Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Evening,View,Of,The,Industrial,Landscape,Of,The,City,With

The Met Office in Britain, in its recent announcement, has raised significant concerns about 2024 and the escalating levels of CO2 in the atmosphere.



The forecast predicts that in 2024, the increase in carbon dioxide levels will surpass critical trajectories, crucial for limiting global warming to 1.5°C.



The assertion from researchers is stark: only "drastic" reductions in emissions can retain this target within achievable bounds.



 “This year’s estimated rise in atmospheric carbon-dioxide concentration is well above all three 1.5°C-compatible scenarios highlighted in the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/">IPCC report</a>," said <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/people/richard-betts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Richard Betts</a>, the Met Office author of the CO2 forecast.



"Even when we compensate for the temporary effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mountains-impact-el-nino-winters-and-snowfall-amounts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a>, we find that human-induced emissions would still cause the CO2 rise in 2024 to be on the absolute limits of compliance with the 1.5°C pathways," Betts added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-paris-agreement-s-goal-is-slipping-away">The Paris Agreement's goal is slipping away</h2>



A key driver of this anticipated rise is the dual impact of escalating emissions from fossil fuels and deforestation. 



Compounding this effect in 2024 is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forecasters-warn-of-weather-chaos-as-el-nino-arrives-early/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a> weather pattern, known to diminish the carbon-absorbing capacity of tropical forests. 



Consequently, the <a href="https://gml.noaa.gov/obop/mlo/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mauna Loa Observatory</a> in Hawaii anticipates a "relatively large" surge in annual average CO2 concentrations, estimating an increase of approximately 2.84 parts per million (ppm) from the previous year.



This increase is likely to steer the world away from the main pathways outlined by the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>) for maintaining global warming within 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. 



This goal, set by the 2015 Paris Agreement, is becoming increasingly difficult to achieve. 



“The atmospheric CO2 rise has accelerated over the last six decades. If global warming is to stay below 1.5°C, the rate of build-up of CO2 in the atmosphere would need to slow substantially in the coming years, and halt altogether before mid-century. The forecast for 2024 CO2 levels does not show such a slowing," Betts explained further.



He further noted that while technically possible, meeting this target requires immediate and significant emission reductions, a scenario not currently reflected in the IPCC's projections.



The impending risk is clear: the world is inching closer to witnessing individual years where warming exceeds 1.5°C. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surge-in-2024-atmospheric-co2-levels">Surge in 2024 atmospheric CO2 levels</h2>



Although such instances would not constitute a direct breach of the Paris Agreement, which averages these figures over two decades, they are a stark reminder of the escalating climate crisis. 



The IPCC has already warned that, should emissions continue unabated, the 1.5°C threshold could be surpassed in the early 2030s. 



"We're not seeing any signs of avoiding that in terms of the buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere," Betts added.



The <a href="https://wmo.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Meteorological Organization</a> confirmed last week that 2023 was the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-of-2023-likely-exceeds-that-of-the-last-100000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warmest year on record</a>, with an average global temperature of 1.45C above pre-industrial levels. 



The emerging El Niño climate pattern, which began in mid-2023, is expected to further exacerbate this trend. 



El Niño typically results in hotter, drier conditions in tropical forests and peatlands, impairing their ability to sequester carbon. 



Normally, ecosystems and ocean absorption offset about half of humanity's emissions, but El Niño's presence weakens this natural mitigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-emissions-reductions-required">Urgent emissions reductions required</h2>



Regions like the Amazon, already grappling with severe drought, heat, and fires, are of particular concern. 



To maintain the 1.5°C limit, UN experts have estimated that emissions need to be cut nearly in half this decade. However, carbon pollution continues to rise.



Monitoring at Mauna Loa, ongoing since 1958, reveals a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/annual-CO2-concentration-change_graph_Met-Office_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consistently upward trend in CO2 levels</a>. 



To forecast this year's concentrations, the Met Office utilized emissions data alongside observations and predictions of ocean surface temperatures in the equatorial east Pacific, an El Niño indicator. 



Betts emphasized that even without El Niño's impact, the projected CO2 accumulation would be at the "very, very upper limit of consistency" with the IPCC's 1.5°C scenarios.



In summary, these findings underscore the urgency for "urgent emissions cuts," as emphasized by Betts. While multiple pathways exist to maintain the 1.5°C limit, all require immediate and significant action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 



The current situation highlights a critical juncture in the fight against climate change, where decisive and collective action is paramount.



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Met Office: 2024 CO2 levels will surpass the point of no return

The Met Office in Britain, in its recent announcement, has...

A new study led by Dr. Cristiane Duarte of <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> has revealed a significant insight into mental health issues. The research team found that supportive relationships with adults during childhood can significantly mitigate the risks of depression and anxiety in adulthood, even in the face of adverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adverse-childhood-experiences-lead-to-lifelong-health-consequences/">childhood</a> experiences. 



"For kids, an extremely important resilience factor is a warm, nurturing relationship with a parent, caregiver, or other adult," said lead author Dr. Sara VanBronkhorst. "Our study demonstrates that children who have at least one positive, committed adult-child relationship are less likely to experience depression, anxiety and perceived stress later in life."



This finding is crucial as it underlines the protective role these relationships play against long-term mental health issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The experts targeted a critical research gap by focusing on marginalized and minoritized youth, who often face multiple adversities. To better understand resilience factors, the team used data from the Boricua Youth Study, which tracked three generations of Puerto Rican families over 20 years.&nbsp;



The team looked at adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) at three points during childhood. These experiences include physical or emotional abuse; household violence; neglect; and caregiver mental illness, death, or incarceration.



The researchers measured seven sociocultural factors associated with resilience, which included social relationships (maternal warmth and friendships). They also measured the following mental health outcomes during young adulthood: generalized anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, substance use disorder, and perceived stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-findings">Key findings</h2>



The analysis revealed that positive social relationships, specifically non-peer relationships, were linked to lower instances of mental health issues in adulthood.&nbsp;



This finding is pivotal, suggesting that the presence of at least one positive adult-child relationship can significantly reduce the likelihood of these mental health issues later in life.



The study also uncovered some unexpected results regarding religion. Contrary to common belief, high levels of family devoutness were associated with increased perceived stress among young adults who had experienced high ACEs.&nbsp;



"With factors such as religiosity, the story may be more nuanced," said Dr. VanBronkhorst. "One explanation for this unexpected finding could be that religious families may experience higher levels of shame and guilt related to ACEs, such as parental substance use or incarceration."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resilience-factors-nbsp">Resilience factors&nbsp;</h2>



Furthermore, the study authors noted that while certain resilience factors were associated with reduced stress and mental health disorders, none were linked to a decrease in substance use disorders. This observation highlights the complexity of mental health and the necessity for multifaceted approaches to prevention and intervention.



Dr. Duarte emphasized the need to expand our understanding of resilience, suggesting future studies should explore the impact of factors like financial resources, racism, and social equity.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. VanBronkhorst, who also works as a child and adolescent psychiatrist, sees firsthand the challenges families face in forming these protective relationships.&nbsp;



"The parents I work with see their kids struggling, they want to form these positive relationships, but so much gets in the way," said Dr. VanBronkhorst.



"We should be helping them with parenting classes and family therapy; we can educate teachers and community members. But we should also be looking at larger, structural, interventions that could reduce the experiences of adversities and the causes of stress that interfere with adults forming bonds that can buffer children from stress."



"In this study we wanted to acknowledge that resilience cannot be reduced to individual attributes that one may be born with," added Dr. Duarte. "Resilience is a process. To engage in this process, children and caregivers need access to resources in their environment that foster strong, responsive relationships and meaningful experiences."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.4900" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Psychiatry</a>.



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Supportive adults help protect children from mental health issues 

A new study led by Dr. Cristiane Duarte of Columbia...

Air conditioning systems can significantly reduce the risk of harm from wildfire smoke, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Technology Sydney</a> (UTS).&nbsp;



The researchers found that air conditioning units trap particles from wildfire smoke and reduce our exposure to potentially harmful elements like soluble mercury, sulfate, and nitrate. This revelation adds a new dimension to the understanding of air conditioning beyond its primary function of cooling spaces.



Wildfire smoke, as highlighted by the UTS study, is not just an environmental concern but a significant health hazard. It can exacerbate conditions like asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and heart disease, leading to increased hospitalizations and even fatalities.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-wildfires">Increasing wildfires</h2>



The study’s insights are particularly relevant in the wake of increasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canadian-wildfires-of-2023-were-a-global-environmental-setback/">wildfires</a> globally, which have been a source of major air pollution.



“The wildfires that raged across Australia during the 2019–2020 ‘Black Summer’ produced an enormous amount of air pollution, with plumes of smoke traveling long distances and cloaking Sydney and surrounding areas,” said study lead author and PhD candidate Raissa Gill.



“We wanted to find out more about what was in the wildfire smoke we were breathing. By using commercial air conditioning filters, we were able to capture and analyze the chemical composition of particles that would otherwise have been inhaled."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The team used commercial air conditioning filters to collect and analyze the chemical composition of airborne particles during the wildfires. Filters from UTS Buildings 4 and 7 served as the primary source for sample collection.&nbsp;



The results showed that particulate matter concentrations were 2–3 times higher than normal, with spikes reaching 10.5 times the usual maximum. These levels exceeded national standards on 19% of the days across the four-month sampling period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-aerosols-nbsp">Wildfire aerosols&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-author Professor Martina Doblin noted significant differences in the physical and chemical properties of wildfire aerosols compared to typical urban aerosols.&nbsp;



“Wildfire aerosols contained much smaller, rounder particles than urban aerosols, making them more likely to be inhaled into our lungs and to transfer toxic elements into our blood stream,” said Professor Doblin. 



“These particles also contained more soluble forms of mercury, as well as higher concentrations of sulfate, nitrate and fluoride ions and metals including manganese, cobalt, and antimony. Mercury is quite toxic even in low concentrations and can cause neurological problems and lung damage.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications">Broader implications</h2>



The study not only highlights the immediate risks posed by wildfire smoke but also emphasizes the long-term environmental and health impacts.&nbsp;



“While air quality in Sydney is usually good by world standards, recent evidence has clearly shown that the handful of days that we get every year with high pollution loads from wildfires and dust storms lead to significant disease and death in the community," said study co-author Professor Fraser Torpy. 



"Studies that build an understanding of these high pollution events are critical in helping us determine what is causing these health crises, and will lead towards a better understanding of how we can protect the vulnerable members of the community that suffer from them."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hvac-systems">HVAC systems</h2>



Interestingly, the researchers found that HVAC systems, though not specifically designed for wildfire smoke, played a significant role in reducing indoor exposure to toxic particles. This was evidenced by the lower concentrations of fine particulate matter indoors compared to outdoors during the Canberra wildfires in 2019-2020.&nbsp;



The study suggests that considering higher-rated HVAC filters during fire seasons, and their regular maintenance and replacement, could be vital in reducing exposure to toxic particles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-future-directions">Challenges and future directions</h2>



Despite these findings, Gill pointed out that many Australian homes and older buildings, which rely on natural ventilation or have inefficient HVAC systems, remain vulnerable to wildfire smoke.&nbsp;



“Australians face significant obstacles in achieving satisfactory air quality during major wildfire events. Many homes and older buildings rely on natural ventilation or have poor HVAC filtration efficiency and gaps that allow smoke to enter. These systems can also be costly and complicated to manage for effective protection during wildfires,” said Gill.



“Given that severe wildfires are projected to increase with climate change, the role of wildfire-ready infrastructure in maintaining public health, as well as the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, is now more pressing than ever."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123306" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Pollution</a>.



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Air conditioning systems trap harmful particles from wildfire smoke 

Air conditioning systems can significantly reduce the risk of harm...

In a discovery that could redefine dietary interventions, experts at the <a href="https://monell.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monell Chemical Senses Center</a> have identified neural pathways specifically linked to cravings for fats and sugars. 



The study not only demystifies the internal mechanisms driving our appetite for unhealthy foods, but also raises important questions about how these cravings may hinder <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegan-diet-improves-heart-health-in-a-matter-of-weeks/">dieting</a> efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-brain-pathways-nbsp">Gut-brain pathways&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers have found distinct gut-brain pathways that are separately activated by fatty and sugary foods. When these pathways combine, they amplify our desire to eat, potentially leading to overconsumption.



Study lead author Dr. Guillaume de Lartigue described this as a "one-two punch" to the brain's reward system. 



"Food is nature's ultimate reinforcer," said Dr. de Lartigue. "But why fats and sugars are particularly appealing has been a puzzle. We've now identified nerve cells in the gut rather than taste cells in the mouth are a key driver. We found that distinct gut-brain pathways are recruited by fats and sugars, explaining why that donut can be so irresistible."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vagus-nerve-system-nbsp">Vagus nerve system&nbsp;</h2>



The study highlights the role of the vagus nerve in transmitting nutritional information from the gut to the brain. This neural communication goes beyond the sensory experience of taste, originating instead in the gut, thereby affecting our eating behavior on a more primal level.



Using cutting-edge technology, the research team was able to directly manipulate neurons in the vagus nerve system of mice.&nbsp;



By stimulating these neurons with light, the experts observed a subsequent dopamine release in the brain's reward center. This approach allowed the team to isolate and identify the separate pathways for fat and sugar cravings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-dieting">Challenges of dieting</h2>



"It's like a one-two punch to the brain's reward system," said Dr. de Lartigue. "Even if the total calories consumed in sugar and fats stays the same, combining fats and sugars leads to significantly more dopamine release and, ultimately, overeating in the mice."



This finding suggests that human brains may be naturally inclined to seek out foods high in both fats and sugars, making conscious efforts to resist these foods more difficult than previously understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond academic interest, opening new avenues for anti-obesity strategies. By targeting and regulating these newly discovered gut-brain reward circuits, there is potential for creating more effective interventions to curb unhealthy eating habits.



"The communication between our gut and brain happens below the level of consciousness," said Dr. de Lartigue. "We may be craving these types of food without even realizing it."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exciting-possibilities-nbsp">Exciting possibilities&nbsp;</h2>



The team predicts that this line of research offers hope for future development of anti-obesity treatments.&nbsp;



"Understanding the wiring diagram of our innate motivation to consume fats and sugars is the first step towards rewiring it," said Dr. de Lartigue. "This research unlocks exciting possibilities for personalized interventions that could help people make healthier choices, even when faced with tempting treats."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2023.12.014">Cell Metabolism</a>.&nbsp;



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Why do some foods seem irresistible? The answer is in your gut

In a discovery that could redefine dietary interventions, experts at...

Recent research has unveiled surprising details about the Megalodon, a colossal shark species that became extinct approximately 3.6 million years ago. Contrary to earlier beliefs, this study reveals that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodon-was-a-truly-vicious-killer-but-not-a-cold-blooded-one/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megalodon</a> was much thinner than previously thought. 



This new understanding significantly alters our perception of Megalodon behavior, its role in ancient ocean ecosystems, and the factors contributing to its extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megalodon-in-popular-culture">Megalodon in popular culture</h2>



In popular culture, notably in sci-fi films like “The Meg” (2018) and “Meg 2: The Trench” (2023), the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodon-shark-was-a-very-slow-swimmer-with-an-enormous-appetite/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megalodon</a> is often depicted as a gargantuan and bulky creature. 



Previous scientific studies, largely based on its teeth and vertebrae fossils, supported this portrayal, estimating the shark's length to range from 50 feet to a staggering 65 feet. 



However, this new study challenges these assumptions and reshapes our understanding of this ancient predator.



“Our team reexamined the fossil record, and discovered the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodon-devoured-huge-prey-up-to-eight-meters-long/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megalodon</a> was more slender and possibly even longer than we thought. Therefore, a better model might be the modern mako shark,” said <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCR</a> biologist and paper first author <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Megalodon-shark_tooth_Douglas-Long_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phillip Sternes</a>.



“It still would have been a formidable predator at the top of the ancient marine food chain, but it would have behaved differently based on this new understanding of its body.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-thinner-megalodon-surmised">A thinner Megalodon surmised</h2>



This revelation suggests that while still a formidable apex predator, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-white-sharks-may-have-sped-up-megalodon-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megalodon</a>'s hunting and feeding behavior might have been different than previously imagined.



The research involved an international team of 26 scientists, co-led by Sternes and Kenshu Shimada, a paleobiology professor at <a href="https://www.depaul.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DePaul University</a>. 



The team's 'eureka moment' occurred when they noticed discrepancies in the estimated body lengths for the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-white-sharks-may-have-sped-up-megalodon-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megalodon</a> specimen. This inconsistency prompted a deeper investigation.



“We measured the whole vertebral skeleton of a living great white shark with a CT scanner and compared that to the previous reconstruction of the Megalodon vertebral column,” Sternes elaborated. 



The findings indicated that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodons-appearance-still-remains-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megalodon</a> was not just a larger version of the modern great white shark.



This revised understanding of the Megalodon's body type has far-reaching implications. 



“The remarkably simple evidence that O. megalodon had a more slender body than the great white shark was hidden in plain sight,” said Kenshu Shimada, a co-leader and the senior author of the new study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-and-ecological-implications">Evolutionary and ecological implications</h2>



This stunning discovery alters our view of not only the giant shark itself, but also its impact on the evolution and ecology of marine ecosystems that have shaped today's oceans. 



A thinner, more <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Megalodon-shark_body-form_graphic_credit-Depaul-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elongated Megalodon body</a> suggests a longer digestive canal, implying enhanced nutrient absorption and potentially less frequent feeding needs.



Sternes added, “With increased ability to digest its food, it could have gone for longer without needing to hunt. This means less predation pressure on other marine creatures.” 



This insight offers a new perspective on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-caused-a-giant-megalodon-tooth-to-split/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megalodon</a>'s ecological role and its interactions with other marine life.



While some scientists believe a natural decrease in prey led to the Megalodon's extinction, Sternes proposes a different theory, influenced by the new understanding of its shape. 



“I believe there were a combination of factors that led to the extinction, but one of them may have been the emergence of the great white shark, which was possibly more agile, making it an even better predator than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodons-grew-larger-in-cold-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megalodon</a>,” he suggested. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifestyle-and-extinction-of-a-thinner-megalodon">Lifestyle and extinction of a thinner Megalodon</h2>



This competitive dynamic might have been a significant factor in the decline and ultimate extinction of a thinner <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodons-feasted-on-sperm-whales-enormous-noses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megalodon</a>.



The international team of researchers from countries including the U.S., UK, Austria, France, Japan, Mexico, Brazil, and Australia agree that this new understanding of the Megalodon necessitates a reevaluation of ancient marine life. 



“Now that we know it was a thinner shark, we need to reinvestigate its lifestyle, how it really lived, and what caused it to die,” Sternes concluded. 



“Despite the major scientific advancement in our new study, the fact that we still don’t know exactly how O. megalodon looked keeps our imagination going,” Shimada said. 



“The continued mystery like this makes paleontology, the study of prehistoric life, a fascinating and exciting scientific field.”



In summary, this study challenges existing beliefs about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-megatooth-sharks-were-apex-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megalodon</a> sharks and proves the need for more research in the future. 



Concurrently, Shimada and Sternes' new research offers exciting opportunities to unravel the mysteries of ancient marine life and its enduring influence on our oceans.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://palaeo-electronica.org/content/2024/5079-megalodon-body-form" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontologia Electronica</a>.



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Megalodon sharks were much thinner than previously believed

Recent research has unveiled surprising details about the Megalodon, a...

Sunset,In,The,Sonoran,Desert,Near,Phoenix,,Arizona

Contrary to the long-held Clausius-Clapeyron relationship, which suggests that a warmer atmosphere should contain more water vapor, a new study finds that atmospheric moisture has not increased as expected, particularly over dry and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deserts-as-carbon-sinks-study-reveals-potential-for-greening-arid-regions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semi-arid regions</a>.



This revelation raises new questions about the future of these regions in the face of climate change.



Recent research spearheaded by the U.S. National Science Foundation's National Center for Atmospheric Research (<a href="https://new.nsf.gov/funding/opportunities/national-center-atmospheric-research-ncar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF NCAR</a>) has revealed a puzzling anomaly in our understanding of climate science. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dry-regions-are-getting-dryer-instead-of-wetter">Dry regions are getting dryer instead of wetter</h2>



The study's results are alarming, as they suggest that dry and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-is-frozen-ground-responding-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semi-arid regions</a> could be more vulnerable to wildfires and extreme heat than previously projected.



“The impacts could be potentially severe,” said NSF NCAR scientist Isla Simpson, lead author of the study. “This is a global problem, and it’s something that is completely unexpected given our climate model results.”



The study, a collaborative effort involving scientists from various esteemed institutions, including <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a>, <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSB</a>, <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>, <a href="https://polarbearsinternational.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polar Bears International</a>, and <a href="https://www.columbia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a>, delved into decades of atmospheric data. 



From 1980 to 2020, the team analyzed data from weather stations, weather balloons, and satellites, expecting to find an increase in atmospheric water vapor in line with climate models. However, the results were contrary to expectations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clausius-clapeyron-relationship-challenged">Clausius-Clapeyron relationship challenged</h2>



The Clausius-Clapeyron relationship has been a fundamental principle in climate science, suggesting that with every 1°C rise in temperature, atmospheric moisture should increase by about 7%. 



Surprisingly, the research found that over dry and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoration-of-drylands-essential-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semi-arid regions</a>, moisture levels have remained constant or even declined, as observed in the Southwestern United States.



“This is contrary to all climate model simulations in which it rises at a rate close to theoretical expectations, even over dry regions,” the authors wrote in the new paper. 



“Given close links between water vapor and wildfire, ecosystem functioning, and temperature extremes, this issue must be resolved in order to provide credible climate projections for dry and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drier-savannas-store-more-soil-carbon-than-previously-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semi-arid regions</a> of the world.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dry-regions-will-face-greater-challenges">Dry regions will face greater challenges</h2>



This discrepancy poses a significant challenge to climate models, which have consistently projected rising atmospheric moisture even over dry regions. 



Simpson, who first noticed this trend while working on a <a href="https://www.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a> report about climate change in the southwestern U.S., emphasizes the urgency of resolving this issue to provide credible climate projections.



“We could be facing even higher risks than what’s been projected for dry and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-driving-forces-behind-greening-in-the-sahara-desert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semi-arid regions</a> like the Southwest, which has already been affected by unprecedented water shortages and extreme wildfire seasons,” Simpson said.



Interestingly, the study found that humid regions exhibit a different pattern. Here, water vapor increased during wetter months as expected, but the increase was not as pronounced during the driest months. 



This pattern contrasts sharply with the arid and semi-arid regions, further complicating the overall understanding of atmospheric moisture dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-possible-explanations">Exploring possible explanations</h2>



The researchers propose several theories to explain these unexpected findings. One possibility is that the transfer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-is-the-main-source-of-rain-in-the-atacama-desert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moisture</a> from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere is not occurring as the models suggest. 



Another theory is that atmospheric circulation patterns may be moving moisture in unexpected ways. Additionally, the land surface itself might be retaining more moisture than anticipated, affecting its availability to the atmosphere.



Despite considering errors in observational data, the team found the discrepancy too consistent across different regions and time frames to be attributed to measurement errors.



Simpson emphasized the urgent need for more research to determine the cause.



“It is a really tricky problem to solve, because we don't have global observations of all the processes that matter to tell us about how water is being transferred from the land surface to the atmosphere," she said.&nbsp; 



"But we absolutely need to figure out what's going wrong because the situation is not what we expected and could have very serious implications for the future.”



In summary, this study opens a new chapter in climate science, challenging existing models and highlighting the complexity of Earth's climate system.



As the researchers continue to explore this surprising anomaly, their work reminds us of the ever-evolving nature of scientific understanding and the critical need for continuous observation and analysis in the face of global climate change.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2302480120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Weather in dry regions isn’t behaving as climate models predict

Contrary to the long-held Clausius-Clapeyron relationship, which suggests that a...

Ovum,Fertilized,By,Sperm,3d,Illustration.,Conception,Of,A,New

The influence of the microbiome on human health has been a subject of increasing interest, particularly its impact on overall well-being. A recent study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.uclahealth.org/departments/urology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Urology at UCLA</a> highlights a less explored aspect of this field: the semen microbiome and its potential role in male fertility.



The team at UCLA embarked on this research to deepen our understanding of how the semen microbiome might affect sperm health and fertility. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-semen-microbiome">Studying the semen microbiome</h2>



This line of inquiry is particularly relevant given the growing recognition of the microbiome's importance in various aspects of human health.



The study's most significant finding involves the microbe Lactobacillus iners. The researchers observed that an increased presence of this microbe correlates with problems in sperm motility, a key factor in male fertility. 



They noted that Lactobacillus iners is known to produce L-lactic acid, which may create a pro-inflammatory environment detrimental to sperm movement.



This revelation is particularly noteworthy as it marks the first time a negative association between this microbe and male-factor fertility has been reported. 



Previous research has largely focused on the vaginal microbiome and its impact on female fertility, making this study a pioneering effort in understanding male-factor fertility issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-semen-microbiome-and-male-infertility">Semen microbiome and male infertility</h2>



Additionally, the research identified three types of bacteria within the Pseudomonas group in patients with varying sperm concentrations. 



Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas stutzeri were more prevalent in patients with abnormal sperm concentrations, whereas Pseudomonas putida was less common in such cases. 



This finding suggests that even closely related microbes can have differing impacts on fertility, either positive or negative.



Vadim Osadchiy, a resident in the Department of Urology at UCLA and the lead author of the study, emphasizes the preliminary nature of these findings. 



He states, "There is much more to explore regarding the microbiome and its connection to male infertility. However, these findings provide valuable insights that can lead us in the right direction for a deeper understanding of this correlation." 



Osadchiy further adds that their research builds upon smaller studies and sets the stage for future, more comprehensive investigations.



In summary, this study advances our understanding of the complex relationship between the semen microbiome and male fertility. 



As researchers continue to unravel these intricate connections, we move closer to developing targeted treatments for infertility, enhancing our capacity to address this critical aspect of human health.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-51686-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Research</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-male-infertility">More about male infertility</h2>



As discussed above, male infertility is an often overlooked yet significant medical issue, affecting a considerable proportion of couples struggling with conceiving. 



It's vital to shed light on this topic, as understanding its causes and treatments can empower men to take proactive steps towards addressing fertility challenges.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prevalence-and-causes">Prevalence and causes</h3>



Infertility affects around 15% of couples globally, and in nearly half of these cases, male factors play a key role. This prevalence underlines the importance of including men in fertility discussions and research.



Several factors can contribute to male infertility. One primary cause is a low sperm count or poor sperm quality, which can stem from genetic issues, lifestyle factors, or medical conditions. 



Varicocele, an enlargement of the veins within the scrotum, is another common cause, affecting sperm production and quality. 



Hormonal imbalances, infections, and certain medical treatments can also impair male fertility.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifestyle-and-semen-microbiome-influences">Lifestyle and semen microbiome influences</h3>



Lifestyle choices significantly impact male fertility. Smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, drug use, and exposure to environmental toxins can negatively affect sperm count and quality. 



Obesity is another crucial factor. It can alter hormone levels and reduce fertility. 



Finally, as discussed above, the health of the semen microbiome can play a pivotal role in male infertility.



Diagnosing male infertility typically involves a physical examination, medical history analysis, and semen analysis. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-and-treatment">Mental health and treatment</h3>



Advanced tests may be conducted if initial evaluations don’t provide clear answers. Treatments for male infertility vary based on the underlying cause. 



They can range from lifestyle changes and medication to surgical interventions. In cases where natural conception is challenging, assisted reproductive technologies (ART) like in vitro fertilization (IVF) or intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) can be effective.



It's important to acknowledge the psychological impact of infertility on men. Dealing with infertility can lead to stress, depression, and anxiety, affecting a man’s self-esteem and relationships. Support and counseling are vital components of managing male infertility.



In summary, male infertility is a complex issue with physical, psychological, and social dimensions. By increasing awareness and understanding of its causes and treatments, we can better support men facing these challenges and improve their chances of successful conception.



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Semen has its own microbiome and it may be the cause of infertility

The influence of the microbiome on human health has been...

Ancient chewing gum has shed light on the diet and eating habits of people living on the west coast of Scandinavia during the Stone Age 10,000 years ago.&nbsp;



A comprehensive study of DNA extracted from the gum reveals a varied diet that included deer, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-humans-stone-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trout</a>, and hazelnuts.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-huseby-klev">Huseby Klev</h2>



The research was centered around Huseby Klev, an island north of modern-day Göteborg. 



The scientists have discovered fascinating details from a time when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-humans-connected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a> were transitioning from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled agricultural societies.&nbsp;



About 9,700 years ago, this site was a bustling camp where people fished, hunted, and gathered food. 



Among these activities, teenagers chewed resin to produce glue, a task complicated by their dietary habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-stone-age-diet">Unraveling the stone age diet</h2>



The chewed resin from Huseby Klev, discovered during an excavation 30 years ago, has been the focus of an international research team.&nbsp;



"There is a richness of DNA sequences in the chewed mastic from Huseby-Klev, and in it we find both the bacteria that we know are related to periodontitis, and DNA from plants and animals that they had chewed before," said Dr. Emrah Kırdök of <a href="https://www.mersin.edu.tr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mersin University</a>.



The research, initiated when Dr. Kırdök was a postdoc at <a href="https://www.su.se/cmlink/stockholm-university" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stockholm University</a>, has evolved significantly. The complexity of identifying different species from the DNA mix presented a challenge.&nbsp;



Dr. Andrés Aravena from Istanbul University spent extensive hours analyzing the data with Dr. Kırdök.



“We had to apply several computational heavy analytical tools to single out the different species and organisms. All the tools we needed were not ready to be applied to ancient DNA; but much of our time was spent on adjusting them so that we could apply them," said Dr. Aravena.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-the-stone-age">Life in the Stone Age</h2>



The study, led by Professor Anders Götherström of the Centre for Palaeogenetics, offers an intimate snapshot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-families-crawled-caves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> during the Stone Age.&nbsp;



The research not only provides concrete evidence of the diet of these ancient Scandinavians but also uncovers some of the health challenges they faced.



The team found that due to a bad case of periodontitis (severe gum infection that can lead to tooth loss and bone loss), one of the teenagers had problems eating the chewy deer-meat, as well as preparing the resin by chewing it.



“This provides a snapshot of the life of a small group of hunter-gatherers on the Scandinavian west coast," said Professor Götherström.



"I think it is amazing, there are other well established methods to work out what nutrition and diet relates to the Stone Age, but here we know that these teenagers were eating deer, trout, and hazelnuts 9,700 years ago on the west coast of Scandinavia, while at least one of them had severe problems with his teeth."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-as-hunter-gatherers">Early humans as hunter-gatherers</h2>



Hunter-gatherers of the Stone Age led a nomadic lifestyle, constantly moving in search of food and resources. 



They hunted wild animals and foraged for plants, fruits, and nuts. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovations-of-stone-age-humans">Innovations of Stone Age humans</h3>



This period saw the development of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-tools-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> and weapons, like spears and bows, which were essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tools-animal-bone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting</a>. 



Moreover, they learned to harness fire, a pivotal skill that provided warmth, protection, and a means to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-humans-stone-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cook food</a>, enhancing its nutritional value.



Stone Age hunter-gatherers lived in small, tight-knit groups. Cooperation and sharing were crucial for survival, leading to strong communal bonds. 



They communicated through developing languages and expressed themselves artistically, as seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-artists-carved-incredibly-detailed-animal-tracks-onto-rocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cave paintings</a> and carvings. 



These artworks offer insights into their beliefs, experiences, and the animals they encountered.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-age-human-heritage">Stone Age human heritage</h3>



The legacy of Stone Age hunter-gatherers is profound. Their adaptive strategies laid the groundwork for agricultural developments. 



Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ochre-used-tool-stone-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> and techniques evolved, setting the stage for future innovations. 



Most importantly, they established the foundations of human social structures and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/middle-stone-age-culture-lasted-20000-years-longer-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural expressions</a> that resonate even in modern societies.



In summary, the hunter-gatherers of the Stone Age, with their resilient and innovative ways, played a pivotal role in human evolution. 



Stone Age humans survived the challenges of their time, while setting in motion the wheels of progress that have shaped human history. Understanding their lives offers invaluable insights into the journey of humankind.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-48762-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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What Stone Age humans ate over 10,000 years ago revealed in new study

Ancient chewing gum has shed light on the diet and...

Recent research has unveiled a concerning trend: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-waters-have-an-unexpected-impact-on-fish-size/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> is stealthily undermining the ocean's capacity to sustain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-may-flip-plankton-into-carbon-emitters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plankton</a>, resulting in the rapid decline of fish populations. 



This revelation is crucial as even minor reductions in plankton, the ocean's primary food source, lead to significant decreases in fish stocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oceans-and-fish-rely-on-phytoplankton">Oceans and fish rely on phytoplankton</h2>



Leading this investigation are <a href="https://www.pml.ac.uk/people/Dr-Angus-Atkinson" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Angus Atkinson</a> from the <a href="https://www.pml.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plymouth Marine Laboratory</a> and <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/sbbs/staff/axelrossberg.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Axel Rossberg</a> of <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University</a> of London. 



Their study illuminates a previously unnoticed amplifying effect within the ocean's food chain. They found that a 16-26% decrease in plankton, as predicted in areas like the North Atlantic, could result in a staggering 38-55% drop in the ocean's capacity to support fish.



This phenomenon is largely attributed to the decline in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-plankton-hold-a-long-record-of-ocean-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> in various latitudes, a result of warmer waters and nutrient insulation from deeper layers. 



Interestingly, while the North Atlantic has seen a decline in plankton over the past 50 years, the impact on fish populations remains uncertain, with models showing varied projections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-research-team-learned">What the research team learned</h2>



Departing from traditional global-scale computer models, the team adopted a unique, data-driven approach. 



By examining the size structure of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-super-swimmers-fueled-the-red-tide-event-of-2020/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plankton</a> and compiling a comprehensive global database, they could better understand how energy is transferred from microscopic phytoplankton to larger fish species.



Contrary to common beliefs, the study reveals that temperature plays a secondary role in disrupting food webs. 



The primary factor is the abundance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/spirals-plankton-indian-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>, which dictates energy transfer efficiency. 



"Our global analysis sheds light on a hidden vulnerability," says Dr Atkinson. "We were surprised to find temperature didn't directly affect food web efficiency. Instead, we see ecosystems adapting to warming by changing plankton size." 



Warmer oceans reduce the nutrient supply from deeper waters, leading to smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/spiral-plankton-off-australian-coast/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> and less efficient energy flow.



Atkinson continued, "This suggests the main threat comes from reduced nutrient supply, leading to smaller plankton, longer food chains, and inefficient foraging." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-ocean-fish-stocks">Implications for ocean fish stocks</h2>



While this finding may seem counterintuitive, Dr. Rossberg explains the broader context, saying, "Close to shore or in lakes, excess nutrients from land can cause imbalances like harmful algal blooms." 



"But at the vast scales relevant to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-biodiversity-could-shift-rapidly-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, it's the lack of nutrients from deeper waters that becomes the major bottleneck," Dr. Rossberg expounded.



This research underscores the need to integrate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-threatens-the-global-fish-supply/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> considerations into fisheries management. 



Dr. Atkinson points out that global averages can obscure significant declines in fish populations, especially in heavily fished areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-action-needed">Urgent action needed</h2>



The study underlines the urgency of factoring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-ocean-fishes-will-get-smaller-as-the-ocean-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> into fisheries management. 



"Global averages can mask the true picture," explains Dr Atkinson. "Some of the most significant projected declines are in areas with concentrated fishing activities." 



Recognizing the urgency, Dr. Rossberg emphasizes a multi-faceted approach for sustainable fisheries in the era of climate change. 



"A combination of data on <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/colorful-phytoplankton-blooms-off-argentina/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plankton</a> size structure and advanced computer models is essential for developing effective, climate-smart ocean protection strategies," he asserts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safeguarding-our-oceans-plankton-and-fish-stocks">Safeguarding our oceans, plankton, and fish stocks</h2>



The study highlights a hidden aspect of climate change, calling for a deeper understanding of the ocean's food webs, namely the importance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hydrothermal-vents-phytoplankton-blooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>. 



By recognizing these hidden amplifiers, we can better protect our oceans and the critical resources they provide, ensuring a sustainable future for marine life.



"We need a combination of data on plankton size structure and sophisticated computer simulation models to design truly 'climate-smart' ocean protection strategies," concludes Dr Rossberg. 



"By understanding the hidden amplifiers within the food web, we can better safeguard the future of our oceans and the vital resources they provide." 



In summary, this eye-opening research by Drs. Atkinson and Rossberg offers a new perspective on the ocean's vulnerability to climate change. 



It paves the way for innovative strategies in marine conservation, emphasizing the importance of understanding the intricate dynamics of oceanic ecosystems in the face of global warming.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-44406-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Our oceans are quickly losing their ability to support fish populations

Recent research has unveiled a concerning trend: climate change is...

A study from <a href="https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monterey Bay Aquarium</a> has shed light on the pivotal role played by southern sea otters in preserving and enhancing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-kelp-forests-existed-32-million-years-ago/">kelp forests</a> of California.&nbsp;



The research offers profound insights into the dynamics between a keystone species and its environment, providing a hopeful narrative in the face of environmental adversities.



According to the study, southern sea otters have prevented the widespread decline of California's kelp forests over the past century. The research was focused on the period from 1910 to 2016.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-century-of-support-from-sea-otters">A century of support from sea otters</h2>



Once on the brink of extinction due to rampant hunting in the 1800s, the southern sea otter has made a remarkable comeback along California's central coast. 



This resurgence has had a big impact on the kelp forests in the region. 



"Our study showed that kelp forests are more extensive and resilient to climate change where sea otters have reoccupied the California coastline during the last century," explained study lead author Teri Nicholson, senior research biologist with the Monterey Bay Aquarium Sea Otter Program.



"Where sea otters are absent, kelp forests have declined dramatically. In fact, we found sea otter population density as the strongest predictor of change in kelp canopy coverage across this hundred-year span."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-climate-trends-nbsp">Understanding climate trends&nbsp;</h2>



Utilizing historical surveys of kelp forests, the researchers performed detailed analyses of canopy extent, biomass, and carbon storage. 



The team accounted for annual variations and differences in survey methods to provide a comprehensive view of the trends over the last century. 



"The use of historical maps provided an important opportunity to help us examine long-term kelp forest trends," said Jess Fujii, scientific and operational leader of the <a href="https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/stories/sea-otter-rescue-and-research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aquarium's Sea Otter Program</a>. 



"This broader view is important for understanding trends related to climate change, and developing effective science-based conservation strategies."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-on-sea-otters-and-kelp-forests">Insights on sea otters and kelp forests</h2>



The study highlighted a significant increase in kelp forest canopy along the central coast, with an estimated 56 percent rise in coverage.&nbsp;



By contrast, the northern and southern regions of California saw decreases of 63 and 52 percent, respectively. Remarkably, the overall decline in the state's kelp canopy was just six percent from 1910 to 2016.



Through machine learning frameworks, the researchers identified sea otter population density as the strongest predictor of change in kelp coverage. 



This finding underscores the otter's role as a keystone species, vital in maintaining the health and balance of kelp ecosystems. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



"Today, extreme heat in the ocean is intense and persistent. Beginning a decade ago, this threat now affects more than half the ocean's surface," said study senior author Kyle Van Houtan, a research scientist at Duke University.



"This is a major problem for kelp forests as chronic temperature stress undermines kelp growth and health. Ecosystems are complex, and to give them their best chance at surviving these extreme changes, they need all their component parts. Sea otters, of course, are hugely influential for Pacific kelp forests. Historical studies like this are a crucial demonstration of this dynamic over the long term."



The study not only reinforces the importance of conserving the southern sea otter but also highlights the potential of nature-based solutions in restoring kelp forests.&nbsp;



Healthy kelp forests provide numerous benefits, such as serving as nursery grounds for fisheries, mitigating coastal erosion, and aiding in carbon storage. 



The reintroduction of sea otters to their historical ranges could be pivotal in reviving these ecosystems along more stretches of the California coast.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000290" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Climate</a>.



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Sea otters have protected kelp forests for a century 

A study from Monterey Bay Aquarium has shed light on...

Fishing,Boat,On,The,North,Sea,Fishes,With,A,Trawl

In an alarming study released today, scientists have focused on a previously overlooked factor in climate change: bottom trawling. 



This fishing practice, which involves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-fleets-hidden-industrial-fishing-activity-exposed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dragging hefty nets</a> across the ocean floor, is not just destructive to marine life and habitats, but also a significant contributor to atmospheric carbon emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bottom-trawling-and-ocean-floor-carbon">Bottom trawling and ocean floor carbon</h2>



The study, conducted by a global team from institutions including <a href="https://www.usu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utah State University</a>, NASA's <a href="https://www.giss.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Institute</a> for Space Studies, and <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/our-programs/pristine-seas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic Pristine Seas</a>, reveals a startling fact.



55%-60% of the carbon dioxide generated by bottom trawling underwater eventually reaches the atmosphere within nine years. 



This revelation is critical as the world grapples with reducing emissions from well-known sources like fossil fuels and deforestation.



“We have long known that dragging heavy fishing nets -- some as large as ten 747 jets -- across the ocean floor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-mountain-range-hawaii/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">destroys sea life</a> and habitats,” said Dr. Trisha Atwood of Utah State University and National Geographic Pristine Seas.&nbsp;



“Only recently, we have discovered that bottom trawling also unleashes plumes of carbon, which otherwise would be safely stored for millennia in the ocean floor," said Atwood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-extent-of-bottom-trawling-emissions">Surprising extent of bottom trawling emissions</h2>



The scale of carbon emissions from bottom trawling is alarming. Annually, it doubles the emissions from the global fishing fleet's fuel combustion, comprising about <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cc0461en/online/sofia/2022/fishing-fleet.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">4 million vessels</a>. 



Atwood explains, "Our study is the very first to show that over half the carbon released by bottom trawling eventually escapes into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide over the span of about ten years, contributing to global warming. Much like destroying forests, scraping up the seafloor causes irreparable harm to the climate, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-havens-shipwreck-sites-provide-a-sanctuary-for-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">society and wildlife</a>."



The study titled "Atmospheric CO2 emissions and ocean acidification from bottom-trawling," employed data and advanced models to track bottom trawling activities globally from 1996 to 2020. 



The <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Santa Barbara</a>, <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a>, <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a> also contributed to this important research.



The findings are a significant leap from <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">previous research</a>, indicating that the carbon dioxide released into the ocean from this practice is comparable to the annual emissions of most countries and similar to those from global aviation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-high-risk-areas">Identifying high risk areas</h2>



Particularly affected regions include the East China Sea, Baltic and North Seas, and the Greenland Sea. There's also concern about Southeast Asia, the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, parts of Europe, and the Gulf of Mexico. 



However, data limitations in these areas hinder a comprehensive understanding of the full impact.



“Right now, countries don’t account for bottom trawling’s significant carbon emissions in their climate action plans,” said Dr. Enric Sala, National Explorer in Residence and Executive Director of Pristine Seas. 



“Our research makes it clear that tackling these and other ocean emissions is critical to slowing the warming of the planet, in addition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-are-ravaging-adriatic-mollusk-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restoring marine life</a>," Sala continued. 



"The good news is that reducing bottom trawling carbon emissions will deliver immediate benefits. The bad news is, delaying action ensures that emissions from trawling will continue seeping into the atmosphere a decade from now.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-calls-for-immediate-action">Implications and calls for immediate action</h2>



Interestingly, the study also examines the fate of the carbon that remains in ocean waters post-trawling. Findings suggest that 40%-45% of this carbon stays in the water, exacerbating local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean acidification</a> and harming plant and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphin-bycatch-from-fishing-activities-is-unsustainable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal life</a>.



“There are more issues with bottom trawling than just the impacts from carbon -- biodiversity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/billions-of-snow-crabs-vanished-due-to-rising-ocean-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainability</a> for instance,” said Gavin A. Schmidt, the Director of the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. 



“But this ‘marine deforestation’ is large enough to be noted and assessed. Hopefully, this can lead to policy efforts that can try to maximize benefits across all of the impacts.”



In summary, this disturbing study highlights the hidden impact of bottom trawling on climate change and calls for immediate policy action to mitigate its effects. 



By addressing this overlooked issue, there is potential for significant strides in both protecting our oceans and combating global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-bottom-trawling">More about bottom trawling</h2>



As discussed above, bottom trawling involves dragging heavy nets across the seafloor, indiscriminately capturing everything in their path and causing untold damage.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanics-of-bottom-trawling">Mechanics of bottom trawling</h3>



Fishermen use bottom trawls to catch a variety of sea creatures. These large nets, weighted down with heavy gear, scrape along the ocean floor, ensnaring fish, plants, and other marine life. 



The method is efficient for mass harvesting but lacks discrimination, capturing both the targeted species and a large amount of bycatch - unwanted sea life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact">Environmental impact</h3>



The environmental impact of bottom trawling is profound. It destroys complex seabed habitats, home to a myriad of creatures, and disrupts ecological balance. 



Coral reefs, which take centuries to form, can be decimated in a matter of minutes. This destruction leads to a loss of biodiversity, with long-term consequences for marine ecosystems and the fisheries that depend on them.



In addition, recent studies, like the one discussed previously in this article, have brought to light an alarming aspect of bottom trawling: its contribution to carbon emissions. 



Disturbing the seabed releases carbon stored in ocean floor sediments, adding significantly to atmospheric CO2 levels. This aspect of bottom trawling contributes to climate change, a threat that extends far beyond the oceans.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-call-for-change">Urgent call for change</h3>



The global community is becoming increasingly aware of the need to address the issue of bottom trawling. 



Conservationists and scientists are calling for stricter regulations, protected marine areas where trawling is banned, and the adoption of more sustainable fishing practices. 



The goal is to balance the needs of the fishing industry with the urgent need to protect and preserve our oceanic environments.



In summary, bottom trawling stands as a critical environmental challenge. It depletes fish stocks and destroys marine habitats while also contributing to the broader issue of climate change by emitting an enormous amount of carbon into the atmosphere.



The time for action is now, to ensure the health and sustainability of our oceans for future generations.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2023.1125137/full">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Common fishing method of bottom trawling harms both the ocean and the climate

In an alarming study released today, scientists have focused on...

The complex puzzle of how one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/free-ranging-cats-are-one-of-the-most-problematic-invasive-species/">species</a> evolves into many has been a subject of fascination and study for evolutionary biologists for decades.&nbsp;



A recent study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> has shed new light on this enigma through an extensive study of Darwin's finches in the Galápagos Islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



Over nearly two decades, the team collected and analyzed data from more than 3,400 individual finches spanning four different species. 



The research has been pivotal in establishing a clear relationship between specific beak traits and the longevity of these birds. The study also offers new insights into the mechanisms of species adaptation and survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptive-radiation-nbsp">Adaptive radiation&nbsp;</h2>



Adaptive radiation is a process where a single species evolves into multiple descendant species, each adapted to a unique environment. While this is a fundamental theory in evolutionary biology, empirical evidence to support this theory has been challenging to obtain.&nbsp;



"The drivers of adaptive radiation have often been conceptualized through the concept of 'adaptive landscapes,' yet formal empirical estimates of adaptive landscapes for natural adaptive radiations have proven elusive," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-darwin-s-finches-nbsp">Darwin's finches&nbsp;</h2>



The McGill team focused on Darwin's finches, a classic example of adaptive radiation.&nbsp;



"Darwin’s finches started to radiate on the Galápagos about 1.5 million years ago; however, radiation of the ground finch (Geospiza) group was more rapid and recent, perhaps starting between 100,000 and 400,000 years ago. The primary phenotypic driver of this radiation at all phylogenetic levels is thought to be variation in beak (and body) size and shape," wrote the study authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beak-traits-nbsp">Beak traits&nbsp;</h2>



For their investigation, the researchers constructed a detailed "fitness landscape." This landscape helped predict an individual finch's longevity based on its beak traits.&nbsp;



"Biological species are diverse in their shape and functions mainly because individual traits, such as beaks, are selected by the environment in which the species are found," explained study lead author Marc-Olivier Beausoleil, a doctoral researcher at McGill.



The experts discovered that finches with beak traits typical of their species enjoyed higher survival rates, whereas those deviating from these traits had lower survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fitness-landscape-nbsp">Fitness landscape&nbsp;</h2>



According to the researchers, the traits of each species correspond to fitness peaks that can be compared to mountains on a topographic map separated from other mountains by valleys of lower fitness.



As a result, "the diversity of life is a product of the radiation of species to specialize on different environments; in the case of Darwin's finches, those environments are different food types," explained Professor Andrew Hendry, who has been a part of the project for more than 20 years.



An intriguing aspect of the study's findings is that the finch species have not yet reached the pinnacle of their fitness "mountains." This observation implies that these species are not perfectly adapted to their respective food types, leaving open the question of whether such perfection in adaptation is attainable.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/evolut/qpad160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution</a>.



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Darwin's finches: How one species becomes many

The complex puzzle of how one species evolves into many...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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