, male mice were placed in different environments: some lived alone, others with females, some were alone but exposed to female scents, and a final group lived with females but also had exposure to the scents of other absent females. Upon reaching old age, these males were paired with females to evaluate their fertility.



The findings were striking. Males exposed to female olfactory cues from middle to old age exhibited reduced fertility later in life. 



Furthermore, those who were exposed to female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-story-behind-our-sense-of-smell-is-coming-into-focus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odors</a> and also mated showed an increased mortality rate. While the underlying reasons for these effects remain a mystery, Garratt suggests that sensory perception of potential mates plays a crucial role in balancing life-history trade-offs in mammals.



Pheromones play a critical role in the reproductive behaviors of mice, but Garratt proposes that similar cues could impact humans, potentially through mechanisms that cause chronic stress, affecting overall health. 



“It is known that sensory cues influence the release of hormones that can have short-term physiological effects on animals and humans. These effects can conceivably ‘add up’ and extend to influence our health," he noted. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-study-on-odors-and-aging">Implications and future study on odors and aging</h2>



Garratt's insights urge us to reconsider the environments we inhabit and our perceptions of them. The feelings elicited by our surroundings could have far-reaching consequences for our health and longevity. 



"We should think about the environment that we live in, how we perceive it, what feelings it elicits, and take note of this as this could have long-term consequences for our bodies,” Garratt concluded.



In summary, this study from the University of Otago offers compelling evidence that sensory cues from the opposite sex play a significant role in influencing aging and health. 



By demonstrating that the mere exposure to olfactory signals can affect fertility and mortality rates in male mice, the research deepens our understanding of the biological processes behind aging and suggests that our environments and the way we perceive them may have profound long-term impacts on our well-being. 



This revelation prompts us to reconsider the importance of sensory experiences in our lives, highlighting the potential for future research to explore how these findings might translate to humans and contribute to the development of strategies for healthier aging.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.1848" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Exposure to certain odors and pheromones speeds up the aging process

In an eye-opening study led by the University of Otago,...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.nips.ac.jp/eng/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute for Physiological Sciences </a>(NIPS), along with various collaborators, have pioneered an innovative technique for observing the brain's intricate workings in living mice. 



This breakthrough, known as the “nanosheet incorporated into light-curable resin” (NIRE) method, allows for unprecedented large-scale and prolonged imaging of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neurons-can-predict-human-speech-before-we-say-a-word/">neuronal activities</a> and structures in mice that are awake, bridging gaps left by traditional brain imaging methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-imaging-limitations">Brain imaging limitations</h2>



Conventional brain imaging tools, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and two-photon microscopy, each have limitations in terms of the spatial and temporal resolution they can achieve or the size of the area they can observe simultaneously.&nbsp;



The NIRE method overcomes these hurdles by employing a unique combination of fluoropolymer nanosheets and light-curable resin to create expansive cranial windows, enabling researchers to examine broad <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-compensate-aging-dementia-recruiting-other-brain-regions-to-help/">brain regions</a> concurrently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-superior-brain-imaging-method">Superior brain imaging method</h2>



“The NIRE method is superior to previous methods because it produces larger cranial windows than previously possible, extending from the parietal cortex to the cerebellum, utilizing the biocompatible nanosheet and the transparent light-curable resin that changes in form from liquid to solid,” said study lead author Taiga Takahash, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.tus.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tokyo University of Science</a> and the <a href="https://www.excells.orion.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems</a> (ExCELLS).



By affixing polyethylene-oxide–coated CYTOP (PEO-CYTOP) nanosheets to the brain's surface with light-curable resin, the researchers created a durable, transparent window that closely conforms to the brain's contours, including the highly curved cerebellum.&nbsp;



This method not only enhances the window's strength and transparency but also significantly reduces motion artifacts, which are distortions in images caused by the movements of awake mice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-fine-neural-structures">Studying fine neural structures</h2>



The cranial windows developed through the NIRE method enable high-resolution imaging with sub-micrometer accuracy. This level of detail is crucial for studying the morphology and activity of fine neural structures.&nbsp;



“Importantly, the NIRE method enables imaging to be performed for a longer period of more than 6 months with minimal impact on transparency,” explained corresponding author Tomomi Nemoto, an expert in brain sciences at ExCELLS and NIPS.&nbsp;



“This should make it possible to conduct longer-term research on neuroplasticity at various levels - from the network level to the cellular level - as well as during maturation, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/">learning</a>, and neurodegeneration.”&nbsp;



This breakthrough in neuroimaging opens up new avenues for research into complex neural processes related to development, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/practicing-yoga-nidra-improves-sleep-memory-and-cognition/">cognition</a>, and various neurological conditions.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



The NIRE method's ability to facilitate large-scale, long-term, and multi-scale in vivo brain imaging holds significant promise for advancing our understanding of how neural networks operate and interact across different brain regions.



“The method holds promise for unraveling the mysteries of neural processes associated with growth and development, learning, and neurological disorders. Potential applications include investigations into neural population coding, neural circuit remodeling, and higher-order brain functions that depend on coordinated activity across widely distributed regions,” Nemoto said.



In conclusion, the development of the NIRE method represents a significant leap forward in the field of neuroimaging, offering researchers a powerful tool to explore the brain's complexities in ways that were previously out of reach. This innovative approach promises to deepen our understanding of the brain's structure and function, paving the way for new insights into the neural basis of behavior and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-particles-in-air-pollution-may-lead-to-alzheimers-disease/">disease</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Brain imaging method will unravel mysteries of neural processes

Researchers from the National Institute for Physiological Sciences (NIPS), along...

In the vast expanse of the universe, nearly every massive galaxy houses a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-jets-are-like-million-light-year-long-jedi-lightsabers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a> at its core. These cosmic behemoths often come into close contact during galaxy mergers, potentially forming binary black holes locked in a mutual orbit.



The fate of such pairs -- whether they eventually merge -- has puzzled astronomers for decades. Recent research published in The Astrophysical Journal sheds light on this cosmic conundrum, offering new insights into the behavior of supermassive black hole binaries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-a-cosmic-enigma">Unveiling a cosmic enigma</h2>



A fascinating study utilizing the <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/programs/gemini-observatory/gemini-north/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gemini North telescope</a>, part of the International Gemini Observatory operated by NSF’s NOIRLab, has focused on a supermassive black hole binary within the elliptical galaxy B2 0402+379. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/binary-black-holes_reveal-secrets_NOIRLab_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">This binary</a> is notable for being the only one resolved with enough detail to observe both black holes separately, boasting the smallest separation ever directly measured at just 24 light-years. 



Despite this close proximity, which typically indicates an imminent merger, the binary black hole has remained at a standstill for over three billion years. This unusual phenomenon prompted researchers to investigate what might be causing this delay.



The team analyzed archival data from the Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph (<a href="https://www.gemini.edu/instrumentation/gmos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GMOS</a>) to study the velocity of stars near the black holes, revealing crucial information about the system's dynamics. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-binary-black-holes-don-t-always-merge">Why binary black holes don't always merge</h2>



Professor Roger Romani of <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>, a co-author of the study, highlighted the instrumental role of GMOS's sensitivity in mapping the stars' velocities, enabling the team to estimate the binary's total mass at a staggering 28 billion solar masses. 



This makes it the heaviest binary black hole ever measured, offering key insights into the binary system's formation and the history of its host galaxy.



The massive combined mass of the binary system supports theories suggesting that the weight of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monster-black-hole-is-spinning-in-the-nearby-galaxy-m87-study-confurms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> plays a significant role in delaying mergers. 



Martin Still, NSF program director for the International Gemini Observatory, emphasized the wealth of untapped scientific discovery within the data archive, with the mass measurements of this binary serving as a prime example of the potential breakthroughs waiting to be uncovered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-formation-of-a-supermassive-binary">The formation of a supermassive binary</h2>



The formation of this binary is believed to be the result of multiple galaxy mergers, with B2 0402+379 being a 'fossil cluster' -- the product of a galaxy cluster merging into a single massive galaxy. The binary's significant mass implies a history of amalgamations from smaller black holes belonging to multiple galaxies.



The process leading up to a merger involves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-supermassive-black-hole-found-in-the-shadows-of-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> slingshotting past each other, gradually losing energy and drawing closer until gravitational radiation triggers the final merge. While this has been observed in stellar-mass black holes, a supermassive binary merger remains unrecorded. 



The study suggests that a vast number of stars would have been necessary to decelerate the binary's orbit to its current proximity, with the black holes expelling nearly all surrounding matter in the process. This has left the galaxy's core devoid of stars and gas, stalling the merger.



Professor Romani explained that lighter black hole pairs typically have enough surrounding mass to drive a quick merger. However, the exceptional mass of this binary required a much larger amount of stars and gas, ultimately scouring the central galaxy of such materials and leaving the merger in limbo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-lies-ahead-for-b2-0402-379">What lies ahead for B2 0402+379</h2>



The future of this binary, whether it will eventually merge or remain in orbital stagnation, is still uncertain. A successful merger would produce gravitational waves far more powerful than those from stellar-mass black hole mergers. 



The possibility of another galaxy merger or the introduction of a third <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spin-of-a-new-black-hole-is-unlocking-galactic-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> could provide the necessary material to prompt the merger, though B2 0402+379's status as a fossil cluster makes this scenario unlikely.



The research team, led by Stanford undergraduate Tirth Surti, plans to conduct follow-up investigations to determine the presence of gas in B2 0402+379's core. This could offer further insights into whether the supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-black-hole-ever-discovered-dates-back-to-the-dawn-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> will ultimately merge or remain eternally separated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-study-of-binary-black-holes">Implications and future study of binary black holes</h2>



In summary, the study of the supermassive black hole binary within galaxy B2 0402+379 has expanded our understanding of the cosmic forces at play in the universe by focusing on the invaluable role of archival data in unlocking the mysteries of space. 



By meticulously analyzing the dynamics of this stalled binary system, astronomers have shed light on the intricate dance of gravity and mass, offering insights into the potential future of such colossal entities. 



This research poses new questions about the nature of galactic mergers and the fate of supermassive black holes while setting the stage for future discoveries that could further unravel the fabric of our cosmos.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad14fa">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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Binary black holes reveal some of their secrets

In the vast expanse of the universe, nearly every massive...

A recent study led by Dr. Daniel Graeber from the UFZ has brought a paradigm shift in our understanding of nitrogen and phytoplankton growth in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lakes-are-struggling-to-maintain-oxygen-as-temperatures-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a>, challenging the long-held belief that phosphorus is the sole nutrient limiting this growth. 



Traditionally, lake management strategies worldwide have been focused on controlling phosphorus inputs to prevent eutrophication -- a process that leads to excessive algae growth and deteriorates water quality. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-phosphorus-the-long-standing-villain-in-lake-health">Phosphorus: The long-standing villain in lake health</h2>



However, this approach has repeatedly fallen short in combating eutrophication, prompting scientists to question the existing model.



<a href="https://www.ufz.de/index.php?en=43298" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Graeber</a> explains, "it was previously assumed that phytoplankton growth in lakes is mostly limited and driven by the availability of phosphorus. In this explanatory model, nitrogen plays no role. This is based on the fact that specific cyanobacteria in the water can bind the nitrogen contained in the air and introduce it into the lake. This would therefore preclude a long-term nitrogen deficiency in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a>." 



This discovery points to a more complex interaction between nutrients than previously thought, with both nitrogen and phosphorus influencing the growth of phytoplankton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-lake-nutrients">New perspective on lake nutrients</h2>



The study, which also involved limnologist Dr. Thomas A. Davidson from <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>, analyzed long-term monitoring data from 159 shallow lakes across North America, Europe, and New Zealand. 



"This model forms the basis for lake management worldwide, where the emphasis has been on controlling phosphorus inputs to counteract lake eutrophication," explains Dr. Davidson. 



"Reducing phosphorus inputs repeatedly fails to prevent eutrophication. This therefore gave rise to the question of whether the water equation included yet another unknown," Davidson concluded.



Shallow lakes, which constitute about 89 percent of the world's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-first-sparked-in-shallow-soda-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a>, provided a comprehensive dataset for examining the relationship between nutrient ratios and phytoplankton biomass, measured by the concentration of chlorophyll-a.



"We wanted to determine the long-term relationships between the ratio of the two nutrients and phytoplankton growth," explains Dr. Graeber. 



"The idea for our study originated with several outliers in a prior study of the ecology of shallow lakes. In some of the lakes, we did not see a linear correspondence between the measured nutrient and a respective increased or decreased chlorophyll-a concentration," he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-impact-of-nitrogen-in-lake-ecosystems">Surprising impact of nitrogen in lake ecosystems</h2>



The research revealed that in 60 percent of the studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-contaminate-all-lakes-and-freshwater-environments-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a>, both nitrogen and phosphorus were limiting factors for phytoplankton growth, a finding that significantly deviates from traditional limnological consensus.



The implications of this study are profound for the field of limnology and lake management practices. 



"The relationships were so clear that I couldn't even believe it at first. They corresponded exactly to what was known from laboratory experiments -- this was truly astounding," says Graeber. 



"The result withstood thorough testing of the statistics: The data were robust. Our results confirm the hypothesis that nitrogen is not a passive participant in lake ecology. And we were able to prove with a broad database for the first time that this clearly applies to lakes worldwide," Graeber continued.



This dual-nutrient limitation model not only challenges existing theories but also emphasizes the necessity of incorporating nitrogen into lake management strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-integrating-nitrogen-into-lake-management-strategies">Integrating nitrogen into lake management strategies</h2>



Dr. Graeber and his team urge for a reevaluation of lake management practices, suggesting a more comprehensive approach that considers the impacts of both nitrogen and phosphorus. 



"We need a long-term investigation of the nutrient ratios to ensure the success of efficient and effective eutrophication management. This requires a greater focus on inputs from agriculture, which generally have a high nitrogen content," Graeber recommends.



In summary, the study led by Dr. Daniel Graeber and his team marks a significant turning point in our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-some-lakes-resist-the-heat-of-atmospheric-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake ecosystems</a>. They demonstrated that both nitrogen and phosphorus play critical roles in phytoplankton growth and, consequently, in the eutrophication process. 



This revelation challenges the traditional phosphorus-centric approach to lake management and provides new recommendations for research and policy-making that encompass a more holistic view of nutrient impacts. 



By advocating for the inclusion of nitrogen in management strategies, this finding paves the way for more effective and sustainable solutions to combat eutrophication, ensuring the long-term health and balance of lake ecosystems worldwide.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-45115-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Nitrogen is an overlooked component of lake ecosystems

A recent study led by Dr. Daniel Graeber from the...

Over the last quarter century, the Arctic has witnessed a dramatic reduction in summer sea ice, shrinking by more than one million square kilometers. This transformation has left extensive parts of the Arctic Ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-free-arctic-summers-could-be-the-new-normal-by-2030/">ice-free</a> during the summer months with a significant increase in sunlight exposure. 



This phenomenon has drawn the attention of the scientific community worldwide, who are keenly observing its impact on sunlight penetration and the resultant effects on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-ecosystems-survive-extinctions/">marine ecosystems</a> of the far north.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-sunlight-availability-on-the-arctic-seafloor">Increased sunlight availability on the Arctic seafloor</h2>



Karl Attard, a prominent marine scientist and assistant professor in the Department of Biology at the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Denmark</a>, is at the forefront of a global research initiative that delves into the implications of increased sunlight availability on the photosynthetic activity of the Arctic seafloor, a region less studied in this context. 



The team's research places a spotlight on the Arctic Ocean's extensive shelf regions. These areas of the seafloor, which are relatively shallow and seldom exceed depths of 200 meters, account for about half the Arctic Ocean's surface area. This makes them particularly intriguing for studying how seafloor ecosystems adjust as sea ice continues to recede.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photosynthetic-activity-nbsp">Photosynthetic activity&nbsp;</h2>



Primary producers like microalgae, seaweeds, and seagrasses, which are capable of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-finally-decoded-the-process-of-photosynthesis/">photosynthesis</a>, rely on sunlight along with water, carbon dioxide, and nutrients. These organisms are foundational to the ocean's food web, underpinning commercially vital fisheries and supporting large predators such as polar bears.



Given the expanding areas of the seafloor now exposed to sunlight, one might intuitively expect an increase in the abundance of these primary producers. However, the experts reached a counterintuitive result.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunlight-reaching-the-arctic-seafloor-nbsp">Sunlight reaching the Arctic seafloor&nbsp;</h2>



“It might seem reasonable to assume that the abundance of primary producers on the seafloor in the shallower regions of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-ocean-has-been-warming-for-more-than-100-years/">Arctic Ocean</a> would increase as more sunlight reaches the bottom," noted Attard.



"In fact, our research suggests that since 2003, the seafloor area exposed to sunlight has been increasing rapidly at around 47,000 square kilometers per year.&nbsp;



Curiously, however, we do not see an increase in the total amount of sunlight reaching the Arctic seafloor."



This observation, based on two decades of satellite data, indicates that despite the expanded ice-free areas, there isn't a corresponding increase in sunlight reaching the seafloor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decrease-in-water-transparency-nbsp">Decrease in water transparency&nbsp;</h2>



The study reveals that water transparency in many parts of the Arctic Ocean has decreased, impeding sunlight from penetrating to the seafloor.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-reduces-sunlight/">Sunlight</a> that enters the ice-free ocean is rapidly absorbed by phytoplankton, sediments, and dissolved substances, thus limiting its reach to the ocean floor. Despite these regions now being ice-free and receiving sunlight at the surface, the models predict variable impacts on primary production across different areas.



The decline in water clarity is attributed to the influx of river water, carrying sediments from distant regions like Mongolia or central North America, into the Arctic Ocean. These sediments, along with dissolved organic molecules, cloud the water, reducing sunlight penetration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunlight-availability-and-primary-production">Sunlight availability and primary production</h2>



The researchers' models reveal regional disparities in biomass production on the newly exposed ocean floor, with some areas experiencing an increase in primary production while others not.&nbsp;



“The question then arises: why does sunlight availability and primary production increase in some areas while diminishing in others?” Attard said. “Unfortunately, our models do not provide a clear answer as to what specifically is driving this change, and obtaining this information necessitates investigating individual regions and validating our models with more observational data."



“The latest models suggest that seaweeds and eelgrass will establish themselves on the shallow coastal seafloor and will expand into the Arctic Ocean as the ice further diminishes and water temperature increases. Here too, more observations are needed to test the uncertainties in the models,” he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-interactions-nbsp">Complex interactions&nbsp;</h2>



This study underscores the complex interplay between climate change, sunlight availability, and primary production in the Arctic Ocean. As the Arctic continues to warm, the influx of species from lower latitudes might lead to a more productive marine environment than currently exists, albeit at the expense of the Arctic's unique character.&nbsp;



"Our study suggests that the impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-arctic-climate-change-is-much-more-difficult-since-russia-invaded-ukraine/">climate change</a> on sunlight availability and primary production in the Arctic Ocean are complex. Additionally, as the Arctic Ocean continues to warm, we may witness more species migrating from lower latitudes, potentially leading to a more productive marine environment than what exists today - at the cost of losing what is special for the Arctic,” Attard concluded.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2303366121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Less ice and more sunlight will drastically alter the Arctic Ocean

Over the last quarter century, the Arctic has witnessed a...

In the face of escalating climate challenges, new research offers fresh insights into the complex relationship between drought, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-years-of-air-quality-improvement-erased-by-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a>, and invasive species within coastal sage scrub ecosystems. 



Published in the journal Ecology, this study from the University of California, Irvine (<a href="https://uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCI</a>) highlights the delicate balance required to manage and protect these critical environments.



Led by Dr. Sarah Kimball, Director of the Center for Environmental Biology at UCI, the team focused on the intricate dynamics that govern ecosystem health. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfires-as-a-catalyst-for-invasive-species">Wildfires as a catalyst for invasive species</h2>



Conducted at the <a href="https://lomaridge.bio.uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Loma Ridge Global Change Experiment</a>, they explored how extended periods of drought intensify wildfire severity and clear the way for invasive species to dominate, disrupting native plant communities and altering the landscape dramatically.



Central to the study's findings is the discovery that drought conditions, by reducing wildfire severity, inadvertently benefit non-native grasses. 



These invasive species flourish, potentially transforming the ecosystem and diminishing the abundance and diversity of native plants. 



Such shifts are critical, as they affect not only the ecological balance but also the resilience of ecosystems to future environmental stresses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-direction-for-wildfire-management">New direction for wildfire management</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond the academic realm, offering vital cues for ecosystem management strategies. The study advocates for a nuanced approach to managing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-and-anxiety-the-mental-health-impacts-of-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfire</a> frequencies and controlling invasive species in the aftermath of fires. 



Interestingly, it advises against the use of controlled burns in coastal sage scrub systems -- a common management practice in other ecosystems -- due to their potential to encourage the spread of invasive species.



Dr. Kimball, the study's corresponding author, underscores the significance of experimental research in understanding these ecological interactions. 



"This study is unique in that replicate experimental plots were subjected to several years of different precipitation regimes prior to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-is-an-underestimated-threat-to-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfire</a>, allowing an opportunity to test how a range of pre-fire weather conditions influenced fire severity and resulting plant community composition," she explains.



Furthermore, Kimball emphasizes the critical findings regarding the interaction between invasive species and low-severity wildfires, cautioning against the use of control burns in these environments. 



"We found feedbacks between invasive species and low-severity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ripple-effects-wildfires-reshape-aquatic-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfire</a>, indicating that control burns should not be conducted in this system," Kimball concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-our-natural-world">Preserving our natural world</h2>



This research is particularly relevant as wildfires increasingly affect communities, underscoring the importance of understanding the factors that influence their severity. 



It calls for a reassessment of traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-intensity-fires-reduce-the-risk-of-catastrophic-wildfires-by-60-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfire</a> management practices and highlights the urgent need to address climate change to preserve natural ecosystems.



In summary, the UCI's important study illuminates the intricate interdependencies between drought, wildfires, and invasive species. The scientists uncovered critical insights for the sustainable management of coastal sage scrub ecosystems. 



By demonstrating how prolonged drought conditions facilitate the spread of invasive species through the modulation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-farming-and-wildfires-is-more-likely-to-cause-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfire severity</a>, this research emphasizes the necessity of reevaluating traditional fire management practices and adopting a more nuanced approach to ecosystem conservation. 



Dr. Sarah Kimball and her team's findings advance our understanding of these complex ecological dynamics and serve as a crucial call to action. Communities must integrate climate change considerations into their strategies for preserving natural ecosystems and safeguarding biodiversity for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-invasive-species-and-wildfires">More about invasive species and wildfires</h2>



As discussed above, invasive species pose a significant threat to global biodiversity, ecosystems, and economies. These non-native plants, animals, and microorganisms, when introduced to new environments, can disrupt the natural balance, leading to severe environmental and economic consequences.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-invasive-species">Understanding invasive species</h3>



Invasive species are organisms that are introduced, either accidentally or deliberately, into a region where they are not native. Without their natural predators and competitors, these species can spread uncontrollably, outcompeting native species for resources such as food and habitat. 



The introduction of invasive species often results from human activities, including global trade, travel, and agriculture, which inadvertently transport and introduce organisms to new areas.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wreaking-ecological-havoc">Wreaking ecological havoc</h3>



The ecological impact of invasive species is profound and far-reaching. They can alter habitat structures, nutrient cycling, and hydrology, leading to the decline or extinction of native species. Invasive species can also act as vectors for diseases, affecting both wildlife and human health. 



Their presence can lead to reduced biodiversity, changing the composition and function of ecosystems. The economic repercussions are equally significant, with invasive species costing billions of dollars annually in control efforts and lost agricultural productivity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-for-management-and-control">Strategies for management and control</h3>



Managing invasive species requires a multi-faceted approach that includes prevention, early detection, rapid response, and long-term control measures. 



Prevention is the most cost-effective strategy, involving stringent biosecurity measures to prevent the introduction of invasive species. Early detection and rapid response are critical for containing and eradicating invasives before they become established. 



This approach often involves public awareness campaigns and citizen science initiatives to report sightings of invasive species. 



For established invasions, control measures can include mechanical removal, chemical treatments, and biological control using natural predators or pathogens.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-community-and-government">Role of community and government</h3>



Effective management of invasive species demands a collaborative effort that spans local, national, and international levels. Governments must implement and enforce regulations that limit the spread of invasive species, such as quarantine laws and restrictions on the trade of known invasives. 



Community involvement is equally crucial, as informed and engaged citizens can play a significant role in detecting and reporting invasive species. Education and outreach programs can raise awareness about the impacts of invasive species and the importance of biosecurity measures.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-invasive-species-away-after-wildfires">Keeping invasive species away after wildfires</h3>



The threat posed by invasive species is urgent and requires immediate action. By understanding the causes and impacts of these unwanted invaders, we can implement effective strategies to prevent their spread and mitigate their effects. 



It is imperative that governments, communities, and individuals work together to address this environmental challenge. 



Through collaborative efforts and strong management practices, we can protect our ecosystems and preserve biodiversity for future generations. 



The fight against invasive species is not just a conservation issue but a necessity for maintaining the health of our planet and the well-being of all its inhabitants.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.4265">Ecology</a>.



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Invasive species use wildfires and drought as an opening to move in

In the face of escalating climate challenges, new research offers...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.uwyo.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wyoming</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-highlights-urgent-need-to-protect-migratory-species/">migratory animals</a> refine their navigational strategies as they age, indicating that learning from experience plays a crucial role in successful migration. According to the experts, although genetics and social learning significantly influence migratory behaviors, knowledge gained through experience also contributes to shaping these journeys.



Ellen Aikens, who led this research with a joint appointment at UW's Haub School of Environment and Natural Resources and UW’s School of Computing, explores the intersection of animal behavior and data science, an investigation made possible by the advancements in computing and data analytics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-migratory-behaviors">Understanding migratory behaviors</h2>



This study marks a significant advancement in understanding migratory behaviors. Working with specialists from the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a>, the research meticulously tracked over 250 white <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/storks-are-attracted-to-the-smell-of-freshly-mowed-grass/">storks</a> from five breeding sites in southern Germany and Austria from 2013 to 2020 through advanced tracking technology.



This detailed tracking not only identified the storks' migratory paths but also assessed their travel timing, speed, and energy consumption during flight.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migratory-behaviors-become-more-focused">Migratory behaviors become more focused</h2>



The findings revealed a notable transition: while younger storks displayed curiosity in exploring new territories during their migration, as they aged, their journeys became more focused, favoring faster and more direct routes that necessitated greater energy expenditure.



"As the birds age and gain more experience, older individuals stop exploring new places and instead move more quickly and directly, resulting in greater energy expenditure during migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flight-inspires-the-design-of-future-aircraft/">flight</a>,” said Aikens. “During spring migration, individuals innovated novel shortcuts during the transition from early life into adulthood, suggesting a reliance on spatial memory acquired through learning.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-experience">Learning from experience</h2>



“Although information has largely been overlooked as a currency shaping migratory behavior, gaining information and using it to incrementally refine migration behavior through learning could play an important role in saving both energy and time,” the authors explained. “The landscapes that animals move through are complex and dynamic, requiring that migrants learn where and when favorable conditions that facilitate movement occur and how to exploit them efficiently.”



While the scientists acknowledge the importance of genetics and cultural inherited mechanisms in animal migration, they argue that the recent findings point to individual experience as another major factor.&nbsp;



"Whether the first migration is guided by genetics or results from following informed individuals, learning within a lifetime represents an additional and complementary mechanism shaping animal migration,” they concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-migratory-behaviors-nbsp">Fascinating migratory behaviors&nbsp;</h2>



Migratory behaviors in animals are diverse and fascinating, often driven by the search for food, mating opportunities, or more hospitable climates. Here are a few examples of remarkable migratory behaviors across different species:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-butterflies">Monarch butterflies</h3>



Perhaps one of the most visually stunning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiger-shark-migrations-are-shifting-as-temperatures-rise/">migrations</a>, North American monarch butterflies travel up to 3,000 miles from the northeastern United States and Canada to the fir forests of central Mexico for the winter.&nbsp;



This journey is not only long but also remarkable because the butterflies that return to Mexico in the fall are the great-grandchildren of the ones that left the previous spring, navigating using a combination of circadian rhythms and the position of the sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-terns">Arctic terns</h3>



Holding the record for the longest migration of any animal, Arctic terns migrate from their Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic and back each year, covering a distance of about 71,000 kilometers (44,000 miles). This round trip ensures they experience two summers per year and more daylight than any other creature on the planet.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildebeest">Wildebeest</h3>



In East Africa, over 1.5 million wildebeest, along with hundreds of thousands of zebra and gazelle, embark on a circular migration of over 1,800 miles through the Serengeti and Maasai Mara ecosystems. This migration is driven by the seasonal rains and the quest for fresh grazing and water. It's known for its dramatic river crossings and predator-prey interactions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whales">Humpback whales</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-travel-thousands-of-miles-to-mate/">Humpback whales</a> undertake extensive migrations between feeding and breeding grounds. They feed in polar waters during the summer months and migrate to warmer tropical and subtropical waters during the winter for breeding and giving birth, traveling thousands of miles each year.&nbsp;



Their songs, complex sequences of moans, howls, cries, and other noises, are thought to play a role in communication and mating behaviors during these migrations.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-great-white-sharks">Great white sharks</h3>



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/">great white sharks</a> have been documented traveling from the coast of South Africa to Australia and back, a round trip of over 20,000 kilometers (12,427 miles), in a single year. 



These migrations are likely motivated by hunting and possibly breeding, showcasing the sharks' incredible navigation skills across vast ocean distances.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caribou-migration">Caribou migration</h3>



In the Arctic, caribou (reindeer in Eurasia) undertake one of the largest land migrations, with some herds traveling up to 5,000 kilometers (3,100 miles) annually. This migration is primarily driven by the search for food, with the herds moving between their winter and summer feeding grounds.



These migrations are critical for the survival of these species, allowing them to exploit seasonal resources, avoid harsh weather conditions, and reproduce. They also play significant roles in the ecological systems, affecting predator-prey relationships, seed dispersal, and nutrient cycling.



The UW study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2306389121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Migratory behaviors are shaped by experience

A recent study led by the University of Wyoming has...

Today marks a significant milestone in environmental protection and climate science with the <a href="https://www.spacex.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">launch</a> of MethaneSAT, a pioneering satellite mission designed to tackle methane <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-finalizes-ambitious-rule-to-slash-methane-emissions/">emissions</a>. 



Methane is one of the most potent greenhouse gases. Reducing methane emissions is increasingly viewed as a crucial strategy for slowing global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-methanesat-nbsp">The role of MethaneSAT&nbsp;</h2>



Developed by a subsidiary of the <a href="https://www.edf.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Defense Fund</a> (EDF), a leading environmental non-profit organization, MethaneSAT is set to revolutionize the way we identify, measure, and reduce methane emissions, particularly from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-and-gas-production-linked-to-77-billion-in-annual-health-care-costs/">oil and gas industry</a> - the world’s largest industrial methane emitter.



Scheduled for launch just after 2:00pm Pacific Time aboard a SpaceX Falcon9 rocket, MethaneSAT's mission is groundbreaking in its scope and potential impact. This satellite is unique in its ability to see and quantify total methane emissions over wide areas that other satellites cannot, thereby identifying large emitters in previously overlooked locations.&nbsp;



MethaneSAT will empower companies, regulators, and various stakeholders - including citizens, governments, investors, and gas importers - with free access to emissions data. This unprecedented level of transparency will improve accountability and facilitate faster reductions in methane emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-fastest-way-to-slow-global-warming">Single fastest way to slow global warming</h2>



“Cutting methane pollution from fossil fuel operations, agriculture and other sectors is the single fastest way to slow the rate of warming as we continue to decarbonize our energy systems,” said EDF President Fred Krupp.&nbsp;



“To do that requires comprehensive data on this pollution on a global scale. MethaneSAT will show us the full scope of the opportunity by tracking emissions to their source.”



MethaneSAT is a direct result of EDF's long-standing commitment to methane science and solutions, a journey that began over a decade ago and was highlighted in Krupp's 2018 TED Talk as part of the TED Audacious Project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methanesat-s-remarkable-capabilities-nbsp">MethaneSAT's remarkable capabilities&nbsp;</h2>



The satellite's capabilities are remarkable. MethaneSAT can circle the Earth 15 times a day, detecting changes in methane concentrations as small as three parts per billion. Its high sensitivity, resolution, and wide field of view are designed to capture the complete picture of methane emissions.



“MethaneSAT’s superpower is the ability to precisely measure methane levels with high resolution over wide areas, including smaller, diffuse sources that account for most emissions in many regions,” said Steven Hamburg, EDF Chief Scientist and MethaneSAT project leader. “Knowing how much methane is coming from where and how the rates are changing is essential.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methanesat-is-a-collaborative-victory">MethaneSAT is a collaborative victory</h2>



Beyond its scientific and environmental significance, MethaneSAT represents a collaborative victory, made possible by the support of EDF donors and partnerships, notably with the Government of New Zealand. Major contributors include the Bezos Earth Fund, Arnold Ventures, the Robertson Foundation, and the TED Audacious Project.&nbsp;



Dr. Kelly Levin from the Bezos Earth Fund hailed MethaneSAT as a game-changer in methane detection, praising its potential to enhance scientific understanding and enforce accountability.



“Methane emissions have been overlooked and hard to detect for far too long,” said Dr. Levin. “MethaneSAT changes the equation, putting science and data front and center. From the sky, it can see what others can’t, helping good actors and holding bad actors accountable. The Bezos Earth Fund is proud to be a partner in this adventure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-holding-companies-and-governments-accountable-nbsp">Holding companies and governments accountable&nbsp;</h2>



The launch of MethaneSAT comes at a critical time when global momentum is building for more stringent methane management.&nbsp;



The satellite will bolster recent initiatives aimed at holding companies and governments more accountable for their methane emissions, including efforts by Bloomberg Philanthropies, the International Energy Agency, RMI, and the UN Environment Programme's International Methane Emission Observatory.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-measurable-data">The importance of measurable data</h2>



Michael R. Bloomberg, UN Secretary-General's Special Envoy on Climate Ambition and Solutions and Founder of Bloomberg LP and Bloomberg Philanthropies, highlighted the importance of measurable data in tackling methane emissions.



“You can’t manage what you can’t measure, and that’s certainly true when it comes to cutting methane, one of the biggest drivers of climate change,” said Bloomberg.&nbsp;



“Data from this satellite will help us to better measure methane emissions and target their sources, bringing more transparency to the problem, giving companies and investors the information they need to take action, and empowering the public to hold people accountable.”



MethaneSAT's mission aligns with international commitments, such as the Global Methane Pledge to reduce methane emissions by at least 30% from 2020 levels by 2030. It also supports the Oil &amp; Gas Decarbonization Charter announced at COP28, aiming to virtually eliminate methane emissions and routine flaring.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-it-so-urgent-to-tackle-methane-emissions">Why is it so urgent to tackle methane emissions?</h2>



Methane (CH4) is a potent greenhouse gas, second only to carbon dioxide (CO2) in its impact on climate change. It is composed of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Methane is significant for several reasons:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potency">Potency</h3>



Methane is much more effective than CO2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere, making it a highly potent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ponds-release-more-greenhouse-gases-than-they-store/">greenhouse gas</a>. Over a 20-year period, its global warming potential is over 80 times that of CO2, though it is less over longer periods due to its shorter atmospheric lifetime.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources">Sources</h3>



Major sources of methane emissions include natural processes and human activities. Natural sources include wetlands, termites, and the oceans.&nbsp;



Human-related sources are more diverse, including the production and transport of coal, oil, and natural gas (due to leaks and venting), livestock and other agricultural practices (especially from the digestive processes of ruminant animals), landfills, and waste treatment.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atmospheric-life">Atmospheric life</h3>



Methane has a shorter lifetime in the atmosphere compared to CO2, about 12 years, but it is much more efficient at trapping radiation, making its short-term effects on climate change significant.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impact">Climate impact</h3>



Methane contributes to the greenhouse effect. Its increase in the atmosphere is responsible for about one-fifth of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/formal-agreement-needed-to-define-the-current-level-of-global-warming/">global warming</a>. Managing methane emissions is considered a critical lever for mitigating climate change, especially in the short term, as reducing methane emissions can have a rapid effect on atmospheric warming potential.



To watch the live launch of MethaneSAT, visit <a href="https://www.spacex.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.spacex.com/</a>.



Image Credit: BAE Systems&nbsp;



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Today's MethaneSAT launch represents a new era in climate action

Today marks a significant milestone in environmental protection and climate...

Striped marlin, some of the ocean's fastest and fiercest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-move-into-towns-to-avoid-predators-only-to-be-killed-by-humans/">predators</a>, work together to hunt prey. But how do they avoid colliding with each other in the frenzy of the chase? A new study from the <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University of Berlin</a> reveals a surprising secret: rapid color changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-and-habitat-of-striped-marlin">Life and habitat of striped marlin</h2>



Striped marlin are impressive fish found in warm and temperate waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. They are easily recognized by their blue and black stripes that become more prominent in certain events.&nbsp;



These fast swimmers, reaching speeds of 50 miles per hour, use their long, pointed bills to slash through schools of smaller fish like sardines and anchovies, stunning them before eating. Their tall dorsal fin and streamlined body help them chase prey efficiently. Adult marlins can grow up to 12 feet long and weigh up to 450 pounds.



Striped marlin live in the open ocean near the surface and are constantly on the move, traveling long distances for food and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-found-the-worlds-largest-fish-breeding-site/">breeding</a>. They are mostly found off the coasts of Mexico, California, New Zealand, and Australia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striped-marlin-on-the-attack">Striped marlin on the attack</h2>



Using high-quality drone footage, scientists were able to observe striped marlin behavior in never-before-seen detail. They discovered a remarkable phenomenon: the stripes on the marlin's body lightened dramatically during an attack on prey, then returned to normal afterward.&nbsp;



This change in brightness wasn't observed in marlin that weren't hunting, suggesting it might be a way for them to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-disrupts-communication-among-animals/">communicate</a> with each other during the hunt. 



"We found that the attacking marlin 'lit up' and became much brighter than its group-mates as it made its attack before rapidly returning to its 'non-bright' coloration after its attack ended," explained Alicia Burns from Humboldt University of Berlin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basis-of-the-color-change-nbsp">Basis of the color change&nbsp;</h2>



Striped marlin can change colors due to a few special cells in their skin called iridophores. These cells contain crystals that reflect light, allowing the marlin to go from a blue-gray to showing bold stripes.&nbsp;



This strategic color change happens mainly when striped marlin hunt in groups, and it serves several purposes. First, it helps them communicate with each other. By making their stripes brighter just before attacking, marlin signal that they're going in, which helps organize the hunt and prevent them from bumping into each other. 



Furthermore, the color change might keep other marlin away from their prey. This would be important when there are many predators competing for the same food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marlins-with-bolder-stripes">Marlins with bolder stripes</h2>



The study also suggests the color change might confuse the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-waters-have-an-unexpected-impact-on-fish-size/">fish</a> that are being hunted. The sudden appearance of bold stripes could make it harder for the fish to escape together. This idea is supported by the fact that marlin attacking schools of fish underwent significantly greater color change compared to marlin that were attacking individuals. 



"Color change is widespread in animals, often multi-functional, and is likely to be more common in predators than is commonly reported," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"When groups of marlin make high speed, sequential attacks on the same prey target, they dynamically change color in relation to the timing of their attack. Thus, the intensity of marlin’s color contrast appears to be a reliable cue of their intent to attack."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



The researchers are excited to learn more about how and why marlins change color. They have several questions they want to answer, such as:



Do marlins change color in other situations? The experts wonder if the rapid color changes seen during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/">group hunting</a> also happen when marlins hunt alone. This would help them understand if this is a general skill or specific to group dynamics.



Do other predatory fish use similar tactics? This question looks beyond marlins to see if their strategy is unique or if other predatory fish use similar color-changing tactics to hunt.&nbsp;



"We already have footage of hunting behavior of sailfish and mahi mahi where we have seen even more pronounced and more variable color change than in the marlin," explained Dr Burns.



By answering such questions, the experts hope to understand the full purpose of the flashing stripes. This could reveal a lot about how predators and prey interact in the ocean and how marlins have evolved to be such successful hunters.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.12.040" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Striped marlin use a quick color change to signal an attack

Striped marlin, some of the ocean's fastest and fiercest predators,...

A team of researchers has recently discovered that humans across various societies exhibit a strong inclination towards perceiving and generating rhythms based on simple integer ratios, such as the uniform beat pattern of a 1:1:1 ratio.&nbsp;



Yet, what's truly fascinating about the study, which spanned 15 countries and included 39 diverse groups of participants, is the discovery that while there exists a universal predisposition towards certain rhythmic structures, the specific preferences for these ratios can significantly differ across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-in-all-cultures-offer-small-acts-of-kindness-to-strangers/">cultures</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-nature-of-rhythm-perception-nbsp">Cultural nature of rhythm perception&nbsp;</h2>



This research, which is among the most comprehensive of its kind, offers profound insights into the nature of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-as-a-pain-reliever-the-power-of-your-playlist/">music</a> perception and cognition, suggesting both universal and culturally distinct elements.



“Our study provides the clearest evidence yet for some degree of universality in music perception and cognition, in the sense that every single group of participants that was tested exhibits biases for integer ratios. It also provides a glimpse of the variation that can occur across cultures, which can be quite substantial,” said study lead author Nori Jacoby, a former <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> postdoctoral fellow and now a researcher at the <a href="https://www.aesthetics.mpg.de/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics</a>.&nbsp;



This statement highlights the study's dual contribution to our understanding of music perception. It confirms a universal bias while also highlighting the rich tapestry of cultural diversity in musical rhythm preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-representation-of-rhythm">Mental representation of rhythm </h2>



The researchers suggest that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/">brain</a>’s bias towards simple integer ratios might serve as an inherent error-correction mechanism, facilitating the preservation and consistent transmission of musical knowledge across human societies.&nbsp;



“When people produce music, they often make small mistakes. Our results are consistent with the idea that our mental representation is somewhat robust to those mistakes, but it is robust in a way that pushes us toward our preexisting ideas of the structures that should be found in music,” explained study senior author Josh McDermott, an associate professor of brain and cognitive sciences at MIT.&nbsp;



This hypothesis offers a fascinating glimpse into how our cognitive processes might be shaping and preserving the musical traditions that are pivotal to human culture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perceiving-different-rhythms">Perceiving different rhythms </h2>



Building upon their 2017 comparative analysis between American listeners and the Tsimane’ society in Bolivia, this new research vastly expands the geographical and cultural scope of the investigation.&nbsp;



The inclusion of 39 groups from diverse backgrounds, ranging from North America to Asia, and from traditional societies to modern urban populations, marks this study as unprecedented in its scale and ambition. Through a rigorous experimental procedure, wherein participants were asked to replicate and refine a series of beats, the researchers were able to map out the implicit rhythmic biases, or priors, that individuals brought to the task.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preferences-for-different-rhythmic-structures">Preferences for different rhythmic structures</h2>



Despite the universal inclination towards simple rhythmic ratios, the study revealed considerable cross-cultural variation in the specific ratios preferred. For example, while North American and Western European participants exhibited biases that align closely with those commonly found in Western music, groups from Turkey, Mali, Bulgaria, and Botswana showed preferences for different rhythmic structures.&nbsp;



This variation emphasizes the influence of cultural context on musical perception and underscores the complexity of mapping the global landscape of rhythm cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-human-musical-diversity-nbsp">Capturing human musical diversity&nbsp;</h2>



The research team's global approach also highlights a critical methodological insight for the field of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-promotes-social-development-in-infants/">music cognition</a>: the importance of diversifying the populations studied. 



“What’s very clear from the paper is that if you just look at the results from undergraduate students around the world, you vastly underestimate the diversity that you see otherwise,” said Jacoby. This realization underscores the necessity of conducting research within a broad range of communities to capture the full extent of human musical diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



In conclusion, this landmark study not only elucidates the universal aspects of rhythm perception but also opens up avenues for further exploration into the cultural nuances that define our musical experiences.&nbsp;



As the researchers plan to extend their investigation into other aspects of music cognition, the insights gained from this study serve as a foundation for understanding the intricate interplay between our cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-biases/">biases</a> and the cultural contexts in which they manifest.&nbsp;



McDermott’s emphasis on the need for global, community-based research approaches reinforces the importance of inclusivity and diversity in uncovering the richness of human music perception and cognition.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01800-9">Nature Human Behavior</a>.



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Experts find cultural differences in how we interpret rhythm

A team of researchers has recently discovered that humans across...

In a world increasingly concerned with the effects of climate change, researchers are tirelessly working to understand the various factors that contribute to our planet's warming. Among these, methane - a potent greenhouse gas - has come under scrutiny for its role in accelerating climate change. 



A recent discovery by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/">University of Copenhagen</a> has shed new light on sources of methane production, challenging existing beliefs and prompting a reevaluation of our understanding of carbon cycling in glaciated regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-discovery-in-canadian-glaciers">Unexpected discovery in Canadian glaciers</h2>



Sarah Elise Sapper, a PhD student in the University of Copenhagen’s Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, embarked on her first field expedition to the rugged terrains of northwestern Canada. 



Amidst the steep Yukon mountainsides, Sapper and her team made a surprising discovery in the meltwater of three Canadian mountain glaciers. Contrary to the prevailing belief that glacial methane emissions necessitate large ice masses, the measurements revealed methane concentrations up to 250 times higher than those found in our atmosphere. 



"We expected to find low values in the meltwater because it is believed that glacial methane emissions require larger ice masses such as vast ice sheets. But the result was quite the opposite," explained Sapper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-previously-unknown-sources-of-methane-production">Previously unknown sources of methane production </h2>



This unexpected finding indicates the presence of previously unknown sources of methane beneath the ice, suggesting that methane production and release under glaciers may be more widespread than previously thought. 



Professor Jesper Riis Christiansen, co-author of the research article, highlights the significance of this discovery: "When we suddenly see that even mountain glaciers, which are small in comparison with an ice sheet, are able to form and emit methane, it expands our basic understanding of carbon cycling in extreme environments on the planet."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-methane-production">New perspective on methane production </h2>



The research team hypothesizes that methane production is biological, occurring when microorganisms decompose organic carbon sources in the absence of oxygen. This challenges the conventional view that such processes could only occur under large ice masses like the Greenland Ice Sheet. 



The meltwater, initially rich in oxygen, somehow loses all its oxygen as it travels to the bottom of the glacier, creating anoxic conditions conducive to methane production by microbes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-uncertain-climate-future">An uncertain climate future</h2>



These findings not only introduce new variables into the equation of global methane emissions but also underscore the complexity of predicting the climate's future. 



Although the contribution of methane from glaciated regions to overall atmospheric methane levels is not yet causing concern, Jesper Riis Christiansen urges vigilance. 



"There's too much that we don't know, and the melting glaciers expose unknown environments that have remained hidden for thousands of years. In reality, no one knows how emissions will behave," said Christiansen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-mysteries-of-methane">Unraveling the mysteries of methane </h2>



This discovery opens up new avenues for research, aiming to better understand methane's behavior beneath glaciers and its implications for global warming. It may also inform strategies to mitigate methane emissions, such as promoting the oxidation of methane in the atmosphere.



Sapper's pioneering expedition, supported by EU funds through the INTERACT network, is a testament to the value of independent fieldwork in advancing our understanding of environmental science. Her work not only contributes to the body of knowledge on methane emissions but also serves as an inspiration for other young researchers to pursue their own explorations.



As the scientific community continues to unravel the mysteries of methane production and its role in climate change, it's clear that the findings from these mountain glaciers are just the beginning. 



With each discovery, we edge closer to a more comprehensive understanding of our planet's complex and interwoven systems, holding the promise of developing more effective strategies to combat climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-methane-production-and-climate-change">More about methane production and climate change</h2>



As discussed above, methane (CH4) stands as a potent greenhouse gas, contributing significantly to global warming. Unlike carbon dioxide (CO2), which often garners more attention, methane is far more effective at trapping heat in the atmosphere, despite its relatively shorter atmospheric lifetime. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources-of-methane-emission">Sources of methane emission</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-sources">Natural Sources</h4>



Methane production occurs both naturally and through human activities. Wetlands are the largest natural source, where bacteria produce methane during the decomposition of organic material in oxygen-free environments. 



Other natural sources include termites, oceans, and hydrates -- methane trapped in icy structures under the ocean floor and permafrost.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anthropogenic-sources">Anthropogenic Sources</h4>



Human activities have significantly increased methane emissions. The primary sources include:



<ul>
<li>Agriculture: Livestock, especially ruminants such as cows and sheep, produce methane during digestion through a process known as enteric fermentation. Rice paddies also emit methane due to the anaerobic conditions of waterlogged fields. </li>



<li>Fossil Fuel Sector: Methane leaks during the extraction, processing, and transportation of oil and natural gas. Coal mines are also notable sources. </li>



<li>Waste Management: Landfills produce methane as organic waste decomposes anaerobically.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-s-role-in-climate-change">Methane's role in climate change</h3>



Methane is over 25 times more effective than CO2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere over a 100-year period. Its release from both natural and anthropogenic sources has a significant impact on global warming. 



Methane's high global warming potential is particularly concerning given the current rates of emission and the push towards natural gas as a "cleaner" energy source.



The interaction between methane and other atmospheric components can also amplify warming. For instance, methane contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone, a potent greenhouse gas and component of smog, further exacerbating climate change impacts.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigation-efforts">Mitigation efforts</h3>



Reducing methane emissions is crucial in the fight against climate change. Efforts include:



<ul>
<li>Agricultural Practices: Adopting diets that reduce the reliance on ruminant meat, improving livestock feed to reduce enteric fermentation, and employing rice paddies management techniques that minimize methane production. </li>



<li>Energy Sector Reforms: Implementing technologies to capture methane leaks from oil and natural gas infrastructure, and reducing reliance on fossil fuels in favor of renewable energy sources. </li>



<li>Waste Management Solutions: Capturing methane from landfills and wastewater treatment plants to use as a biogas, and promoting recycling and composting to reduce the amount of organic waste in landfills.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-study">Implications and future study</h3>



In summary, methane production plays a significant role in global warming, with its impact felt across natural ecosystems and human societies. 



Addressing methane emissions is a critical step towards mitigating climate change, requiring coordinated efforts across sectors and countries. 



By understanding methane's sources and impacts, societies can implement effective strategies to reduce emissions and protect the planet for future generations.



The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15230430.2023.2284456">Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research</a>.



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New sources of global methane gas production discovered

In a world increasingly concerned with the effects of climate...

Early,Universe.,Hubble,Image.,Cluster,Of,Galaxies,,Dark,Matter,,Dark

Scientists have captured the first complete spectra of some of the earliest starlight illuminating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-what-powered-the-reionization-of-the-universe/">universe</a>, emanating from "cosmic lighthouses." 



This remarkable achievement, using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), offers unprecedented clarity on the characteristics of very low-mass, <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/cosmic-lighthouses_earliest-light-universe_JWST_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">newly formed galaxies</a> that emerged less than a billion years following the Big Bang. 



The research was conducted by an international team of researchers, including astrophysicists from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-time-of-transformation">A time of transformation </h2>



The spectra obtained through the study provide a window into the universe's reionization period -- a pivotal phase marked by the emergence of the first stars and galaxies. 



Joel Leja, an assistant professor of astronomy and astrophysics at Penn State and a contributing author to the study, explains the significance of this era. Initially, the universe was a dense fog of hydrogen and helium nuclei. 



Over time, as the universe expanded and cooled, these particles began to combine, forming neutral hydrogen. 



However, between 500 and 900 million years after the Big Bang, this neutral hydrogen started to ionize once more, leading to the formation of stars and galaxies and dispersing the primordial fog, thus allowing light to travel freely through space for the first time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-lighthouses">Cosmic lighthouses</h2>



Leja describes this transformative period as one where "cosmic lighthouses" began emitting high-energy photons, clearing the fog of neutral hydrogen and reionizing the universe. 



The study suggests that small, low-mass galaxies were likely responsible for this significant shift, with their young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stellar-cannibalism-scientists-find-the-remnants-of-devoured-stars/">stars</a> emitting the energy needed to heat and ionize the surrounding primordial gas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-galaxies-in-the-early-universe">Observing galaxies in the early universe </h2>



The research further benefits from the JWST's sensitivity and the gravitational lensing effect of the Abell 2744 cluster, which magnifies the light from distant galaxies. 



This unique combination has made it possible to observe small galaxies from the universe's infancy, revealing that they outnumber larger galaxies by a significant margin during the reionization epoch. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-surprising-role-of-diminutive-galaxies">The surprising role of diminutive galaxies </h2>



Hakim Atek, an astrophysicist at Sorbonne University and the lead author of the study, emphasizes the surprising finding that these diminutive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/">galaxies</a> produced ionizing photons at a rate four times higher than previously assumed for distant galaxies. This suggests that their contribution to the universe's reionization was far more significant than anticipated.



The Penn State team, leading the modeling for the UNCOVER survey, analyzed the light from these distant galaxies to understand their properties, masses, and distances. This analysis informed subsequent JWST observations that confirmed the pivotal role of low-mass galaxies in cosmic reionization. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources-of-reionization">Sources of reionization</h2>



Previously, the scientific community had considered several potential sources for this reionization, including supermassive black holes and larger galaxies. However, the new findings provide clear evidence that low-mass galaxies were central to this process.



Looking forward, the researchers aim to expand their study to ensure that their observations are representative of the broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/">universe</a>. Their work not only sheds light on the early stages of star formation and galaxy emergence from primordial gas but also on the evolution of the cosmos into the complex universe we observe today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07043-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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'Cosmic lighthouses' emanated the earliest starlight in the universe

Scientists have captured the first complete spectra of some of...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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