Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Even before babies can smile, they already show signs of recognizing kindness. A recent study reveals that five-day-old newborn can distinguish between helpful and harmful social behavior. They show a preference for the helpful.



“These babies have almost no experience with the social world, and yet they’re already picking up on friendly versus unfriendly interactions, on helping versus hindering," said Dr. Kiley Hamlin of the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>. "That could be telling us something really important about human nature.” 



The study, co-led by Dr. Alessandra Geraci from the <a href="https://www.unict.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Catania</a>, examined how newborns responded to basic social actions like approaching or helping. Their co-authors were Luca Surian and Lucia Gabriella Tina.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-animated-balls-with-meaning">Watching animated balls with meaning</h2>



Researchers showed the newborns looping animations. In one, a ball (Agent A) tried climbing a hill. In one version, a second ball (Agent B) helped push it up and in another, it shoved Agent A down. Infants looked longer at the helping scene.



Another video set showed one ball moving toward another (approach) versus away (avoidance). Again, babies spent more time watching the friendly interaction.



These videos used faceless gray balls. The movements were smooth, repeated, and high contrast. This design suited newborn vision. Control videos had similar motions but lacked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/">social meaning</a>. Babies didn’t show a preference there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-babies-chose-kindness">Babies chose kindness</h2>



What makes this finding powerful is the age of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/singing-to-babies-significantly-improves-their-mood-and-overall-well-being-study-confirms/">infants</a>. Just five days old, they have minimal life experience. The research team ruled out learned behavior by designing scenarios with novel agents and controlled movements. Babies preferred prosocial acts only when the scenes implied social intent.



In&nbsp;Experiment 1, infants watched approach versus avoidance. They preferred approach, but only when both agents appeared socially animated. In the non-social version, where one agent was inert, babies showed no preference.



In&nbsp;Experiment 2, the team tested helping versus hindering on a hill. Babies again looked longer at the helping scene, but only under the social condition.



In&nbsp;Experiment 3, the results replicated. Seventy-eight percent of newborns looked longer at helping interactions. The researchers concluded that newborns show a spontaneous preference for simple forms of prosocial behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-newborns-responded-to-intent">Newborns responded to intent</h2>



Newborns have already shown a preference for faces, eye contact, and crying sounds, but this study goes further. 



The research suggests that newborns can process types of social interaction by recognizing when one agent acts supportively toward another.



The study rules out simple motion as the cause. Babies didn’t respond similarly to random or one-sided movements. They responded to interaction. They noticed when one character acted for or against another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noticing-basic-social-cues">Noticing basic social cues</h2>



The researchers caution that this may not mean newborns have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/online-avatars-sway-our-morals-through-social-influence/">moral sense</a>. Their preferences might reflect social alignment rather than moral judgment. 



For instance, a baby might like characters that move toward others, not because they're “good,” but because they seem socially engaged.



Still, this spontaneous attention to friendly interactions supports the idea that key elements of our moral sense begin early. Not learned, nor taught. It's present from the start.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-babies-spots-kindness-early">Babies spots kindness early</h2>



How do newborns, so inexperienced, process social cues? The answer may lie in the visual brain. Recent neuroscience suggests that parts of the visual system are tuned to social interaction. 



Regions like the extrastriate body area (EBA) and the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) respond to actions like helping or chasing.



These brain systems might allow infants to quickly pick up on social meaning from movement alone. They don’t need language. They don’t even need faces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-may-be-born-kind">Humans may be born kind</h2>



“These findings go significantly beyond past work in lending support to claims that humans are in possession of unlearned mechanisms for detecting and evaluating key features of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-babies-born-with-morals-scientists-think-they-found-out/">sociomoral</a> world,” the authors write.



While it’s still unclear whether these early social preferences are truly moral, the results provide a strong starting point. Even in the first days of life, babies aren’t passive. They’re watching. And they’re rooting for the good guys.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61517-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Babies can recognize kindness just days after birth

Even before babies can smile, they already show signs of...

A fossilized rhino tooth, buried for over 20 million years, is now helping scientists rewrite the history of early rhino evolution. 



Inside the tooth enamel, researchers found something remarkable: preserved proteins that held clues to the animal’s lineage and evolutionary split from other species.



This breakthrough came from scientists at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a>. By analyzing enamel proteins in the tooth, the experts traced key moments in rhino evolution much further back than previously possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-the-rhino-family-tree">Reconstructing the rhino family tree</h2>



The team discovered that this particular rhino diverged from other members of the family <a href="https://www.su.se/english/news/geneticists-map-the-rhinoceros-family-tree-1.568317" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhinocerotidae</a> during a window between 41 and 25 million years ago. This coincides with a time between the Middle Eocene and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/">Oligocene</a> Epochs. 



Even more surprising was that the data revealed that the two main subfamilies of rhinos - Elasmotheriinae and Rhinocerotinae - split later than previously thought.



Instead of parting ways in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-reveal-a-previously-unknown-mass-extinction-event/">Eocene</a>, as earlier bone studies suggested, this separation likely occurred during the Oligocene, between 34 and 22 million years ago.



This new timeline helps scientists better understand how different rhino species emerged, adapted, and survived (or didn’t) through changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rhino-evolution-revealed-in-dna">Rhino evolution revealed in DNA</h2>



Ancient DNA has helped researchers study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cave-art-discovery-depicts-animal-dicynodont-that-went-extinct-280-million-year-ago/">extinct</a> species, but it rarely survives beyond a million years. This fossil tooth changes that. 



The successful recovery of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/enamel-protein">enamel proteins</a> from a sample over 20 million years old extends the timeline for molecular research by a factor of ten.



This is important because it allows scientists to explore evolutionary history through molecular evidence - not just fossil shapes. Well-preserved enamel proteins offer access to valuable genetic information, opening new avenues for discovery.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-analysis-suggests-early-eurasians-were-multiple-species-paranthropus-robustus/">Enamel</a> is the hardest tissue in the body. Its mineral-rich structure protects proteins for millions of years, especially in cold environments where this tooth was found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-the-fossil-tooth-data-pure">Keeping the fossil tooth data pure</h2>



The fossil tooth was found in Canada’s High Arctic - a region where permafrost still dominates. That cold environment played a key role in keeping the proteins intact, but cold alone wasn’t enough.



To make sure the proteins were truly ancient, researchers at the University of York ran tests using a method called chiral amino acid analysis.



This technique helped the team distinguish between original proteins from the rhino’s life and any later contamination. 



By comparing the degraded proteins in this tooth with those from previously studied rhino fossils, they confirmed the material was genuine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-environmental-history-of-the-site">Unique environmental history of the site</h2>



Professor Enrico Cappellini from the University of Copenhagen’s Globe Institute emphasized the significance of the fossil site.



“The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016703721002234" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Haughton Crater</a> may be a truly special place for palaeontology: a biomolecular vault protecting proteins from decay over vast geological timescales,” said Cappellini.



“Its unique environmental history has created a site with exceptional preservation of ancient biomolecules, akin to how certain sites preserve soft tissues. This finding should encourage more paleontological fieldwork in regions around the world."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-further-back-in-time">Exploring further back in time</h2>



Dr. Marc Dickinson, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of York’s Department of Chemistry, was one of the co-authors on the study.



“It is phenomenal that these tools are enabling us to explore further and further back in time. Building on our knowledge of ancient proteins, we can now start asking fascinating new questions about the evolution of ancient life on our planet,” said Dickinson.



The team sees this fossil tooth as more than just an isolated find. It’s a signal that there may be more ancient biomolecules waiting to be studied.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-rhino-evolution">New perspective on rhino evolution </h2>



“Successful analysis of ancient proteins from such an old sample gives a fresh perspective to scientists around the globe who already have incredible fossils in their collections. This important fossil helps us to understand our ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernovae-explosions-seem-to-have-altered-earths-climate-in-the-past-and-could-do-so-again-at-any-time/">past</a>,” said Fazeelah Munir, who analyzed the tooth during her doctoral research at York.



Modern rhinos are threatened by habitat loss, poaching, and climate change. Tracing their evolutionary history reveals how past environmental shifts shaped the species we see today. 



The more we understand what helped ancient rhinos survive - or led to their decline - the better equipped we are to protect the few that remain.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09231-4">Nature</a>.



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Secrets of rhino evolution found in 20-million-year-old tooth

A fossilized rhino tooth, buried for over 20 million years,...

The presence of algal toxins in bowhead whales, a key food source for Native Alaskan communities, points to a disturbing shift in the Arctic. As the Arctic Ocean warms, harmful algae are spreading and moving up the food chain.



A new study confirms what many in northern Alaska have long suspected: the marine life they depend on is changing in ways that threaten their health and food security.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxic-threat-to-arctic-communities">Toxic threat to Arctic communities </h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> were part of a major, multi-institutional study on algal toxins in Arctic ecosystems. 



The findings suggest that warming waters create ideal conditions for these toxins to spread. This threatens the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-clams-have-vanished-from-places-where-they-used-to-thrive/">clams</a>, fish, whales, and other sea life that many subsistence-based communities depend on.



“These are new risks that were previously unknown,” said Kathi Lefebvre, a research scientist at NOAA Fisheries’ Northwest Fisheries Science Center, and lead author of the study. 



“The people in remote communities in northern and western Alaska rely on marine resources for nutritional and cultural well-being. Now we’re finding that these resources are at risk.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-the-effects-of-warming">Recognizing the effects of warming</h2>



Many Native Alaskan communities - some of the most remote in the state - have been noticing these shifts for years.



Raphaela Stimmelmayr, a wildlife veterinarian with the North Slope Borough in Barrow, Alaska, is a co-author on the study.



“Native communities know intimately the ecosystems they rely on and were among the first to recognize the effects of warming,” said Stimmelmayr. 



“It is very difficult to walk away from resources that they need and have relied on since time immemorial."



Stimmelmayr emphasized the need for real-time field tests that can detect toxins in traditional foods before they are consumed. 



Monitoring equipment and fast diagnostics would allow local communities to make informed choices about what’s safe to eat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-life-cycle-of-arctic-algae">The life cycle of Arctic algae</h2>



Scientists at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, including Don Anderson, Bob Pickart, and graduate student Evie Fachon, have been tracking the movement and life cycle of the Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-algae-in-lake-erie-may-be-hiding-toxic-deadly-compounds/">algae</a> responsible for the rising toxic threat.



Their work sheds light on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/">warming waters</a> are unlocking new threats from their hiding places in Arctic seafloor sediments.



“I have shifted a significant portion of my lab’s research focus to the Alaskan Arctic in recent years,” said Anderson. “It is a new frontier in HAB (harmful algal bloom) research, given the rapid warming of waters in the region and the massive scale of the <a href="https://hab.whoi.edu/species/species-by-name/alexandrium/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alexandrium</a> populations we have documented.”



These populations, specifically the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/dinoflagellate" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinoflagellate</a> Alexandrium, are known to produce potent neurotoxins. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-in-the-alaskan-arctic">Algae in the Alaskan Arctic</h2>



The problem is twofold: some blooms arrive from the south, drifting north with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-satellite-is-rewriting-what-we-know-about-ocean-currents/">ocean currents</a>, while others form locally when dormant cysts on the seafloor begin to germinate. That’s where the warming comes in.



“For years, these cysts have remained inactive, essentially preserved by the cold,” Anderson explained. “But as bottom water temperatures periodically warm, we see conditions that allow germination, and that changes the risk landscape dramatically.”



His team found that the world’s largest beds of Alexandrium cysts lie in sediments across the Alaskan Arctic. These build up when blooms from the Bering Sea drift north and settle in places like the Chukchi Sea. 



For years, the icy seafloor kept them dormant. Now, rising temperatures are allowing them to activate and grow.



This local germination is creating a second, homegrown source of toxic algal blooms - intensifying the threat already posed by southern blooms. That dual pressure is putting more strain on marine life and the communities that depend on it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-entire-systems-are-shifting">Entire systems are shifting</h2>



Bob Pickart and his former postdoctoral researcher Peigen Lin studied how ocean circulation and water temperature are contributing to the problem of toxic Arctic algae. Their work shows a clear link between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-temperatures-are-rising-faster-than-expected-and-likely-to-accelerate/">rising temperatures</a> and the presence of toxins in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bowhead-whales-have-changed-their-migration-patterns/">bowhead whales</a>.



“My Arctic research has become increasingly interdisciplinary over the years, including exploring the role of circulation patterns, atmospheric forcing, and water properties in HAB dynamics,” Pickart said.



In other words, this isn’t just about one algae or one animal. It’s about how entire systems - currents, climate, and biology - are shifting, with real-world consequences for the people living closest to the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-arctic-algae-with-science">Fighting Arctic algae with science</h2>



Experts at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution aren't just observing these changes. They are actively involved in finding solutions. 



Don Anderson also leads the U.S. National Office for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/dinoflagellate" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harmful Algal Blooms</a>, which helps coordinate national strategies and responses to HABs. That includes research efforts, outreach, and communication with coastal communities across the country.



This isn’t a challenge with a quick fix. But with scientific insight and direct collaboration with Native Alaskan communities, there’s a growing push to better monitor, understand, and manage the risks of algal toxins in a warming Arctic.



The message is clear: warming oceans aren't a future threat - they are already unleashing toxic risks in the Arctic that are reshaping what coastal populations can safely eat.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09230-5">Nature</a>.



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Whales reveal a toxic threat to Arctic food webs

The presence of algal toxins in bowhead whales, a key...

Hair has a hidden job: helping your skin heal. Normally, skin stem cells focus on repairing wounds, while hair follicle stem cells focus on growing hair. 



But when the skin is injured - and the regular stem cells are damaged or depleted - the hair stem cells switch jobs. They stop making hair and start repairing the skin instead.



This surprising switch, discovered by scientists at <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/">Rockefeller University</a>, isn’t random. It’s driven by stress- and more specifically, a stress response that cells use to ration their energy in tough conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-tells-cells-to-pivot">Stress tells cells to pivot</h2>



The researchers found that a signal called the “integrated stress response,” or ISR, tells <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-hidden-stem-cells-that-could-reactivate-hair-growth/">hair follicle</a> stem cells when to pause hair growth and help repair the skin. This signal kicks in when the cells sense a shortage of a specific nutrient: serine.



Serine, a nonessential amino acid found in meat, grains, and milk, triggers the integrated stress response (ISR) when its levels drop - either due to dietary deficiency or because the body diverts it for other needs.



That causes the hair follicle stem cells (HFSCs) to pull back on hair production. If there's also a skin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stem-cells-can-delay-their-death-to-help-heal-injuries/">injury</a>, the ISR gets even stronger, pushing these cells fully into skin-repair mode.



“Serine deprivation triggers a highly sensitive cellular ‘dial’ that fine-tunes the cell’s fate - toward skin and away from hair,” says Jesse Novak, the study’s first author. “Our findings suggest that we might be able to speed up the healing of skin wounds by manipulating serine levels through diet or medications.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wounds-recruit-hair-helpers">Wounds recruit hair helpers</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-stem-cells-2/">Stem cells</a> are the body’s utility players. They maintain tissues, grow new cells, and repair damage. But how they fuel themselves - especially when conditions change - hasn’t been fully understood.



The team at Rockefeller University studied how HFSCs behave when skin is injured to learn more.



“Most skin wounds that we get are from abrasions, which destroy the upper part of the skin," said Novak. "That area is home to a pool of stem cells that normally takes charge in wound repair. But when these cells are destroyed, it forces hair follicle stem cells to take the lead in repair.”



The researchers saw this as a perfect chance to track how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-metabolism-has-evolved-to-become-energetically-unique/">metabolism</a> affects what stem cells do - and when.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starved-cells-pick-survival">Starved cells pick survival</h2>



Previous research from the same lab showed that precancerous skin cells rely heavily on serine. Taking serine out of the diet could slow or stop their growth. That got scientists wondering: What happens to normal cells if you take away serine?



To find out, they put HFSCs through a series of stress tests. In one set of experiments, mice were fed a diet without serine. In another, the scientists used genetic tools to stop stem cells from making serine on their own.



The results were clear in both cases: when serine is low, the ISR tells HFSCs to put hair growth on hold. The body shifts its priorities.



Then they added another challenge - wounding the skin. The stress response got even stronger. Hair production slowed further, and healing sped up. The ISR seemed to be acting like a control tower, directing traffic during a crisis.



“No one likes to lose hair, but when it comes down to survival in stressful times, repairing the epidermis takes precedence,” said Elaine Fuchs, head of the lab. “A missing patch of hair isn’t a threat to an animal, but an unhealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-protein-in-milk-could-revolutionize-wound-healing/">wound</a> is.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-about-boosting-hair-growth">What about boosting hair growth?</h2>



If cutting back on serine slows hair growth, could a high-serine diet do the opposite? Not really. 



The researchers tried feeding mice six times the normal amount of serine. Their bodies barely noticed - serine levels only increased by about 50 percent. The body seems to regulate it tightly.



Still, there was a small win. “We did see that if we prevented a stem cell from making its own serine and replenished its losses through a high-serine diet, we were able to partially rescue hair regeneration,” Novak said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-stem-cell-research">What's next for stem cell research</h2>



The team now wants to explore whether reducing dietary serine or changing ISR activity through medications could help wounds heal faster. They’re also curious if other amino acids might have similar effects.



“Overall, the ability of stem cells to make cell fate decisions based upon the levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/">stress</a> they experience is likely to have broad implications for how tissues optimize their regenerative capacities in times where resources are scarce,” said Fuchs.



In other words, your cells know when to prioritize survival over style. When food is low and the skin is hurt, hair can wait.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550413125002669?via%3Dihub">Cell Metabolism</a>.



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Stem cells can shift from hair growth to skin healing

Hair has a hidden job: helping your skin heal. Normally,...

Ancient foragers in southern Africa did not settle for whatever stones lay at their feet. New evidence shows they walked, traded, or rafted many miles to secure vividly colored rocks. 



The rocks included red jasper, green chalcedony, and black and white chert, used for knives, scrapers, and spearpoints. These choices reveal both technological savvy and an eye for aesthetic or symbolic appeal.



The research was led by Gregor D. Bader in the Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology at the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/faculties/faculty-of-science/departments/geosciences/work-groups/prehistory-and-archaeological-sciences/ina/early-prehistory-quaternary-ecology/">University of Tübingen</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chasing-colorful-stones-for-tools">Chasing colorful stones for tools</h2>



Together with colleagues at the Senckenberg Center for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment, the team traced the origin of hundreds of stone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-nature-to-knapping-the-surprising-origins-of-stone-tools/">tools</a> from four Eswatini sites dating back as far as 40,000 years.



The study focused on Hlalakahle, Siphiso, Sibebe, and Nkambeni - camps once dotted across grasslands now bordering South Africa and Mozambique. Each yielded blades and flakes of colorful stone for tools unlike the drab local bedrock.



“Artifacts from numerous archaeological sites are kept there,” Bader said, noting that Eswatini’s dense museum collections allowed a landscape-wide view rather than the usual single-site snapshots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-samples-reveal-big-journeys">Tiny samples reveal big journeys</h2>



To match stone tools to the source the team drilled pinhead-sized samples and bombarded them with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neutron-stars-may-hold-the-key-to-understanding-dark-matter/">neutrons</a>. “Although the method is destructive, only tiny sample quantities are required and the results are excellent,” Bader explained.



The resulting gamma rays sketched a geochemical fingerprint as unique as a barcode. When researchers compared those codes with river gravels and outcrops in the Mgwayjza Valley, matches clicked into place.



Human-made blades of green chalcedony and red jasper carried the same elemental signature as rocks lying 12 to 60 miles west, an astonishing gap for groups who roamed on foot. Black and white chert drew from pockets even farther afield.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-routes-across-a-rolling-savanna"><a></a>Routes across a rolling savanna</h2>



How did the stone travel? “We have calculated whether the stones used may have been transported via the local Komati and Mbuluzi rivers,” Bader said.



“However, this could only have happened as far as Hlalakahle, and the other three sites of Siphiso, Sibebe, and Nkambeni are a long way from there.”



The geometry points to people moving, not just rivers. According to Bader, even if the hunter-gatherers took the shortest routes, there are still considerable distances between the rock deposits and the places where the stones were used.



"In addition, an exchange of materials with other early human groups is conceivable," noted Bader. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-color-preferences-changed">Stone color preferences changed</h2>



Chemical matches also revealed a swing in color preference. In the Middle Stone Age, from about 40,000 to 28,000 years ago, toolmakers favored the sleek blacks and whites of chert and the cool greens of chalcedony. 



By the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hitra-man-lived-4000-years-ago-during-late-stone-age/">Later Stone Age</a>, roughly 30,000 to 2,000 years ago, red jasper had become the star.



“Both colors occurred close together in the same valley and in the same river deposits, so we can assume a deliberate selection of different materials at different times,” Bader said. Climate change, group identity, or spiritual meaning may have driven the switch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colorful-stone-tools-hint-at-identity">Colorful stone tools hint at identity</h2>



“Colorful and shiny materials seemed attractive to early humans; they often used them for their tools. We can only speculate as to whether the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-struggles-with-color-metaphors-that-humans-easily-understand/">colors</a> had a symbolic meaning,” Bader noted.



Red, linked to blood or fire, might have signaled vitality; green could have echoed fresh vegetation; black might have denoted endurance. 



Whatever the message, carrying a scarlet-flecked knife or jade-toned scraper would have declared its maker’s reach and taste.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-ancient-journeys-through-color">Tracing ancient journeys through color</h2>



The findings enlarge a picture of Stone Age mobility already hinted at by shell beads ferried inland and ochre mined from distant cliffs. 



Now, thanks to nuclear probes and meticulous museum work, those journeys come into sharper focus. Small bands paced river valleys, traded nodules, and swapped ideas long before roads or herding.



As analytical techniques refine, the team hopes to test adjacent regions and older strata, mapping the spread of color preference across the subcontinent and through time. 



Each geochemical fingerprint adds a waypoint to humanity’s first supply chains and shows that creativity, even then, traveled far on foot. 



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440325001517?via%3Dihub">Journal of Archaeological Studies</a>



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Early humans traveled long distances to find colorful stones for tools

Ancient foragers in southern Africa did not settle for whatever...

New scans of two small predatory dinosaurs reveal a pea-sized wrist bone once thought unique to birds. The research suggests that the engines of flight were revving inside dinosaur arms long before any creature flapped skyward.



The study was led by James Napoli of <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/">Stony Brook University</a> with colleagues at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a> and the <a href="https://mas.ac.mn/en/">Mongolian Academy of Sciences</a>. 



The research overturns earlier claims that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/">theropods</a> lacked a bird-like pisiform and raises the possibility that the path to powered flight was, as the authors put it, “all in the wrist.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-wrist-bone-on-the-move">Dinosaur wrist bone on the move</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-modern-bird-lived-in-antarctica-69-million-years-ago/">Modern birds</a> fold their wings automatically when the elbow bends. The hinge works because a tiny carpal called the pisiform migrated from the edge of the wrist to replace another bone, the ulnare. 



Its new spot lets a V-shaped notch clamp the hand bones and stop them from popping loose during vigorous flapping.



For years, paleontologists assumed non-avian dinosaurs never made that switch. Napoli’s team tested the dogma by CT-scanning an exquisitely preserved troodontid, a quick, velociraptor-like hunter. They also scanned an oviraptorid, a beaked omnivore with a long neck.



Digital slices peeled away surrounding rock, isolating each pebble-sized carpal in three dimensions. The images showed a bead-like bone tucked where the pisiform sits in modern birds.



“We believe this is the first time a migrated pisiform in a non-bird meat-eating dinosaur has been identified,” Napoli said. 



The discovery pushes the joint’s redesign back to Pennaraptora, a diverse branch of feathered theropods that includes velociraptors, troodontids, and oviraptorosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flight-link-to-wrist-evolution">Flight link to wrist evolution</h2>



“While we currently do not know precisely how many times dinosaurs learned to fly, it is intriguing that experimentation with flight in these creatures appears only after the pisiform migrated into the wrist joint,” Napoli explained.



“Therefore, it is possible this established the automated mechanisms found in current living birds, though we would need to test this hypothesis with more research and analysis of dinosaur wrist bones.”



The scientists argue that the pisiform’s relocation was gradual. Early pennaraptorans still carried a small ulnare. Later species lost that bone entirely as the pisiform enlarged and took over its role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gradual-wrist-bone-replacement">Gradual wrist bone replacement</h2>



The replacement mirrors other avian traits - hollow bones, enlarged brains, filamentous feathers - that spread outward through theropod evolution before coalescing into true birds.



According to the authors of the study, the findings make clear that the topological and functional replacement of the ulnare by the pisiform occurred much deeper in theropod history than has been previously understood and was a stepwise process.



“Over the past few decades, our knowledge of theropod <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">dinosaur</a> anatomy and evolution has increased exponentially, much of it revealing that classically ‘avian’ traits such as thin-walled bones, an enlarged brain, and feathers, all characterize more inclusive groups of theropod dinosaurs," noted the researchers.



"Our results suggest that the construction of the avian wrist is no exception and follows topological patterns laid down by the origin of Pennaraptora.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scans-reveals-hidden-features">Scans reveals hidden features</h2>



Identifying the bone took both luck and technology. The fossils - discovered in Mongolia’s Cretaceous rocks - had escaped crushing, so their wrist bones lay undisturbed. 



Micro-CT resolution below 50 microns allowed the researchers to trace delicate sutures, distinguishing the pisiform’s spoon-like head and its telltale notch. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/dinosaur-wrist-bone_Citipati_flight-evolution_credit-Henry-Sharpe_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/dinosaur-wrist-bone_Citipati_flight-evolution_credit-Henry-Sharpe_1s.webp" alt="This is an illustration of an oviraptorid dinosaur called Citipati. The scene depicts Citipati being startled while resting on a sand dune. The creature raises its arms in a threat display, which reveals its wrists, highlighting the small migrated pisiform carpal (blue X-ray view) bone. Credit: Henry S. Sharpe" class="wp-image-1978020"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This is an illustration of an oviraptorid dinosaur called Citipati. The scene depicts Citipati being startled while resting on a sand dune. The creature raises its arms in a threat display, which reveals its wrists, highlighting the small migrated pisiform carpal (blue X-ray view) bone. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Henry S. Sharpe</figcaption></figure>



Without such scans, the structure would look like one of several nubs commonly lumped together as generic carpals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wrist-bone-shaped-evolution">Wrist bone shaped evolution</h2>



Flight appears to have evolved at least twice within Pennaraptora and perhaps as many as five times. If the pisiform swap predates those experiments, it may have primed the limb for aerial feats in separate lineages. 



That echoes convergent “upgrades” seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-mastered-land-before-dominating-the-sky/">pterosaurs</a>, bats, and birds, where wrist and shoulder tweaks unleash new kinematic possibilities.



The finding also casts fresh light on grounded relatives like Velociraptor. Though too heavy to fly, such animals wielded feathered arms for display, brooding, or balance.



A bird-style pisiform would have let them tuck and unfurl their limbs with mechanical efficiency. This hints that the crouched, wing-guarding pose seen in some fossil nests used the same automatic folding action modern roosters employ.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-fossil-finds">Future fossil finds</h2>



Future work will scan additional fossils to see exactly when the pisiform first slid into place. The researchers want to investigate whether the move coincided with feather lengthening or muscle shifts.



They also hope to model forces across the joint to test how much stability the new bone adds during flapping or mantling motions.



For now, the lesson is clear: tiny parts can steer colossal evolutionary leaps. A marble-sized bone drifting a few millimeters may have set the stage for the skies to fill with beating wings. It began inside dinosaur wrists millions of years before the first true birds appeared.



Image credit: Henry Sharpe



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09232-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Flight may have started with a tiny wrist bone from a dinosaur called "Citipati"

New scans of two small predatory dinosaurs reveal a pea-sized...

Humans have limited regenerative abilities compared to some animals. Once sensory hair cells in the inner ear are damaged, hearing and balance often decline for good. Meanwhile, animals like fish, frogs, and chicks use gene-driven repair to easily renew these cells.



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> have discovered how two genes guide this regeneration in zebrafish. This research may shape future work on hearing loss in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-genetic-mutation-dramatically-increases-the-risk-of-dementia-in-men/">humans</a>.



“Mammals such as ourselves cannot regenerate hair cells in the inner ear,” said study co-author Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski. “As we age or are subjected to prolonged noise exposure, we lose our hearing and balance.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-genes-and-hearing-cells">Fish genes and hearing cells </h2>



The study was designed to investigate how zebrafish control cell division during hair cell regeneration. The team, led by Dr. Mark Lush, found two genes that regulate how two support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-regulation-controlling-cells-to-improve-medical-treatments/">cell</a> types divide.



The researchers used single-cell RNA sequencing and lineage tracing to uncover gene activity patterns. This helped them see which genes were responsible for maintaining stem cells and triggering regeneration.



“During normal tissue maintenance and regeneration, cells need to proliferate to replace the cells that are dying or being shed - however, this only works if there are existing cells that can divide to replace them,” said Piotrowski.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-zebrafish-offer-rare-insight">Why zebrafish offer rare insight</h2>



Zebrafish have sensory structures called neuromasts, which contain hair <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-37000-years-of-hidden-human-infections/">cells</a> resembling those in the human inner ear. These neuromasts are distributed in a line from head to tail and help detect water motion.



Because zebrafish larvae are transparent, scientists can observe their cells directly. The team studied how hair cells regrow using imaging, gene editing, and molecular tracing.



“We can manipulate genes and test which ones are important for regeneration,” said Piotrowski. “By understanding how these cells regenerate in zebrafish, we hope to identify why similar regeneration does not occur in mammals and whether it might be possible to encourage this process in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-genes-control-hearing-cell-repair">Two genes control hearing cell repair</h2>



Within neuromasts, two groups of support cells drive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drugs-may-be-available-to-prevent-hearing-loss/">regeneration</a>. Stem cells lie at the edges, while progenitor cells are in the center. The research team discovered two cyclinD genes, each linked to only one cell group.



“When we rendered one of these genes non-functional, only one population stopped dividing,” said Piotrowski. 



“This finding shows that different groups of cells within an organ can be controlled separately, which may help scientists understand cell growth in other tissues, such as the intestine or blood.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncoupling-division-and-differentiation">Uncoupling division and differentiation</h2>



When the progenitor-specific gene was removed, those cells stopped dividing but still turned into hair cells. This meant cell division wasn’t always needed for differentiation. When the stem-cell gene was added to progenitors, their division restarted.



The ability to separate growth from differentiation could have broad biological implications.



The&nbsp;study&nbsp;illustrates this gene-switching in detail, using labeled cell populations and fluorescent markers to track regeneration.



"Our findings have important implications for the understanding of how proliferation of symmetrically dividing stem and progenitor cells is controlled during homeostasis and disease," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-genes-may-help-human-hearing">Fish genes may help human hearing</h2>



Dr. David Raible, a professor at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>, highlighted the significance of the research. 



“This work illuminates an elegant mechanism for maintaining neuromast stem cells while promoting hair cell regeneration. It may help us investigate whether similar processes exist or could be activated in mammals," said Dr. Raible.



CyclinD genes also affect many human tissues, such as the gut, brain, skin, and blood. The findings in zebrafish may offer clues for regenerative therapies beyond hearing.



“Insights from zebrafish hair cell regeneration could eventually inform research on other organs and tissues, both those that naturally regenerate and those that do not,” said Piotrowski.



The study received funding from the <a href="https://www.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIH</a>, the <a href="https://hearinghealthfoundation.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hearing Health Foundation</a>, and the Stowers Institute. The findings reflect the authors' views and not necessarily those of the NIH.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60251-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Fish genes offer clues to reversing human hearing loss

Humans have limited regenerative abilities compared to some animals. Once...

The,Changing,Seas,Of,The,Florida,Keys.,Growing,Corals,And

Sea levels have risen and fallen since Earth first held oceans. Until recently, scientists could only measure these shifts over million-year increments. 



Now, researchers from Utrecht, the UK, and the United States have mapped sea level changes across much shorter timeframes - spanning thousands of years and covering the last 540 million years.



Published in&nbsp;the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters, the study combines paleoclimate data, sediment records, and orbital modeling.



"Taking these rapid sea level variations into account is important for understanding the structure of the subsurface and the applications to green energy resources," said Dr. Douwe van der Meer, guest researcher at <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-sea-level-rise">Measuring sea level rise</h2>



Sea level changes depend on two main factors: plate tectonics and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/land-exposed-by-melting-glaciers-transforms-into-a-greenhouse-gas-emitter/">land ice</a>. Tectonics control the shape of ocean basins. Ice determines how much water fills them. 



Previously, scientists could detect 200-meter (656 feet) swings in sea level over million-year periods using fossil and rock records.



"In time steps of about a million years, you can derive an average sea level for as far back as there are fossils, about 540 million years," said Van der Meer.



"That varied by as much as 200 meters. We suspected that sea level could go up and down enormously in much shorter periods as well, but there is not enough data to make those shorter time steps."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-orbit-affects-sea-level">Earth’s orbit affects sea level</h2>



To track faster <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/a-simple-guide-to-understanding-sea-level-rise/">changes</a>, researchers used a clever method. They matched sediment records with Earth’s orbital cycles, called Milankovitch cycles, that change climate on scales of 20,000 to 400,000 years. These wobbles trigger glacial and interglacial phases, which affect sea levels.



"We see alternations, especially when the global climate is cold, and there is ice on the poles," said Van der Meer. 



"Then, the rhythmic wobbling of Earth's spin axis creates ice ages that last only tens of thousands of years, during which the sea level can go up and down by as much as 100 meters (328 feet)."



This new approach calculated how much ice volume could change due to orbital variations. Then, the researchers estimated how those changes would affect sea level during the last 540 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenhouse-vs-icehouse-worlds">Greenhouse vs. icehouse worlds</h2>



During warm, ice-free periods like the mid-Cretaceous, sea levels stayed relatively stable. In contrast, colder times like the late Carboniferous or modern ice age showed huge sea level swings.



Modeling showed that orbital cycles in the icehouse phases could cause sea levels to shift by over 328 feet within a few thousand years.



During the Permo-Carboniferous, for example, global temperatures may have ranged from 17°C (62.6°F) during interglacials to 10°C (50°F) during glacials. 



Such shifts drove large expansions and retreats of ice sheets, influencing sediment layers and fossil patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-sea-level-rise-helps-planning">Past sea level rise helps planning</h2>



Knowing when and how sea levels changed helps scientists better understand Earth’s climate and geography. These findings can also improve models for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geothermal-energy-is-cheap-and-clean-and-having-its-moment/">geothermal energy</a>, hydrogen storage, and radioactive waste disposal.



"High or low sea levels, it's all happened before in the geological past," said Van der Meer.



Sandstone, laid down during low sea levels, makes a good reservoir for storing gases or heat. Claystone, formed during high sea levels, can seal these reservoirs. Mapping these layers globally can help in safe subsurface use.



"If we know that at a certain time global sea level was high, we also know that a relatively continuous layer of claystone would have been deposited," said Van de Meer.



"We can use that information to create a global layer map of sand and claystone, which helps us in the safe use of the subsurface."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-sea-level-rise-patterns">Ancient sea level rise patterns</h2>



The researchers tested their new model against known sedimentary records. For the Silurian, their orbital-scale sea level variation estimates - around 230 feet - match compiled data from five paleo-continents.



Similar matches appear in Cretaceous and Devonian records, with fluctuations ranging from 50 to 230 feet.



The model shows especially large short-term sea level swings during the late Ordovician, Permo-Carboniferous, and the past few million years. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/earth_sea-level-history_graphic_credit-EPSL_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/earth_sea-level-history_graphic_credit-EPSL_1s.webp" alt="Paleogeographic reconstructions. A) Last Glacial Maximum (∼20 ka), an example of maximum glacial extent, low global mean sea level and more exposed continental shelf. As a result of changing continental ice-cover, glacio-eustasy results in changes in eustasy and flooding of continents. B) Present-Day, as example of an Interglacial with relatively high sea level. Long-term sea level reconstructions do not consider short-term changes in sea level due to orbital-scale variations. Credit: Earth and Planetary Science Letters (2025)" class="wp-image-1978010"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Paleogeographic reconstructions. A) Last Glacial Maximum (∼20 ka), an example of maximum glacial extent, low global mean sea level and more exposed continental shelf. As a result of changing continental ice-cover, glacio-eustasy results in changes in eustasy and flooding of continents. B) Present-Day, as example of an Interglacial with relatively high sea level. Long-term sea level reconstructions do not consider short-term changes in sea level due to orbital-scale variations. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Earth and Planetary Science Letters (2025)</figcaption></figure>



In contrast, during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-rocks-reveal-new-details-about-earths-climate-system/">Jurassic</a> and mid-Cretaceous, the shifts were much smaller, generally under 164 feet.



Some older reconstructions show higher variability, up to 328 feet, even during greenhouse phases. The new study argues that such large estimates may be inflated and not supported by physical models or isotope data.



Instead, this new work provides more grounded estimates using physics-based ice models, stratigraphy, and isotope geochemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-climate-and-geology-research">Future climate and geology research</h2>



This approach can help resolve long-standing questions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/">ancient climates</a>, sedimentary patterns, and biodiversity changes. It also offers new tools for identifying reliable storage sites in the subsurface.



The authors suggest refining the method with non-linear models and more paleoclimate simulations. For now, their work marks a turning point in how we study ancient sea levels.



It is not just about history. It is a guide to understanding our dynamic planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X25003243?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a>.



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New model reveals dramatic swings in Earth's sea levels

Sea levels have risen and fallen since Earth first held...

Butterflies are slipping away from the British countryside. Yet hope may lie in some of its most familiar sights: thorny hedges, pocket-sized woods, even a single oak in the middle of a field.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> and <a href="https://butterfly-conservation.org/">Butterfly Conservation</a> shows that these modest features can lift <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-can-adapt-quickly-but-evolution-has-its-limits/">butterfly</a> numbers in ordinary farmland.



This gives species such as the Speckled Wood and Meadow Brown a fighting chance just as national counts have hit historic lows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-ten-year-countryside-snapshot">A ten-year countryside snapshot</h2>



The research team mined ten years of records from the <a href="https://butterfly-conservation.org/our-work/recording-and-monitoring/wider-countryside-butterfly-survey">Wider Countryside Butterfly Survey</a>, in which volunteers stroll one-kilometer routes around farmland and record every butterfly they see.



Altogether, they analyzed more than a thousand routes scattered across England. They then matched each one to habitat maps that reach three kilometers in every direction.



Wherever hedgerows, groves, or field trees took up more space on that map, the counts rose. The pattern was clearest in arable regions where otherwise tidy fields leave few wild corners.



Dr. Ruth Feber, lead author of the study, pointed out numbers told only part of the story. 



“As well as demonstrating the importance of trees and hedgerows for biodiversity on farmland, our results also highlighted the relatively lower numbers of butterflies on intensively managed grassland compared to arable land," said Dr. Feber.



Those silage pastures, cut and fertilized for maximum yield, now cover more than a quarter of the country. Even small changes in how they are managed could tip the scales for wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmers-want-to-help-and-need-support">Farmers want to help, and need support</h2>



The scientists also spoke with 31 farmers who manage land near the survey squares. Most recognized the upside of hedges and shade trees - from sheltering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/livestock-grazing-is-changing-soil-plants-and-insect-populations/">livestock</a> to soaking up floodwater.



But nearly expressed concern about the cost and commitment of planting, trimming, and replacing them. That tension sits at the heart of the study.



“It is clear that farmers recognize the importance of these crucial habitats," noted Dr. Feber. "But they need to be supported. We need to recognize that these trees and hedgerows provide public goods which benefit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/">wildlife</a> and people."



She noted that agri-environment payments must stretch beyond basic prescriptions and cover the true expense of keeping woody features healthy for decades. Otherwise, good intentions can wither the moment grain prices tighten.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmland-hedges-are-butterfly-highways">Farmland hedges are butterfly highways</h2>



Hedges do more than mark a boundary. Their tangled branches serve as food plants for caterpillars and provide adult butterflies with a buffet of nectar. Thick growth breaks the wind, allowing butterflies to warm up and fly on cooler days. 



Above all, lines of woody cover act as green corridors, guiding insects from one flower-rich patch to another so that no colony becomes isolated.



That highway network is exactly what common butterflies need right now. Fresh figures show that 2024 ranks among the worst years on record. For the first time, more than half of U.K. species have slipped into long-term decline.



“We know that butterflies are in desperate trouble, including our common countryside species. Butterflies are important indicators of wider biodiversity, so actions that help butterflies will also help other declining wildlife,” said Dr. Feber.



“With 70 percent of the U.K.'s land area being farmland, our farmers and landowners play a vital role in helping these species recover, through protecting and restoring hedgerows and trees.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-with-butterflies-in-mind">Farming with butterflies in mind</h2>



Dr. Feber’s group is already probing one promising route. At Northfield Farm near Oxford, cattle are moved daily in a “mob grazing” system that leaves each paddock to regrow for weeks.



“My current project is investigating regenerative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-the-world-without-harming-nature-the-complex-balance-of-farming/">farming</a>, which uses livestock grazing and other practices to help promote soil health and increase soil carbon,” said Dr. Feber. 



“This is receiving increasing attention as an approach to grassland management that might contribute to tackling some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-agriculture-are-locked-in-a-destructive-feedback-loop/">climate impacts of agriculture</a>."



Dr. Feber added that more research is needed on how this may impact biodiversity, particularly above-ground invertebrate groups, such as butterflies, moths, and other pollinators.



Early surveys will track whether butterflies bounce back when lush grass is replaced by more varied, flower-rich swards.



“In this system, areas of land are grazed for a short period of time before the cattle are moved on and the pasture allowed to recover,” Dr. Feber said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-need-better-farmland">Butterflies need better farmland</h2>



The study’s message is disarmingly simple: keep - or better yet, expand - the scruffy, butterfly-friendly edges of Britain’s farmlands. A single thorn hedge or an untidy willow clump can be enough to connect the dots for butterflies.



For farmers, the next step is clear financial backing that rewards the effort year after year. For policymakers, it means seeing hedges and field trees as green infrastructure every bit as vital as roads and drains.



Butterflies respond quickly; give them corridors and they will return. The countryside may look pared to the bone, but its recovery could begin with nothing fancier than a line of hawthorn left to bloom or a young oak allowed to stand. Recognizing that these small gestures stitch life back into the land is the first step.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2688-8319.70042">Ecological Solutions and Evidence</a>.



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Simple farmland features can reverse butterfly declines

Butterflies are slipping away from the British countryside. Yet hope...

In 1960, a young woman walked into the forests of Gombe with a notebook and binoculars. Jane Goodall didn’t have formal scientific training, but she had a question: what are chimpanzees really like? Her observations would change science forever. 



On July 14 of that year, Goodall saw her first chimp using a stick to fish for termites. Until then, tool use was considered uniquely human. Today, we remember that moment with World Chimpanzee Day.



But this day is not just about honoring Jane’s legacy. It’s about recognizing who chimpanzees are and why they matter. They’re not just fascinating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-curiosity-starts-young-and-helps-us-survive/">animals</a>. They are our closest living relatives, and they need our help.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-day-to-focus-on-chimpanzees">A day to focus on chimpanzees </h2>



Chimpanzees don’t just live in the wild. They live full, emotional lives. They use tools, share food, form friendships, and sometimes even hold hands. 



In some places, chimps use leaves like sponges. In others, they sharpen sticks to hunt. Every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/">group</a> has its own habits and culture, passed down through generations.



Chimpanzees care for their young for years. They play, tease, and comfort each other. And when a chimp dies, others mourn. One mother carried her infant’s body for days, unable to let go. 



These aren’t instincts on repeat. These are actions driven by memory, emotion, and thought. The more we watch chimps, the more familiar they feel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-chimpanzees">Threats to chimpanzees </h2>



Despite all this richness, chimpanzees are vanishing. Habitat loss is their biggest enemy. Forests are cleared for farming, roads, and mining. As the trees fall, so do the homes and feeding grounds of chimpanzees. 



Illegal hunting also takes a toll. Some chimps are killed for bushmeat. Others are captured and sold as pets or performers.



Diseases passed from humans spread quickly among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-chimpanzee-mothers-raise-babies-more-successfully/">chimps</a>. Unlike us, they don’t have the immunity to fight back. What feels like a harmless cold to a human can be deadly for them. 



Climate change adds pressure too, shrinking food sources and drying up water. Fewer than 200,000 wild chimpanzees remain, and that number is dropping fast.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jane-goodall-changed-everything">Jane Goodall changed everything</h2>



<a href="https://janegoodall.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jane Goodall</a> broke the rules of science. She named chimps instead of numbering them. She saw personalities, not data points. There was David Greybeard, the first chimp she saw using a tool. There was Flo, a strong mother, and Flint, her emotional son. 



Goodall didn’t just watch - she listened, and that made all the difference. Her compassionate approach lives on through the Jane Goodall Institute and conservation efforts around the world. 



These programs safeguard forests, support education, and empower future generations. Her legacy proves the power of one person who chooses to truly care.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-on-world-chimpanzee-day">Take action on World Chimpanzee Day </h2>



You don’t have to be a scientist to make a difference. Start small - learn something new about chimpanzees. Watch a documentary, share a story, or tell a child that chimps laugh and grieve just like we do. The more we understand them, the harder it becomes to ignore their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-copy-strange-useless-trends-just-like-humans-do/">struggles</a>.



Supporting trusted conservation groups can help protect wild habitats. Speaking out against wildlife trade and unethical animal shows can also help. 



Even simple choices, like avoiding unsustainable palm oil, can reduce pressure on forests. Every action matters, no matter how small it seems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safe-places-new-beginnings">Safe places, new beginnings</h2>



Across Africa, sanctuaries now give rescued chimpanzees a second chance. In Uganda, Ngamba Island houses chimps rescued from illegal trade. 



In Liberia, hundreds of chimps once used in medical research now roam protected river islands. These places do more than provide safety. They offer peace, freedom, and healing.



Many of these chimpanzees arrive fearful and malnourished. With time, they climb again. They play again. They trust again. Sanctuaries remind us that healing is possible - not just for animals, but for the people who help them too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-day-still-matters">Why this day still matters</h2>



World Chimpanzee Day isn’t just a date on the calendar. It’s a moment to stop and remember that chimpanzees are still here - but they’re in danger. 



If we let them disappear, we lose more than animals. We lose their stories, their intelligence, and a part of our own history.



Chimpanzees are more than a species in decline - they’re a reflection of who we are and what we choose to value. World Chimpanzee Day isn’t about sympathy; it’s about connection, respect, and a promise to protect a future we still share.



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World Chimpanzee Day 2025: Protecting our closest relatives

In 1960, a young woman walked into the forests of...

For decades, reptiles - including tortoises - have lingered in the background of animal sentience discussions. Popular imagination often casts them as simple, instinct-driven beings - unfeeling and unaware. 



Unlike mammals and birds, they rarely show overt emotion, leading many to dismiss the idea that reptiles might feel in complex ways. 



But a new study from the <a href="https://www.lincoln.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lincoln</a> has disrupted that belief, offering compelling evidence that red-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria) can experience long-term mood states.



Published in the journal Animal Cognition, the study reveals that tortoises can show optimism and pessimism depending on their environment. These emotional states then shapes their response to the world around them.



The implications are profound. If tortoises can feel mood shifts similar to mammals and birds, we must rethink how they are treated in captivity and reconsider their place in the story of animal consciousness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-moods-mean-in-animals">What moods mean in animals</h2>



Mood and emotion are not the same. Emotions are short-lived responses to immediate situations, like fear when chased or joy at finding food. Moods, on the other hand, linger. 



They form a kind of emotional background noise, influencing how an animal perceives new experiences. Scientists call these “free-floating” states, unattached to specific triggers but powerful in shaping behavior.



In humans and other mammals, we have tested mood using cognitive bias tasks. These tests explore how an individual interprets ambiguous situations. 



Someone in a good mood will expect a positive outcome, while someone in a bad mood will expect the worst. Until now, no study had used this method on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtles-may-hold-the-secret-to-cancer-prevention/">reptiles</a>.



That gap has finally been closed. Researchers at Lincoln tested 15 red-footed tortoises to determine if they could exhibit mood-driven bias. Their approach was clear and controlled, building on established methods from mammal studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tortoises-respond-to-uncertainty">Tortoises respond to uncertainty</h2>



Each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtle-heads-reveal-an-ancient-reptilian-secret/">tortoise</a> was trained in a simple spatial judgment task. A bowl placed in one spot always contained a food reward (rocket leaves). 



The same bowl, placed elsewhere, never had food. Once trained, tortoises were presented with the bowl at three new, in-between locations: one near the positive spot, one in the middle, and one near the negative.



How quickly a tortoise approached the bowl at each of these ambiguous points showed its expectation. Quick approach meant optimism. Hesitation meant doubt or pessimism. 



Every trial was carefully timed, filmed, and structured to avoid smell-based cues or random behavior. The test was fair.



Interestingly, the tortoises judged the near-positive and middle spots more optimistically. They moved faster toward these bowls, showing an “optimistic skew” similar to that seen in mammals and birds. This alone is a strong sign of mood in action. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anxiety-measured-in-action">Anxiety measured in action</h2>



To confirm that mood shaped behavior beyond just one task, the tortoises were also subjected to two classic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-do-fear-and-anxiety-reside-in-the-brain-new-cells-identified/">anxiety</a> tests: the novel object test and the novel environment test. 



These are used widely in animal cognition to assess emotional reactions to unfamiliar situations.



In the novel object test, each tortoise encountered an unusual item, a colorful bead coaster, inside a familiar arena. 



The researchers recorded how long it took the tortoise to approach the object, how far it extended its head, and how quickly it began to move. Confident, relaxed tortoises moved sooner and extended their heads farther.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tortoise-mood-affects-behavior">Tortoise mood affects behavior </h2>



The novel environment test changed the tortoises’ surroundings. Different textures, colors, and patterns created a new sensory world. 



Again, tortoises were watched for how they responded to unfamiliarity. The researchers noted that tortoises who showed optimistic bias in the earlier task also behaved with more confidence in these settings.



For example, tortoises that approached ambiguous bowls faster also reached new objects more quickly. 



Some even extended their heads farther in strange environments, indicating comfort and curiosity. These behavioral links show a deep connection between mood and action.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-reptile-feelings">Rethinking reptile feelings</h2>



The authors of the study interpret these results as remarkable. The presence of a mood state in a tortoise means that reptiles do not simply react. They evaluate, anticipate, and feel. That changes the ethical landscape.



"Animal welfare concerns are reliant upon evidence that a given <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/">species</a> has the capacity to experience affective states," said Anna Wilkinson, a professor of Animal Cognition at the University of Lincoln. 



"With reptiles becoming increasingly common as pets, it is essential for us to study their moods and emotions to try to understand how captivity may impact them."



Professor Oliver Burman noted that the research represents a significant shift in our understanding of what reptiles can experience, with important implications for how we care for these animals in captivity and interact with them in the wild.



The researchers emphasized that these findings align reptiles more closely with mammals and birds in terms of emotional capacity.



While reptiles may lack certain emotional expressions seen in other animals, they still experience shifts in affective state. Their moods impact how they explore, respond, and behave.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tortoise-mood-and-the-roots-of-emotions">Tortoise mood and the roots of emotions</h2>



Reptiles diverged from mammals and birds hundreds of millions of years ago. That makes this discovery even more significant. If a tortoise, members of one of the oldest lineages of land animals, can experience mood, then the evolutionary roots of emotion run deeper than we thought.



The study references earlier research that found reptiles do show some emotional behavior, such as emotional fever and response to enrichment. 



But until now, no one had shown that they could experience long-lasting, mood-like states. These new results argue against the idea that reptiles have a narrow emotional spectrum.



They suggest that affective states, both emotional and mood-based, might be ancient features of vertebrate brains. These are not recent innovations. This insight matters for biology, psychology, and ethics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptiles-need-more-than-basics">Reptiles need more than basics</h2>



The researchers argue for major changes in how we house and care for reptiles. Current enclosures often focus on physical health and basic habitat needs. 



But if tortoises have moods, then their emotional well-being must also be addressed. That means offering larger enclosures, complex terrain, opportunities for exploration, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-stimulation-could-change-the-future-of-math-education/">mental stimulation</a>.



According to the researchers, we should assume that they are not only capable of suffering but also experiencing enduring positive moods. Captive reptiles deserve spaces that support both.



The research also expands the toolkit for welfare assessments. Behavioral and mood-based testing can help zookeepers, researchers, and pet owners recognize when a reptile like a tortoise is distressed or thriving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-we-see-tortoises">Rethinking how we see tortoises</h2>



For too long, tortoises have been treated as slow-moving curiosities. But this new evidence invites us to see them differently. They can be optimistic, feel anxiety, and might even experience contentment.



This is not just about red-footed tortoises. It is about revising our relationship with all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptile-ancestors-appeared-40-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/">reptiles</a>. The cold-blooded no longer seem cold-hearted. They are thinking, feeling beings. And now we have the science to prove it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-025-01973-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Cognition</a>.



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Grumpy tortoise? Reptiles can experience mood swings too

For decades, reptiles - including tortoises - have lingered in...

Sharks have survived five mass extinctions and ruled the oceans for over 400 million years. As apex predators, they play a critical role in maintaining the balance of marine ecosystems.&nbsp;But today, sharks are more threatened than ever. 



On Shark Awareness Day, we highlight the science behind their importance. Without sharks, ocean ecosystems would become unbalanced, leading to overpopulation of some species and the collapse of others.



This disruption would harm the overall health of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-climate-fixes-could-worsen-the-oxygen-crisis/">ocean</a>, ultimately affecting food security and coastal economies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-sharks-disappear">What happens when sharks disappear?</h2>



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-predator-missing-what-happens-when-great-white-sharks-disappear/#google_vignette">long-term study</a> conducted in False Bay, South Africa, offers a real-world example of what happens when sharks disappear from an ecosystem.



The researchers found that by mid‑2018, great white sharks had vanished from the region. This led to dramatic shifts throughout the ecosystem.&nbsp;



With the disappearance of great whites, Cape fur seal and sevengill shark populations surged, while their prey - smaller fish and bottom-dwelling shark species - declined sharply.&nbsp;



The findings provide real-world evidence of a “trophic cascade,” where the loss of a top predator triggers a ripple effect through lower levels of the food web.



The researchers suggest that the sharks may have disappeared due to several potential causes, including targeted attacks by orcas - which have been observed killing and eating great white livers.&nbsp;



The study demonstrates the importance of apex predators in maintaining ocean health. The research highlights how their loss can destabilize marine webs and reduce biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-shark-populations-nbsp">Declining shark populations&nbsp;</h2>



According to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/">study</a> led by researchers from Simon Fraser University, over half of all sharks and rays have disappeared globally since 1970 - with overfishing identified as the primary cause.&nbsp;



Sharks and rays, serving as critical predators and sediment stirrers, help maintain food webs and nutrient flows. The report revealed that around one-third of shark and ray species now face extinction. 



However, there is cause for hope: countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the US, parts of Europe, and South Africa have implemented science-based fishing limits, reduced bycatch, and protected critical habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endangered-shark-species-nbsp">Endangered shark species&nbsp;</h2>



Among the most threatened are the great <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-great-hammerhead-sharks-rarely-leave-home/">hammerhead</a> and the scalloped hammerhead sharks - both of which have seen dramatic population declines worldwide.&nbsp;



These species are particularly vulnerable because they grow slowly and reproduce rarely, making it hard for their populations to bounce back once they decline.



The oceanic whitetip shark, once abundant across tropical and subtropical waters, has suffered steep losses from bycatch and targeted fishing - pushing it toward critical endangerment.&nbsp;



Many deep-sea sharks, like the bluntnose sixgill and the gulper shark, are also threatened due to slow reproduction rates combined with increased fishing pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-campaigns-around-the-world">Campaigns around the world</h2>



Around the world, numerous campaigns and organizations are dedicated to protecting sharks and raising awareness about their critical role in ocean ecosystems.&nbsp;



One of the most widely recognized efforts is <a href="https://www.discovery.com/shark-week/shark-week-2025-kicks-off-july-20">Shark Week</a>, a series on the Discovery Channel that draws millions of viewers each summer. Through documentaries and expert interviews, the series highlights both the awe-inspiring nature of sharks and the threats they face from human activity.



<a href="https://iucn.org/our-union/members/iucn-members/project-aware-foundation">Project AWARE</a> mobilizes scuba divers globally to advocate for shark conservation by pushing for bans on shark finning and the creation of marine protected areas.&nbsp;



On a larger scale, coalitions like the <a href="https://www.globalsharkmovement.org/">Global Shark Movement Project</a> work to influence policy and fisheries management worldwide.



The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) <a href="https://www.iucnssg.org/">Shark Specialist Group</a> also plays a vital role by assessing species status and guiding conservation strategies globally.&nbsp;



Together, these campaigns combine public education, advocacy, and policy efforts to reduce shark deaths and support healthier oceans for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrate-shark-awareness-day-nbsp">Celebrate Shark Awareness Day&nbsp;</h2>



Shark Awareness Day highlights the urgent need for stronger protections and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/">sustainable fishing practices</a> to prevent the irreversible loss of these vital ocean predators.



Today, people around the world are encouraged to learn about sharks and the threats they face from human activities. We are also encouraged to take action by choosing sustainable seafood and speaking up for better laws to protect sharks.&nbsp;



Shark Awareness Day helps build a stronger global community committed to conservation efforts. Ultimately, protecting sharks is about protecting the entire ocean system - and a planet that depends on it.



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Shark Awareness Day: Protecting the balance of the ocean 

Sharks have survived five mass extinctions and ruled the oceans...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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