Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Virginia</a> School of Medicine have made a remarkable discovery in the field of mental health. They have identified how Lactobacillus, a bacterium commonly found in fermented foods and yogurt, plays a crucial role in managing stress and potentially preventing mental health issues like depression and anxiety. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-much-needed-therapeutics">Much-needed therapeutics</h2>



This research, led by Dr. Alban Gaultier and his team, is a significant advancement in understanding the individual roles of microorganisms in our body, particularly those that comprise our microbiota.



“Our discovery illuminates how gut-resident Lactobacillus influences mood disorders, by tuning the immune system,” said Dr. Gaultier. “Our research could pave the way towards discovering much-needed therapeutics for anxiety and depression.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-microbiota-nbsp">Targeting microbiota&nbsp;</h2>



The microbiota, consisting of various microorganisms living in and on our bodies, has become a focus of scientific research due to its profound impact on our health, both physical and mental.&nbsp;



Disruptions in the microbiota have been linked to numerous diseases, including the spread of cancer. Consequently, targeting these microorganisms has emerged as a promising strategy to combat various illnesses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lactobacillus-bacteria">Lactobacillus bacteria</h2>



Dr. Gaultier's team has concentrated on the Lactobacillus bacteria. Previous research from his lab showed the potential of this bacteria in reversing depression in lab mice. However, the mechanisms behind this effect were not fully understood.&nbsp;



“We were aware from our prior research that Lactobacillus was beneficial in improving mood disorders and was lost following psychological stress, but the underlying reasons remained unclear, primarily due to the technical challenges associated with studying the microbiome,” said Dr. Gaultier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights">Critical insights</h2>



To investigate further, the team focused on a collection of bacteria known as Altered Schaedler Flora, which includes Lactobacillus, to conduct their studies without the need for antibiotics.



The research clarified the role of Lactobacilli in influencing behavior. The experts discovered that these bacteria maintain levels of interferon gamma, an immune mediator that regulates the body’s stress response and helps prevent depression.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



This finding is pivotal as it opens new avenues for developing treatments for mental health conditions where Lactobacillus plays a vital role.



For example, specially formulated probiotic supplements could be developed for patients struggling with depression that will optimize their levels of helpful Lactobacillus.



“With these results in hand, we have new tools to optimize the development of probiotics, which should speed up discoveries for novel therapies,” said study co-author Dr. Andrea R. Merchak. “Most importantly, we can now explore how maintaining a healthy level of Lactobacillus and/or interferon gamma could be investigated to prevent and treat anxiety and depression.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-fermented-foods">More about fermented foods</h2>



Fermented foods are a diverse group of food items that have undergone a process of fermentation, where natural bacteria feed on the sugar and starch in the food, creating lactic acid.&nbsp;



This process not only preserves the food but also creates beneficial enzymes, b-vitamins, Omega-3 fatty acids, and various strains of probiotics.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origin">Origin</h3>



The origin of fermentation is deep-rooted in human history, having been used for thousands of years as a way to preserve food and enhance its nutritional value.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examples-nbsp">Examples&nbsp;</h3>



Common examples of fermented foods include yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut, tempeh, kimchi, and miso. Each of these foods undergoes a unique fermentation process that contributes to its distinct flavor and texture.&nbsp;



Yogurt and kefir, for instance, are made by fermenting milk, which results in a creamy product rich in probiotics. Sauerkraut and kimchi are fermented cabbage products known for their sour taste and digestive benefits.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-health-benefits-nbsp">Physical health benefits&nbsp;</h3>



The health benefits of fermented foods are significant. They are known to improve digestion and gut health due to the presence of probiotics, which help balance the gut microbiome. This balance is crucial for proper digestion, absorption of nutrients, and even the functioning of the immune system.&nbsp;



Additionally, the fermentation process can increase the availability of vitamins and minerals in food, making these nutrients easier for the body to absorb.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-benefits">Mental health benefits</h3>



Moreover, recent research has linked the consumption of fermented foods to improved mental health. The gut-brain axis, a complex communication network between the gut and the brain, plays a crucial role in this regard.&nbsp;



By enhancing gut health, fermented foods can potentially influence brain health, leading to reductions in anxiety and depression symptoms.



Despite their benefits, fermented foods may not be suitable for everyone. People with histamine intolerance or those using certain types of medication should consult with a healthcare provider before incorporating them into their diet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2023.11.001" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain Behavior and Immunity</a>. 



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Fermented foods combat depression and anxiety

Scientists at the University of Virginia School of Medicine have...

Healthy,Senior,Woman,Smiling,While,Holding,Some,Green,Juice,In

A study conducted by <a href="https://med.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford Medicine</a> has revealed significant benefits of a vegan diet for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-related-cardiovascular-deaths-may-double-in-the-coming-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular health.</a> 



The research, which involved 22 pairs of identical twins, demonstrated notable improvements in cardiovascular health among individuals following a vegan diet after just a few weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The study was focused on identical twins for control over genetic variables and a more accurate assessment of the diet's effects.&nbsp;



“Not only did this study provide a groundbreaking way to assert that a vegan diet is healthier than the conventional omnivore diet, but the twins were also a riot to work with,” said Dr. Christopher Gardner, who led the study.&nbsp;



“They dressed the same, they talked the same and they had a banter between them that you could have only if you spent an inordinate amount of time together.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The twins participated in an eight-week trial, where one twin from each pair was assigned a vegan diet and the other an omnivore diet. Both diets were healthy, rich in vegetables, fruits, and whole grains, but differed in the inclusion of animal products.



For the first four weeks, participants received 21 meals per week from a meal service, and for the remaining time, they prepared their own meals. A registered dietitian provided guidance throughout the study.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-long-term-health-nbsp">Improving long-term health&nbsp;</h2>



Of the 44 participants, 43 completed the trial. Dr. Gardner said this demonstrates how feasible it is to learn how to a prepare a healthy diet in four weeks.



“Our study used a generalizable diet that is accessible to anyone, because 21 out of the 22 vegans followed through with the diet,” said Dr. Gardner. “This suggests that anyone who chooses a vegan diet can improve their long-term health in two months, with the most change seen in the first month.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights">Key insights</h2>



The results were clear: those on the vegan diet showed significant improvements in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), insulin levels, and body weight - all key indicators of cardiovascular health.&nbsp;



The average LDL-C levels dropped more significantly in the vegan group. These participants also showed about a 20 percent drop in fasting insulin and lost an average of 4.2 more pounds than the omnivores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Gardner emphasized the broader implications of the study. “Based on these results and thinking about longevity, most of us would benefit from going to a more plant-based diet."



He noted that the vegan diet participants effectively reduced saturated fats, increased dietary fiber, and lost weight – crucial steps for improving cardiovascular health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-based-foods-nbsp">Plant-based foods&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Gardner said that although most people will probably not go vegan, a nudge in the plant-based direction could improve health.&nbsp;



“A vegan diet can confer additional benefits such as increased gut bacteria and the reduction of telomere loss, which slows aging in the body."



“What’s more important than going strictly vegan is including more plant-based foods into your diet,” said Gardner, who has been “mostly vegan” for the last 40 years. “Luckily, having fun with vegan multicultural foods like Indian masala, Asian stir-fry and African lentil-based dishes can be a great first step.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Network Open</a>.



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Vegan diet improves heart health in a matter of weeks 

A study conducted by Stanford Medicine has revealed significant benefits...

Chinstrap,Penguin,,Antarctica,,January,2019

In a new study, researchers have discovered that nesting chinstrap penguins in the wild manage to accumulate over 11 hours of sleep daily, not through extended rest periods, but via thousands of brief microsleeps. 



This fascinating sleep behavior underscores the adaptability and resilience of these birds in maintaining continuous vigilance over their nests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-sleep-to-animals">Importance of sleep to animals</h2>



Sleep, a state typically marked by immobility and a decreased sensory response to the environment, is a common trait across various species. Sleeping, while restorative, can make animals vulnerable to predators. 



In humans, lack of adequate sleep often leads to microsleeps -- brief, seconds-long lapses in wakefulness characterized by eye closure and sleep-like brain activity. These involuntary pauses can be hazardous, especially in activities like driving. 



However, the true restorative value of such microsleeps in comparison to longer sleep periods remains a subject of scientific inquiry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-how-chinstrap-penguins-sleep">Studying how chinstrap penguins sleep</h2>



Paul-Antoine Libourel and his team spearheaded a comprehensive study on a colony of chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarcticus) in Antarctica. 



These penguins, while nesting, face the constant need to protect their nests from predators and other intruding penguins, especially when their partners are away. This situation demands that one parent remains vigilant, making extended sleep periods impractical and potentially dangerous.



The team employed remote electroencephalogram (EEG) monitoring, along with other noninvasive sensors, to record the sleep patterns of these freely roaming and nesting birds. Continuous video surveillance and direct observations complemented this study.



Contrary to typical sleep patterns observed in many animals, chinstrap penguins did not engage in long sleep sessions. Instead, they were found to frequently fall into microsleeps, each lasting about 4 seconds on average. Remarkably, they accumulated over 11 hours of sleep per day through more than 10,000 of these microsleep episodes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-perspectives">Implications and perspectives</h2>



The study's findings suggest that these brief sleep bouts, or microsleeps, can collectively fulfill some of the restorative functions traditionally associated with longer sleep periods. This adaptation appears to be a successful strategy for species like chinstrap penguins that require constant vigilance.



Christian Harding and Vladyslav Vyazovskiy, in a related perspective, highlighted the significance of these findings. They noted that the chinstrap penguins' microsleeps might represent one of the most extreme examples of how the benefits of sleep can accumulate incrementally. This observation opens new avenues for understanding sleep patterns and their variations across different species.



The research conducted by Libourel and colleagues sheds light on the remarkable adaptability of chinstrap penguins in fulfilling their sleep needs through microsleeps. This study adds to our understanding of sleep in wild animals. It also raises intriguing questions about the flexibility and functionality of sleep across different species. 



The chinstrap penguins' unique sleep pattern is a testament to the diverse strategies employed by animals to balance the demands of survival and rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-chinstrap-penguins">More about chinstrap penguins</h2>



As touched on above, chinstrap penguins are easily recognizable by their distinctive facial markings. They are a fascinating species of penguins that reside primarily in the islands and shores of the Southern Pacific and the Antarctic Ocean. Let's dive deeper into their life, habitat, behavior, and the challenges they face.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



Chinstrap penguins stand out with their thin black band under the head, resembling a helmet strap, which gives them their name. They are medium-sized penguins, typically weighing between 3 to 6 kilograms. Their bodies are adapted to the aquatic environment. Chinstraps have streamlined shapes, flippers for swimming, and a layer of insulating feathers to protect against the cold.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chinstrap-penguins-habitat">Chinstrap penguins habitat</h3>



Primarily found on the Antarctic Peninsula and surrounding islands, chinstrap penguins thrive in large colonies on ice-free coastal areas. Their choice of habitat is largely influenced by the availability of their primary food source, the krill, which is abundant in these cold waters.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-feeding-habits">Diet and feeding habits</h3>



Krill constitutes the major part of a chinstrap penguin's diet, although they also consume fish and squid. They are excellent swimmers and can dive to depths of up to 70 meters in pursuit of prey. Their feeding expeditions can last several hours, during which they skillfully navigate through the water.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breeding-and-lifecycle">Breeding and lifecycle</h3>



Chinstrap penguins are monogamous and often return to the same mate each breeding season. The breeding season starts in November when they gather in vast colonies to nest. Females typically lay two eggs, and both parents share the responsibility of incubating the eggs and feeding the chicks. The chicks fledge after about two months and are ready to go to sea.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chinstrap-penguins-social-behavior">Chinstrap penguins social behavior</h3>



These penguins are highly social birds. Their colonies, sometimes consisting of hundreds of thousands of individuals, are a hub of activity. The colonies help provide protection against predators and are also crucial for the birds' social interactions. This includes finding mates and caring for their young.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-and-conservation">Threats and conservation</h3>



Chinstrap penguins face several threats. Most notably, climate change, which affects their food supply, and human activities such as fishing and pollution. While they are not currently endangered, their populations are under observation for potential decline due to these environmental pressures.



In summary, chinstrap penguins are a remarkable species, adept at surviving and thriving in some of the harshest conditions on Earth. Their unique physical features, social behaviors, and breeding habits make them an important subject of study for understanding the dynamics of marine life in the Antarctic ecosystem. 



As they navigate the challenges posed by a changing environment, the continued study and conservation of chinstrap penguins remain crucial for ensuring their survival.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh0771" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Chinstrap penguins take over 10,000 micro-sleeps per day

In a new study, researchers have discovered that nesting chinstrap...

View,Of,Strong,Northern,Lights,And,Atmospheric,Phenomenon,'steve',Meets

An important discovery in the study of the Sun's behavior was released today by researchers at the Center of Excellence in Space Sciences India (<a href="http://www.cessi.in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CESSI</a>). Their work has unveiled a new relationship between the Sun’s magnetic field, solar flares, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-archipelago-15-times-wider-than-earth-spotted-by-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspot</a> cycle. This discovery holds significant promise for predicting solar activities with greater accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-s-magnetic-field-and-sunspot-cycle">Sun’s magnetic field and sunspot cycle</h2>



The Sun, our nearest star, is a massive sphere of hot ionized gas, or plasma. Within it, immense plasma flows and convection currents interact to form magnetic fields. These fields surface as sunspots, dark patches comparable in size to Earth. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-may-soon-disrupt-earths-power-grids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspots</a> are centers of intense magnetism, possessing a magnetic strength about 10,000 times greater than Earth's.



Occasionally, these sunspot magnetic fields undergo violent disruptions, giving rise to solar magnetic storms such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-massive-solar-flare-struck-earth-on-monday-but-what-does-this-mean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flares</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-solar-outburst-detected-simultaneously-at-earth-the-moon-and-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coronal mass ejections</a>. These phenomena emit high-energy radiation and expel vast amounts of magnetized plasma into space. The most intense of these storms can wreak havoc on satellites, power grids, and communication networks on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-predicting-solar-flares">Challenge of predicting solar flares</h2>



Sunspot observation, dating back to the early 1600s, reveals a cyclic pattern. Approximately every 11 years, the number of sunspots and the intensity of solar activity peak, leading to heightened <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canyon-of-fire-solar-eruption-extended-more-than-60000-miles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weather disturbances</a>. However, accurately predicting these peaks has been a longstanding challenge.



A dynamo mechanism, powered by plasma flows inside the Sun, drives the solar cycle. This mechanism involves two primary magnetic field components. 



One component manifests in <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/sunspots_SDO-NASA_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspots</a>. The other component is active in recycling the Sun's large-scale dipole field, similar to Earth's magnetic field. Every 11 years, this dipole field also reverses its poles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-on-waldmeier-s-discovery">Expanding on Waldmeier’s discovery</h2>



In 1935, Swiss astronomer Max Waldmeier discovered a relationship known as the Waldmeier effect. Waldmeier found that the faster a sunspot cycle rises, the stronger the strength of the solar storms. This relationship has been pivotal in forecasting the strength of sunspot cycles based on early observations.



Priyansh Jaswal, Chitradeep Saha, and Dibyendu Nandy of <a href="https://www.iiserkol.ac.in/web/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IISER Kolkata</a> have discovered a complementary relationship. They found that the rate of decrease in the Sun’s dipole magnetic field correlates with the rate of rise of the ongoing sunspot cycle. 



This discovery, leveraging data from decades-old solar observatories, connects the two primary components of the Sun's magnetic field. In addition, it supports the notion that sunspots are integral to the solar dynamo process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predictions-for-the-current-solar-cycle">Predictions for the current solar cycle</h2>



The IISER Kolkata team demonstrates how monitoring the Sun's dipole magnetic field's rate of decrease, combined with sunspot observations, can predict the peak of an ongoing cycle. Their analysis suggests that the peak of solar cycle 25 is likely to occur in early 2024, with a range of uncertainty extending to September 2024.



In summary, this new discovery opens a window for more accurate forecasting of solar cycle peaks. These are times when the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-activity-will-intensify-over-the-next-18-months/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intense solar activity</a> and space weather disturbances are expected. Such advancements in understanding the Sun's magnetic dynamics are not only pivotal for space weather prediction but also essential for protecting Earth's technological infrastructure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-solar-flares">More about the solar flares</h2>



As discussed above, solar storms and solar flares are powerful eruptions of electromagnetic energy and matter from the Sun. They significantly influence the solar system, particularly impacting <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a> and atmosphere. Let's dig a little deeper.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-solar-storms">Types of solar storms</h3>



The Sun's magnetic field drives solar storms. Complex magnetic field interactions, often occurring near sunspots, lead to a sudden release of energy, causing these different types.



Solar Flares -- Intense bursts of radiation, are the Sun's most common type of solar storm. They emanate from the release of magnetic energy stored in the Sun's atmosphere and can last from minutes to hours.



Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) -- Massive bursts of solar wind and magnetic fields rising above the solar corona or being released into space. CMEs can eject billions of tons of coronal material and carry an embedded magnetic field stronger than the background solar wind interplanetary magnetic field (IMF).



Solar Proton Events -- These involve large quantities of high-energy protons released by the Sun. These particles can reach Earth within minutes to hours of a major solar flare, posing a risk to astronauts and satellites.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-solar-storms-on-earth">Impact of solar storms on Earth</h3>



Solar storms can disrupt satellite operations, communications signals, and navigation systems. They can induce electrical currents in power lines, leading to power outages.



The interaction of solar storm particles with Earth's magnetic field and atmosphere creates spectacular light shows known as auroras, predominantly visible near the polar regions.



In summary, solar storms are dynamic and powerful expressions of the Sun's energy. Understanding them is crucial for protecting Earth's technological infrastructure and furthering our knowledge of solar-terrestrial interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-auroras">More about auroras</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/catch-the-aurora-borealis-in-iceland/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Auroras</a>, often called Northern or Southern Lights depending on their location, present one of nature's most spectacular displays. They occur when charged particles from the sun collide with Earth's magnetic field. This interaction energizes particles in Earth's atmosphere, causing them to light up and create the beautiful colors typical of auroras.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-an-aurora-is-made">How an aurora is made</h3>



The process begins with the sun emitting a stream of charged particles, known as the solar wind. As these particles approach Earth, they interact with the magnetic field that surrounds our planet. This magnetic field extends far into space and acts as a protective shield, deflecting many of the solar particles.



However, near the polar regions, the Earth's magnetic field lines converge and guide these charged particles into the upper atmosphere. Here, they collide with oxygen and nitrogen atoms. These collisions excite the atoms, elevating electrons to higher energy levels. When these electrons return to their original energy levels, they release photons, small packets of light, which we see as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-activity-will-intensify-over-the-next-18-months/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aurora</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-and-viewing">Colors and viewing</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathtaking-red-auroras-ignited-northern-hemisphere-skies-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colors of the aurora</a> depend on the type of gas molecules involved and the altitude of the interaction. Oxygen, at about 60 miles up, emits a green or red light, while nitrogen typically produces blue or purple hues. The intensity of these lights can vary, from subtle glows to rapidly moving curtains of light that cover the sky.



Auroras are best observed during the equinoxes due to the alignment of Earth's magnetic field with the solar wind. However, they can occur at any time and are more frequently seen in polar regions due to the structure of Earth's magnetic field.



While auroras are a natural phenomenon, they can also indicate changes in solar activity, which can have impacts on satellite communications and power grids. Scientists closely monitor auroras to understand better the complex interactions between the sun and Earth's magnetic field.



In summary, auroras are a breathtaking natural phenomenon resulting from the interaction of solar particles with Earth's magnetic field and atmosphere, creating stunning light displays in the night sky.



The full study was published in&nbsp;<a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnrasl/article/528/1/L27/7441123">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters</a>



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Auroras will be visible further south this year as the solar storm cycle peaks

An important discovery in the study of the Sun's behavior...

The Biden administration has recently finalized a rule aimed at drastically reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-massive-amounts-of-methane-gas-spews-from-wildfires/">methane</a> emissions from the US oil and gas industry. This ambitious initiative seeks to cut methane emissions by nearly 80 percent by 2038.&nbsp;



The announcement, made at the <a href="https://www.cop28.com/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COP28 climate summit</a> in Dubai, aligns with global efforts to mitigate climate change, particularly as temperatures worldwide continue to rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-methane-emissions-nbsp">Preventing methane emissions&nbsp;</h2>



Methane, primarily found in natural gas and as a byproduct of fossil fuel drilling, has over 80 times the warming power of carbon dioxide in the first two decades after its release. The new rule, implemented by the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA), targets this potent greenhouse gas. 



The EPA estimates that the legislation will prevent approximately 58 million tons of methane from entering the atmosphere, equating to removing over 300 million gas-powered cars from the roads for a year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-strategies">Key strategies</h2>



Key strategies in the rule include ending routine flaring of natural gas from oil wells and mandating its capture instead. The rule also emphasizes stringent monitoring of leaks from oil and gas wells, compressors, and other equipment.&nbsp;



Additionally, independent third-party monitoring using satellites and remote-sensing technology will play a crucial role in detecting large methane leaks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slashing-methane-pollution">Slashing methane pollution</h2>



EPA Administrator Michael Regan and White House National Climate Adviser Ali Zaidi, who unveiled the rule at COP28, emphasized the Biden administration's commitment to strong action against methane pollution.&nbsp;



“From mobilizing billions in investment to plug orphaned wells, patch leaky pipes, and reclaim abandoned mines to setting strong standards that will cut pollution from the oil and gas sector, the Biden-Harris Administration is putting the full weight of the federal government into slashing harmful methane pollution,” said Zaidi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-climate-change-nbsp">Mitigating climate change&nbsp;</h2>



The significance of this rule is underscored by the United States' position as the world's largest oil producer. With methane emissions having surged in recent years, the legislation is seen as a critical step in slowing down the pace of global warming.&nbsp;



Experts suggest that addressing methane leaks and flaring offers a straightforward method to mitigate climate change impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-experts">Environmental experts</h2>



The rule has been welcomed by environmental experts and climate advocates, noting the incentives for oil and gas companies to reduce leaks and flaring.&nbsp;



Carrie Jenks from Harvard Law School's Environmental &amp; Energy Law Program and Jon Goldstein from the Environmental Defense Fund both recognized the potential benefits and the environmental importance of the rule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-step-forward-nbsp">Major step forward&nbsp;</h2>



Goldstein noted that the EPA’s plan to end routine flaring is a major step forward. “The latest science is showing that flares are not just sources of waste, they’re also large sources of pollution because they’re just not working right," he said.&nbsp;



“The easiest way to stop that pollution is to stop sending it to flares in the first place. It doesn’t seem logical, why are you burning off this product you can sell?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oil-and-gas-compact-nbsp">Oil and Gas Compact&nbsp;</h2>



In a related development, fifty major oil and gas companies, including industry giants like Exxon and Saudi Aramco, pledged at COP28 to cut their methane emissions significantly by 2030. This commitment, known as the Oil and Gas Compact, targets an 80 to 90 percent reduction in methane intensity.&nbsp;



The US rule and the global commitments represent a significant step in the battle against climate change, focusing on methane, one of the most potent greenhouse gases. These initiatives underscore the increasing global emphasis on actionable and verifiable measures to combat environmental challenges.



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U.S. finalizes ambitious rule to slash methane emissions 

The Biden administration has recently finalized a rule aimed at...

A recent study emphasizes the critical need for concerted efforts and commitments to address the aviation sector's impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indisputable-evidence-of-human-caused-climate-change/">climate change</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-non-co2-emissions-nbsp">Non-CO2 emissions&nbsp;</h2>



The comprehensive research underscores the complex nature of aviation's environmental impact, particularly focusing on non-CO2 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-co2-emissions-expected-to-reach-a-new-high-in-2023/">emissions</a> like nitrogen oxides, soot, and water vapor. 



These emissions contribute significantly to global warming. For example, soot plays a role in the formation of contrails and "contrail cirrus," line-shaped clouds generated by aircraft exhaust that increase high clouds, further warming the Earth’s atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-in-depth-assessment-nbsp">In-depth assessment&nbsp;</h2>



The study was a collaborative effort by Manchester Metropolitan University, the University of Oxford, the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>, and Imperial College London. 



The experts provide an in-depth assessment of aviation's non-CO2 effects on both climate and air quality, considering current and future technological and fuel changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inherent-uncertainties-nbsp">Inherent uncertainties&nbsp;</h2>



“What we highlight is the inherent uncertainties that remain in some of these very complex effects on climate from non-CO2 emissions," said Professor David Lee.



“More importantly, reducing the impact of emissions on the climate is not straightforward as practically all routes forward with conventional liquid hydrocarbon fuels involve ‘trade-offs’, mostly at the expense of emitting more CO2, whether it be technological or operational efforts."



“These trade-offs and uncertainties mean that there are no simple silver bullets or low-hanging fruit to solve the problem. What is often forgotten is, that while the non-CO2 climate impacts of, for example, an individual flight are short lived, a substantial proportion of the emitted CO2 persists for a very long time, literally tens of millennia. This means it is a difficult balancing act if reducing non-CO2 emissions leads to an increase in CO2 emissions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aviation-impacts">Aviation impacts</h2>



Professor Keith Shine cautions against hastily adopting strategies to decrease non-CO2 climate effects that could inadvertently increase CO2 emissions.&nbsp;



"We must be mindful that aviation affects local air quality as well as climate. Sometimes measures that improve one will be to the detriment of the other," said Professor Shine.



The researchers noted that aviation accounts for about 2.5% of global CO2 emissions from human activities and approximately 3.5% of the change in the atmosphere's energy balance. It also contributes around 4% of the increase in global mean temperatures.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-challenge-nbsp">Complex challenge&nbsp;</h2>



Decarbonizing the aviation sector is challenging due to its reliance on fossil kerosene (jet fuel) and the lengthy process of developing and replacing aircraft.



The pressing issue of aviation's contribution to climate change is expected to intensify, especially with the sector's growth after the COVID-19 pandemic. This contrasts with the emission reduction efforts in other sectors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research">Future research </h2>



Recognizing this challenge, the UK government, through the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), has announced a £10 million research program to inform policy decisions in this domain.&nbsp;



"This is a very welcome and much needed development by the government. Some of our previous research that was used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has vitally informed the government on the scale of the problem," said Professor Lee.



"We have endeavored to keep the Department for Transport informed of our work while we prepared this assessment, to inform the shape of future research needed.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/d3ea00091e" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science Atmospheres</a>.



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Aviation's contribution to climate change is expected to intensify

A recent study emphasizes the critical need for concerted efforts...

Beautiful,African,Woman,Sitting,On,Bed,And,Reading,A,Book

An important new study emphasizes the significance of rhythmic speech, like nursery rhymes, in early language development in infants. 



This research, conducted by experts from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> and <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin</a>, challenges traditional views on language acquisition. It suggests that babies learn languages primarily from rhythmic rather than phonetic information in their initial months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nursery-rhymes-and-language-learning">Nursery rhymes and language learning</h2>



Phonetic information, the smallest sound elements represented by the alphabet, has long been considered the foundation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-begin-to-learn-language-before-they-are-even-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language learning</a>. It was believed that infants learn these elements and combine them to form words. 



However, this new study posits that reliance on phonetic information comes too late in the language development process to be the primary method of learning.



Rhythmic speech, used in nursery rhymes, emphasizes the boundaries of individual words. It's proven to be an effective tool for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-storage-learn-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language learning</a>, even in the first months of life. This type of speech helps infants recognize and process language by emphasizing word boundaries through rhythm and tone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-babies-and-nursery-rhymes">Studying babies and nursery rhymes</h2>



The study involved recording brain activity in infants aged four, seven, and eleven months as they watched a video of a teacher singing nursery rhymes. They found that phonetic encoding in babies emerges gradually. Labial and nasal sounds are among the first to be encoded. Notably, reliable processing of individual speech sounds was not observed until around seven months of age.



“Our research shows that the individual sounds of speech are not processed reliably until around seven months, even though most infants can recognize familiar words like ‘bottle’ by this point,” said Cambridge neuroscientist, Professor Usha Goswami. “From then individual speech sounds are still added in very slowly – too slowly to form the basis of language.”



Professor Giovanni Di Liberto of Trinity College Dublin is the study's first author. He remarked, "This is the first evidence of how brain activity relating to phonetic information changes over time in response to continuous speech." 



Previous studies had focused on responses to nonsensical syllables, making this research a significant breakthrough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-babyrhythm-project">The BabyRhythm project</h2>



The study is part of the <a href="https://www.cne.psychol.cam.ac.uk/babyrhythm-project" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BabyRhythm project</a>, led by Goswami. It investigates the connection between language learning, rhythmic speech, dyslexia, and developmental language disorders. 



A <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37399686/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sister study</a> under the same project found that rhythmic speech information is processed by babies as young as two months old.



“We believe that speech rhythm information is the hidden glue underpinning the development of a well-functioning language system,” said Goswami. “Infants can use rhythmic information like a scaffold or skeleton to add phonetic information on to. For example, they might learn that the rhythm pattern of English words is typically strong-weak, as in ‘daddy’ or ‘mummy’, with the stress on the first syllable. They can use this rhythm pattern to guess where one word ends and another begins when listening to natural speech.”



Goswami advises parents to engage in rhythmic speech activities with their babies, such as talking, singing, or using nursery rhymes. This interaction plays a crucial role in enhancing language outcomes in children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rhythm-a-universal-aspect-of-language">Rhythm: A universal aspect of language</h2>



The team also underscores rhythm as a universal element in all languages. Goswami notes, "In all language that babies are exposed to, there is a strong beat structure with a strong syllable twice a second."



Goswami suggests that the traditional understanding of dyslexia and developmental language disorders, often attributed to phonetic problems, may need to be reevaluated. She posits that differences in children’s language skills might originate from their ability to process rhythm.



In summary, this innovative research marks a significant shift in our understanding of early language development, highlighting the profound impact of rhythmic speech over phonetic learning in infants. It opens new avenues for exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/best-ages-learn-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language acquisition</a> and provides valuable insights for parents and educators in fostering early language skills.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-43490-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Reading nursery rhymes to babies helps them quickly learn language

An important new study emphasizes the significance of rhythmic speech,...

In a recent commentary, financial economist Alex de Vries has raised concerns about the significant amount of water consumed by cryptocurrency mining, particularly Bitcoin. This extensive water usage poses a threat to the global water supply, especially in water-scarce regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bitcoin-s-water-consumption">Bitcoin's water consumption</h2>



De Vries, a PhD student at <a href="https://vu.nl/nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit</a> Amsterdam, highlights the burgeoning issue of Bitcoin's water footprint. “Many parts of the world are experiencing droughts, and fresh water is becoming an increasing scarce resource,” says de Vries (<a href="https://twitter.com/DigiEconomist" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">@Digiconomist</a>). “If we continue to use this valuable resource for making useless computations, I think that reality is really painful.”



Historically, the focus on cryptocurrency's environmental impact centered around its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-and-destructive-environmental-impact-of-bitcoin-mining/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electricity consumption</a>. Miners around the world actively compete to solve mathematical equations on the internet when mining Bitcoins, the most popular cryptocurrency. The winners receive a share of Bitcoin's value.



“The right answer emerges every 10 minutes, and the rest of the data, quintillions of them, are computations that serve no further purpose and are therefore immediately discarded,” de Vries says. 



In the Bitcoin network, miners collectively generate about 350 quintillion guesses every second of the day, equating to 350 followed by 18 zeros. This process consumes a tremendous amount of <a href="https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(21)00083-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">computing power</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-the-impact">Quantifying the impact</h2>



During the mining process, large data centers use a significant amount of water to cool their computers. Alex de Vries, drawing on previous research data, estimates that Bitcoin mining in the U.S. consumes about 8.6 to 35.1 gigaliters (GL) of water annually from data centers. 



Additionally, coal- and gas-fired power plants, which supply the electricity for these computers, also utilize water to cool down. This water, once used for cooling, evaporates and becomes unavailable for reuse. Similarly, water that evaporates from hydropower plants contributes to the overall water footprint of Bitcoin's power requirements.



De Vries estimates that Bitcoin mining used over 1,600 gigaliters (GL) of water globally in 2021. On average, each transaction on the Bitcoin blockchain consumes 16,000 liters of water, which is about 6.2 million times more than a credit card swipe, or sufficient to fill a backyard swimming pool. De Vries predicts that Bitcoin's water consumption will rise to 2,300 GL by 2023.



"The price of Bitcoin just increased recently and reached its highest point of the year, despite the recent collapse of several cryptocurrency platforms. This will have serious consequences, because the higher the price, the higher the environmental impact,” de Vries explains. 



The environmental toll is exacerbated by the fact that these resources are not utilized for productive purposes like artificial intelligence but are instead expended on "useless computations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-implications">Regional implications</h2>



Countries like Kazakhstan, a major hub for cryptocurrency mining, are already facing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-water-crisis-could-spiral-out-of-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water shortages</a>. In 2021, Bitcoin transactions in Kazakhstan accounted for 997.9 GL of water, adding to the country's water crisis.



In the U.S., the annual water consumption for Bitcoin mining, from all sources combined, ranges between 93 GL to 120 GL. This is equivalent to the water usage of 300,000 American households or a city like Washington, D.C.



de Vries says. “The most painful thing about cryptocurrency mining is that it uses so much computational power and so much resources, but these resources are not going into creating some kind of model, like artificial intelligence, that you can then use for something else. It's just making useless computations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-challenge">Addressing the challenge</h2>



De Vries suggests potential solutions, such as modifying Bitcoin mining's software to reduce power and water requirements. He also proposes incorporating renewable energy sources like wind and solar to lessen the water footprint. However, he cautions against diverting limited renewable resources to cryptocurrency mining at the expense of other essential uses.



“But do you really want to spend wind and solar power for crypto? In many countries including the U.S., the amount of renewable energy is limited. Sure you can move some of these renewable energy sources to crypto, but that means something else will be powered with fossil fuels. I’m not sure how much you gain,” he says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-bitcoin-and-the-future">Water, Bitcoin, and the future</h2>



As Bitcoin's value continues to grow, so does its environmental footprint. De Vries predicts that Bitcoin's water consumption will increase to 2,300 GL by 2023. This growing demand for water in the mining process could further exacerbate the global water crisis, especially in drought-prone areas.



In summary, the revelation of Bitcoin's significant water footprint by Alex de Vries serves as a wake-up call to the environmental implications of cryptocurrency mining. As the world grapples with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-the-worlds-climate-driven-water-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water scarcity</a>, the need for sustainable and responsible use of resources becomes more pressing. 



De Vries's research underscores the importance of reassessing the environmental costs of emerging technologies like Bitcoin and seeking solutions that align with global sustainability goals.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports-sustainability/fulltext/S2949-7906(23)00004-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports Sustainability</a>.



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One Bitcoin transaction uses as much water as filling a swimming pool

In a recent commentary, financial economist Alex de Vries has...

Brittle,Stars,Or,Ophiuroids,Are,Echinoderms,In,The,Class,Ophiuroidea

In the quest to understand intelligence and learning, humans have often focused on brain size as a key factor. However, a fascinating study on brainless brittle stars challenges this notion, revealing that these creatures are capable of learning through experience, despite lacking a centralized brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enigmatic-brittle-stars">Enigmatic brittle stars</h2>



Brittle stars, related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crown-of-thorns-starfish-are-natures-ultimate-coral-predators-and-they-are-winning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">starfish</a>, are fascinating marine creatures known for their secretive nature. They spend most of their time hidden under rocks or buried in sand, with their bodies consisting of five wiggly arms connected to a nerve ring near their mouth, instead of a traditional brain.



<a href="https://jnotar.github.io/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julia Notar</a>, the lead author of the study conducted at Duke University under <a href="https://scholars.duke.edu/person/sjohnsen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Sönke Johnsen</a>, emphasizes the uniqueness of the brittle star's nervous system. "There's no processing center," explains Notar. "Each of the nerve cords can act independently, functioning more like a committee than under a central boss."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-by-association">Learning by association</h2>



Notar's research posits that brittle stars can learn through classical conditioning, a learning process where an organism learns to associate different stimuli.



One example of classical conditioning is demonstrated by Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs. When repeatedly fed at the ringing of a bell, they eventually start drooling at just the sound of the bell, even without food present.



Similarly, humans experience this often. When you repeatedly hear the “ding” of a smartphone alert, the sound eventually takes on a special meaning. The mere ping or buzz of someone's phone, if it matches your phone's chime, can prompt you to reflexively reach for your phone, expecting the next text, email, or Instagram post.



Researchers have demonstrated classical conditioning in starfish in a few previous studies. However, most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-stars-may-actually-be-walking-heads-with-no-bodies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">echinoderms</a>, a diverse group encompassing around <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13420-021-00492-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">7,000 species</a> including brittle stars, brainless starfish, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-urchins-are-struggling-to-survive-because-they-cant-get-a-grip/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea urchins</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-eating-sea-cucumbers-can-prevent-diabetes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea cucumbers</a>, remain untested in this area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



To determine if brittle stars can learn, researchers placed 16 black brittle stars (Ophiocoma echinata) in individual water tanks and recorded their behavior with a video camera.



They trained half of the brittle stars by dimming the lights for 30 minutes at each feeding time. Whenever the lights went out, the researchers placed a morsel of shrimp -- a favorite of the brittle stars -- just out of reach in the tanks.



The researchers fed the other half the same amount of shrimp but did so under lit conditions, never coinciding with the 30-minute dark periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-brittle-stars-learn">Watching brittle stars learn</h2>



Regardless of light conditions, the animals mostly hid behind the filters in their tanks, emerging only for meals. However, only the brittle stars that received training learned to associate darkness with food.



In the early stages of the 10-month experiment, all the animals remained hidden when the lights dimmed. Over time, the trained brittle stars formed a connection between darkness and feeding time. They began to anticipate food and emerged from hiding whenever the lights went out, even before shrimp was introduced to the tanks.



These brittle stars had learned to associate the dimming lights with the likelihood of food. They responded without needing to smell or taste the shrimp. The mere dimming of the lights was sufficient to prompt them to emerge for dinner.



Even after a 13-day break without training, which involved repeatedly dimming the lights without feeding, the brittle stars still remembered this association.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-research">Implications and future research</h2>



Notar finds these <a href="https://rdcu.be/drHJO" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">results</a> exciting, as they demonstrate classical conditioning in a group of animals previously not known for such learning capabilities. 



“Knowing that brittle stars can learn means they’re not just robotic scavengers like little Roombas cleaning up the ocean floor,” Notar said. “They're potentially able to expect and avoid predators or anticipate food because they’re learning about their environment.”



The study opens doors to further explore how creatures with non-standard nervous systems learn and remember. Notar plans to delve deeper into the mechanisms behind the brittle stars' learning abilities, aiming to answer the intriguing question: "How do they do it?"



This research fundamentally challenges our understanding of learning and intelligence in the animal kingdom. It suggests that brain size or structure may not be the sole determinants of an organism's ability to learn and adapt to its environment, paving the way for a broader and more inclusive study of intelligence in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-brittle-stars">More about brittle stars</h2>



As discussed above, brittle stars, fascinating and unique echinoderms, exhibit remarkable features and behaviors in marine ecosystems. Belonging to the class Ophiuroidea, these creatures are close relatives of sea stars, but they stand out due to their distinct physical characteristics and ecological roles.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-description-and-diversity">Physical description and diversity</h3>



Brittle stars typically possess a central disc and five slender, highly flexible arms. Unlike sea stars, their arms do not contain vital organs and are sharply demarcated from the central disc. This structure enables them to move swiftly through the water and across the seabed. They exhibit a wide array of colors and patterns, enhancing their appeal.



There are over 2,000 known species of brittle stars, varying greatly in size and form. Some species have smooth arms, while others have spiny or adorned ones. Their size can range from a few centimeters to nearly a meter in arm span, with the central disc usually being relatively small.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h3>



Brittle stars inhabit diverse marine environments, from shallow coral reefs to the deep sea. They often hide under rocks, in coral crevices, or within seagrass beds during the day. Some species even live in symbiotic relationships with other marine organisms, such as corals.



Their global distribution is impressive, with species found in every ocean and at various depths, some reaching as deep as 6,000 meters. This wide distribution highlights their adaptability to different environmental conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-and-nutrition">Feeding and nutrition</h3>



Brittle stars are mostly scavengers and detritivores, feeding on dead organic material and small organisms. They use their flexible arms to capture food particles, which they then transport to their mouths. Some species are also known to be suspension feeders, using their arms to catch plankton and other small particles from the water column.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-lifecycle">Reproduction and lifecycle</h3>



Brittle stars reproduce both sexually and asexually. In sexual reproduction, they release eggs and sperm into the water, where fertilization occurs. The larvae then go through several planktonic stages before settling on the seafloor and metamorphosing into juveniles.



Asexual reproduction occurs through fragmentation, where a part of an arm breaks off and regenerates into a new individual. This ability also aids in their survival, as they can readily regenerate lost limbs.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-and-importance">Ecological role and importance</h3>



Brittle stars play a crucial role in marine ecosystems. As scavengers, they aid in the decomposition process and nutrient cycling. They also serve as prey for various marine animals, including fish and crabs.



Their presence in various habitats makes them good indicators of environmental health. Some species are particularly sensitive to changes in water quality, making them useful in monitoring the impact of pollution and climate change on marine ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



While many brittle star species are abundant, some face threats from habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. Their conservation is essential for maintaining the health and diversity of marine ecosystems.



In summary, brittle stars are not just captivating creatures but also vital components of the ocean's biodiversity. Their unique adaptations and ecological roles make them an important subject of study in marine biology and conservation efforts.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-023-03402-x">Behavioral </a><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-023-03402-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology and Sociobiology</a>.



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Brittle stars have no brain but still manage to learn

In the quest to understand intelligence and learning, humans have...

Picture,Of,Tired,Unhappy,Dark-skinned,University,Student,Rubbing,Neck,Because

A new study highlights the significant impact of sleep deprivation on decision-making, particularly in high-stress jobs like politics, military leadership, and first response.&nbsp;



The research sheds light on the critical role sleep plays in maintaining cognitive performance and emotional well-being, especially under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-dogs-and-cats-dramatically-reduces-stress/">stress</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-sleep-nbsp">Importance of sleep&nbsp;</h2>



The importance of sleep is well-documented in terms of human health, cognitive functioning, and emotional regulation.&nbsp;



Previous studies have indicated that a lack of sleep can lead to reduced neurocognitive functions, including attention, motor responses, inhibition control, and working memory.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risky-decision-making-nbsp">Risky decision-making&nbsp;</h2>



However, the new research provides further insights, particularly into how sleep deprivation affects risky decision-making at a neuroimaging level.



The researchers discovered that 24 hours of sleep deprivation significantly alters an individual’s decision-making process. The effect is evidenced by dampened neural responses to the outcomes of decisions.&nbsp;



This means that individuals who have pulled an all-nighter show reduced positive emotions when they experience wins and lessened negative emotions when faced with losses, compared to their reactions when well-rested.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-deprivation-and-decisions">Sleep deprivation and decisions</h2>



Zhuo Fang, a data scientist in the Department of Psychology at the <a href="https://www.uottawa.ca/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Ottawa</a>, emphasized the emotional impact of sleep deprivation.&nbsp;



“Common sense does dictate if people incur sleep loss, sleep disturbance or a sleep disorder that their cognitive function will be impacted, their attention and efficiency will decrease. But there is an emotional impact, too,” said Fang.



“If you experience even just one night of sleep deprivation, there will be an impact, even on a neural level. So, we wanted to combine brain imaging and behaviour to see that impact."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights-on-sleep-and-decision-making">Key insights on sleep and decision-making</h2>



The study involved 56 healthy adults and found that a single night without sleep significantly decreased brain activation in response to winning and losing situations. This indicates that acute sleep loss can dampen neural responses during risk-taking decisions.&nbsp;



Furthermore, total sleep deprivation disrupts the link between neural response and an individual’s risk-taking behavior, likely due to altered risk perception.



While many studies have shown the broad effects of sleep deprivation on various brain and cognitive functions, including attention processing, memory consolidation, and learning, this study uniquely focuses on the specific impact of sleep loss on decision-making.



The findings highlight the necessity of adequate sleep, particularly for those in professions where critical decisions are made under conditions of sleep deprivation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



“These results underscore the importance of maintaining adequate sleep and how individuals should refrain from making important decisions when experiencing chronic or acute sleep deprivation,” said Fang.&nbsp;



“In specific professions where decision-makers are required to operate under accumulated sleep loss, specialized training or fatigue risk management might be necessary to enable them to handle such situations effectively.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14465" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Psychophysiology</a>.



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Lack of sleep leads to risky decision-making

A new study highlights the significant impact of sleep deprivation...

Sentinel warning calls in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-birds-dream-of-flying-scientists-say-they-now-know-the-answer/">birds</a> may be universally understood, transcending continental boundaries, according to a new study.&nbsp;



This discovery not only expands our understanding of animal communication but also hints at an evolutionary convergence in vocal signals related to danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-danger">Signs of danger</h2>



The research was led by Henry Pollock, executive director of the Southern Plains Land Trust, and Jonah Dominguez, a graduate student at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a>.



Sentinel species, like the Paridae family, are pivotal in mixed-species groups for their distinct alarm calls. These calls, like the “chick-a-dee-dee-dee” of chickadees, are recognized by various bird species, emphasizing their role as universal signals of danger.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anti-predator-behavior-nbsp">Anti-predator behavior&nbsp;</h2>



“Many animals form mixed-species groups, and the thought is that this is an anti-predator behavior,” said Pollock. “There is safety in numbers, and there is a benefit to surrounding yourself with a more diverse set of eyes and ears."



"However, you have to be able to understand the information that the others around you give to make use of it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The research team set out to investigate whether bird communities across three continents – North America, Europe, and Asia – could interpret the alarm calls of a previously unknown sentinel, the dusky-throated antshrike, a Central and South American bird known for its sentinel role.



The study included contributions from Mark Hauber (GNDP) and international collaborators from Serbia and China.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-results">Surprising results</h2>



The experts played warning calls of the dusky-throated antshrike to different bird flocks. They theorized that birds would react most strongly to familiar local sentinel calls. But the results were surprising.



“We expected to see some kind of response to the novel antshrike’s calls, but predicted that birds wouldn’t respond as strongly to it as their own local sentinel’s calls,” said Dominguez.&nbsp;



“However, we were surprised to find no statistical difference in how birds responded to the local versus foreign sentinel’s alarm call. Birds were responding to the unfamiliar antshrike’s call as if it was a bird they’ve known their whole lives.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-universal-recognition-nbsp">Universal recognition&nbsp;</h2>



According to the researchers, flocks of birds across all three continents responded equally as strongly to the unfamiliar antshrike’s warning calls as they did to familiar, local sentinel’s warning calls.&nbsp;



The experts say this finding suggests there is something to sentinel calls that makes them universally recognizable.&nbsp;



For messages that contain important information, such as a warning call for danger, evolution likely converges on similar sounding calls that help get across the message as quickly as possible, according to the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-central-theme-nbsp">Central theme&nbsp;</h2>



“It’s possible that these calls are more readily recognized across species because they have a central theme – essentially something about them that is unique and conserved despite millions of years in evolutionary history,” explained Dominguez.&nbsp;



“There is research in other animals on specific amplitudes and frequencies of sound that cause innate responses, even in animals that are unfamiliar with those sounds. Our study can help researchers figure out what those acoustic elements might be for birds.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signal-recognition-nbsp">Signal recognition&nbsp;</h2>



“What’s amazing is that our findings are consistent across three different continents with completely different bird communities, which suggests there is some signal encoded within these sentinel alarm calls that cause birds to respond to them, independent of previous experience with that signaler,” explained Pollock.&nbsp;



“This really highlights that signal recognition is not always something that has to be learned through environmental experience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-prospects-nbsp">Future research prospects&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers said the study opens the door to many future research directions. They noted that testing birds with the calls of other sentinels and getting more granular in terms of the behavioral responses are potential next steps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-sentinel-species">Defining sentinel species</h2>



Dominguez wants to find the common thread among sentinel birds in an effort to standardize what is categorized as a sentinel species across the literature.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Sentinel species are not very well defined, as the term is used nebulously for any animals that engage in mixed-species foraging and signaling,” said Dominguez.&nbsp;



“There’s lots of birds that we don’t typically think of as sentinels being classified as them in the literature, and others that probably are sentinels that are being overlooked. I want to figure out if there’s a common thread between them, and whether the term should be used on the species level or more on a flock level.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2023.0332" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Sentinel warning calls seem to be universally understood by birds

Sentinel warning calls in birds may be universally understood, transcending...

NASA's <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/odyssey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter</a>, a veteran in Martian exploration, has achieved yet another milestone in its long-standing mission. Celebrating its 22nd year at Mars, the spacecraft has captured a series of awe-inspiring panoramic images of the red planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brand-new-perspective-nbsp">Brand new perspective&nbsp;</h2>



Jonathon Hill of <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> is the operations lead for Odyssey’s camera, called the Thermal Emission Imaging System (<a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/odyssey/mission/instruments/themis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THEMIS</a>). 



“If there were astronauts in orbit over <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-may-have-finally-discovered-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>, this is the perspective they would have,” said Hill. “No Mars spacecraft has ever had this kind of view before.”



The collection of ten images, taken from approximately 250 miles above Mars, showcases a breathtaking view of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Mars_horizon_Odyssey-orbiter_1medium-scaled.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian landscape</a> enveloped in layers of clouds and dust. These visuals provide a stunning representation of Mars and will greatly improve our scientific understanding of the planet’s atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behind-the-scenes-nbsp">Behind the scenes&nbsp;</h2>



Creating such an expansive view wasn't without its challenges. Engineers at <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> and Lockheed Martin Space, the teams responsible for managing and operating Odyssey, invested three months in planning <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/27804/odysseys-themis-views-the-horizon-of-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these observations</a>. 



THEMIS, an infrared camera sensitive to warmth, typically points straight down and is fixed in place on the orbiter. Its primary function involves mapping ice, rock, sand, and dust on Mars’ surface, along with monitoring temperature changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-operation">Complex operation</h2>



To capture a unique perspective of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-found-for-life-on-mars-where-ancient-rivers-once-flowed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>, the entire spacecraft had to be rotated almost 90 degrees – a maneuver that required precise calculations to ensure the solar panels remained sunlit without overheating sensitive equipment. 



This reorientation temporarily cut off communication with Earth, adding another layer of complexity to the operation.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="jndRDp73Mq-3206047-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-martian-atmosphere">The Martian atmosphere</h2>



The innovative method allowed for the observation of details in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-martian-sky-often-has-an-eerie-green-glow-at-night-called-nightglow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian atmosphere</a> that would otherwise remain unseen from a typical overhead perspective.



“I think of it as viewing a cross-section, a slice through the atmosphere,” said Jeffrey Plaut, Odyssey’s project scientist at JPL. “There’s a lot of detail you can’t see from above, which is how THEMIS normally makes these measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-odyssey-s-images-of-phobos">Mars Odyssey's images of Phobos </h2>



Apart from capturing Mars, the mission also focused on Phobos, one of Mars’ moons.&nbsp;



By altering the angle and lighting conditions under which Phobos was observed, the team added unique data to their existing collection, which could potentially contribute to understanding the moon's origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



These efforts are not only significant for the Odyssey mission but also for the upcoming Mars Moon eXplorer (<a href="https://www.mmx.jaxa.jp/en/">MMX</a>) mission, a collaborative effort between NASA and JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency). 



MMX aims to return samples from Phobos and Deimos, and insights gained from Odyssey’s observations of Phobos will be invaluable.



Odyssey's latest accomplishment marks a significant milestone in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elon-musks-spacex-plans-to-land-a-spacecraft-on-mars-in-3-to-4-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars exploration</a>, offering unprecedented views of the Martian horizon and contributing vital data that could shape future missions and scientific understanding of the red planet and its moons. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mars-odyssey-orbiter-mission">The Mars Odyssey orbiter mission</h2>



The Mars Odyssey mission, a pivotal chapter in the exploration of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-internal-structure-of-mars-core-is-finally-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>, was launched by NASA on April 7, 2001. Its primary objective was to map the Martian surface and search for evidence of water and ice, thus paving the way for future Mars exploration missions.



Upon reaching Mars' orbit on October 24, 2001, Mars Odyssey began a meticulous mapping of the planet's surface using its advanced suite of scientific instruments. As mentioned previously, the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), a key instrument aboard, provided detailed images of the Martian surface in both visible and infrared light. These images were crucial in identifying the mineral composition of Mars' surface and in detecting temperature variations that hinted at the presence of water ice.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-important-discoveries-from-mars-odyssey">Important discoveries from Mars Odyssey</h3>



A significant breakthrough came when Mars Odyssey discovered vast amounts of hydrogen beneath the Martian surface, particularly near the polar regions. This discovery strongly suggested the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-explores-mars-ridge-with-intriguing-watery-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water ice</a>, a vital resource for human missions to Mars in the future, as well as a potential indicator of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-mars-seismic-discoveries-and-the-quest-for-past-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past Martian life</a>.



In addition to its scientific achievements, Mars Odyssey served as a vital communication relay for other Mars missions, including the Mars Exploration Rovers and the Phoenix lander. This role proved essential in ensuring the success and longevity of these missions, as Mars Odyssey relayed data and commands between Earth and the Martian surface.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-martian-environment">Understanding the Martian environment</h3>



Mars Odyssey also contributed significantly to our understanding of the Martian environment, studying the planet's radiation levels to assess the potential risks to future human explorers. Its findings helped in planning for the protection and safety of astronauts on future human missions to Mars.



Throughout its mission, Mars Odyssey set records for its longevity and continued to provide valuable data well beyond its initial mission timeline. Its enduring success stands as a testament to human ingenuity and our relentless pursuit of knowledge about our neighboring planet. 



The Mars Odyssey mission, by mapping the Martian terrain, searching for water, and serving as a communication relay, has laid a solid foundation for the ongoing exploration of Mars.



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Mars Odyssey orbiter captures unprecedented images of the Red Planet

NASA's 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter, a veteran in Martian exploration,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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