Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

When a ripe fruit of the Mediterranean squirting cucumber (Ecballium elaterium) finally bursts, the show is over in a blink - unless you film it at 10,000 frames per second. 



A new study from the <a href="https://www.sgorb.zoologie.uni-kiel.de/">Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics at Kiel University</a>, Germany, used precisely that technology along with high-resolution X-ray micro-tomography.



The research reveals how the plant primes itself for one of the most spectacular examples of self-propelled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/">seed dispersal</a> in the plant kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-squirting-cucumber-explodes">Why the squirting cucumber explodes</h2>



Plants that deposit seeds right beneath a parent’s canopy face stiff competition for light, water, and nutrients. Evolution favors <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-squirting-cucumber-squirts-and-the-trigger-that-makes-it-happen/">strategies</a> that spread offspring widely - by wind, animals, or, in rare cases, by brute force.



The squirting cucumber belongs to that small third category. Once its water-rich fruit has matured, internal pressure builds up. It then suddenly ejects a viscous jet containing up to 30 seeds, launching them away at startling speed.



“Many factors have to interact perfectly to disperse the seeds in the most efficient way, while not destroying the whole plant too early,” said project leader Helen Gorges, a PhD student at Kiel. 



Untangling those factors was the goal of the research she presented this week at the <a href="https://www.sebiology.org/events/seb-annual-conference-antwerp-2025.html">Society for Experimental Biology annual meeting</a> in Antwerp, Belgium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cucumber-ripening-mapped-in-3d">Cucumber ripening mapped in 3D</h2>



The Kiel team began by scanning intact fruits with micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) to build three-dimensional models of the internal anatomy. 



Progressive scans taken during ripening charted how the tissues transformed from a firm, green cylinder into a biological pressure vessel poised to rupture.



Complementary micro-CT imaging of exploded fruit captured the aftermath in equally fine detail. This allowed the researchers to calculate how tissues deformed and ruptured in the millisecond before detonation.



Parallel high-speed videography supplied the missing frames. “We recorded the explosion of the fruit with high-speed videos at 1,000 fps and 10,000 fps to calculate the speed of the seeds and the possible shooting distances,” Gorges said.



Those recordings showed individual cucumber seeds rocketing out of the ruptured end at up to 29 miles per hour (about 13 m/s) before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-gravity-quantum-nature-entanglement-mechanics/">gravity</a> began to tug them earthward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-aims-before-exploding">Fruit aims before exploding</h2>



Classical ballistics dictates that, for any projectile launched from ground level, an angle of 45° maximizes horizontal distance - assuming no air resistance. 



Because seeds leave a height above ground and endure aerodynamic drag, the optimum tilt is a little steeper.



Field measurements revealed over the final days of ripening, the fruit’s short stalk gradually straightened until the fruit nodded at 53° relative to horizontal. 



This angle is almost exactly the theoretical optimum of 50°, calculated for Ecballium’s seed mass and exit velocity.



“We also analyzed pictures during the ripening of the fruits to measure the curvature of the fruit stem and the angle between fruit and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-stem-cells-could-support-human-growth/">stem</a>,” Gorges noted.



This revealed that the plant actively remodels its pedicel tissues so that when the moment comes, it fires each capsule along a near-perfect ballistic trajectory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cucumber-seeds-exit-with-precision">Cucumber seeds exit with precision</h2>



High-speed footage further showed that the seeds of the squirting cucumber depart in an orderly orientation, always exiting point-first from the fruit’s basal end. That consistency may reduce drag and help minimize collisions among seeds in the gushing stream.



Once they land, another adaptation takes over: the seed coat produces a mucilaginous hydrogel that becomes glue-like as it dries.



The sticky coating helps seeds adhere to soil particles, reducing the chance they will be washed away. It may also improve local moisture retention - both advantages for germination in the cucumber’s typically arid habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-as-a-pressure-bomb">Fruit as a pressure bomb</h2>



Internal pressure estimates derived from micro-CT density measurements confirm that the fruit behaves like a hydraulic accumulator. 



Water drawn from the parent plant inflates internal cavities while secondary cell-wall thickening stiffens the outer rind.



When tension surpasses tissue strength, the weakest seam near the stalk splits like a pre-scored rupture disk. The accumulated pressure then drives the surrounding gel and embedded cucumber seeds through the opening in a fraction of a second.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/SPYZyRGwtYs?si=uzixZgHlPza7IpN6
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The fluid-mechanical secrets of the squirting cucumber (Ecballium Elaterium). Credit: American Physical Society</figcaption></figure>



“It’s super interesting to watch the explosions through high-speed recordings, as the explosions happen way too fast to see anything in real time,” Gorges said.



The 10,000 fps clips compress a chaotic spray into graceful arcs, letting the researchers trace individual seeds out to distances of 12 meters (39 feet) - an impressive range for an object smaller than a rice grain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspiration-for-soft-robotics">Inspiration for soft robotics</h2>



Translating nature’s launchers into human technology is a growing pursuit in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-soft-robot-crawls-moves-like-origami-folds/">soft robotics</a> and medical engineering.



In the cucumber, the driving energy is stored in a water-rich gel, a concept that might underpin future hydrogel-based actuators for microsurgery or targeted drug delivery.



“There are also many applications in soft robotics, drug delivery systems, and similar devices, where energy-efficient launching systems are desired,” Gorges explained.



Mimicking the fruit’s composite rind or its self-sealing hydrogel could yield actuators that store elastic or hydraulic energy safely until a precise trigger releases it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-launch-system-perfected">Nature’s launch system perfected</h2>



From stem straightening that fine-tunes launch angle to seed coatings that assist germination, Ecballium elaterium exemplifies how evolution can weave multiple traits into an integrated dispersal weapon.



By combining high-speed imaging with X-ray tomography, the Kiel group has mapped those traits from the cellular to the ecological scale. Their findings illuminate not just an evolutionary curiosity.



The researchers also offer a blueprint that engineers may soon tap to build miniature devices capable of their own rapid-fire feats.



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Scientists learn "squirting cucumbers" can actually aim their shots before exploding, watch how it works

When a ripe fruit of the Mediterranean squirting cucumber (Ecballium...

Anyone who has ever stopped on a busy street because a cluster of strangers were gazing at the sky knows how contagious attention can be. Humans aren’t the only species drawn into looking where others look.



A new study has shown that pigeons also track the gaze of their flockmates. The number of birds already looking determines how strongly the behavior spreads.



The research was led by Fumihiro Kano and Mathilde Delacoux at the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-cues-guide-attention">Social cues guide attention</h2>



“Many animals, including humans, tend to look where others are looking. This is called gaze following,” said Delacoux. “It’s a simple but important way of sharing attention and learning from others.”



In the 1960s, social psychologist Stanley Milgram famously demonstrated what he called the “quorum effect” in people. If only one or two individuals stare at a building’s roof, most passers-by ignore them. But as the crowd of sky-watchers grows, almost everyone stops and looks up.



Previous animal studies confirmed that birds such as ravens, starlings, geese, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-are-threatened-by-mercury-contamination/">penguins</a> follow another’s gaze. Yet those experiments almost always involved a pair of birds. 



The Konstanz team wanted to know whether flock size changes the equation for species that live in large groups.



According to Delacoux, pigeons are well-suited to this task because they typically form relatively large flocks, where individuals are usually surrounded by multiple conspecifics. 



"In such flocks, following another’s gaze should be beneficial for key activities such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/">foraging</a> and vigilance," noted Delacoux.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-gaze-with-flocks">Studying gaze with flocks</h2>



To test the idea, the researchers used a state-of-the-art barn near Lake Constance. Two groups of pigeons were placed face-to-face.



One group had an unobstructed view of a gently moving object designed to catch their attention; the other group’s view was blocked by a screen. 



Sophisticated cameras recorded every head movement from several angles, letting the scientists pinpoint to the millisecond when each pigeon oriented toward the hidden object.



The experiment was repeated with various “informed” group sizes. Sometimes just one pigeon could see the object; other times three, five, or more birds had the privileged view. 



The question was whether - and how quickly - the uninformed pigeons would swivel their heads to match the gaze of their companions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaze-spreads-with-flock-size">Gaze spreads with flock size</h2>



The results confirmed that pigeons do notice and copy the direction of others’ attention. However, the effect depended heavily on group size. When a lone pigeon stared, few flockmates joined in.



As the number of gazing birds climbed, more and more uninformed birds aligned their vision the same way. 



Unlike Milgram’s human crowds, the researchers did not find a sharp cut-off - no fixed “quorum” that suddenly triggered mass participation. Instead, the likelihood of following grew steadily with each additional pigeon already looking.



Thus, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-birds-one-tree-complete-evolutionary-map-reveals-hidden-links/">birds</a> responded to collective cues, they did so on a sliding scale rather than an all-or-nothing basis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-pigeon-mind">Understanding the pigeon mind</h2>



Does gaze following in groups mean pigeons understand that their neighbors possess knowledge they lack? Delacoux is cautious. 



“I would not assume that their behavior means any more than that they are just following the gazes of others,” he said.



The birds did not reposition themselves to get a clearer view, for example, a move one might expect if they inferred what another bird could see. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pigeons_gaze_eye-motion_observers_illustration_credit-UKonstanz_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pigeons_gaze_eye-motion_observers_illustration_credit-UKonstanz_1s.webp" alt="Test setup in the high-tech barn: The pigeons are divided into two groups. Only one group (&quot;demonstrators&quot;) sees the moving object. Does the second group (&quot;observers&quot;) now follow the gaze of their peers? Credit: Mathilde Delacoux" class="wp-image-1977083"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Test setup in the high-tech barn: The pigeons are divided into two groups. Only one group ("demonstrators") sees the moving object. Does the second group ("observers") now follow the gaze of their peers? Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mathilde Delacoux</figcaption></figure>



The researchers interpret the response as largely reflexive - an efficient rule of thumb in flock life, rather than evidence of higher-order perspective-taking.



Still, the study illuminates how pigeons use social information. “Now, we know pigeons don’t just copy their flockmates' gaze; they modulate their gaze-following behavior depending on how many peers give a gaze cue,” Kano said. “They respond to a collective cue.”



In other words, a single bird’s glance carries little weight, but a chorus of looks quickly draws the rest of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flocking-dynamics-inspire-advancements-in-technology/">flock</a>’s attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaze-in-social-animals">Gaze in social animals</h2>



The findings underscore the value of studying animals in the social settings where they evolved. As Kano argued, “many animals evolved in groups. To truly understand how they think and communicate, we need to study them in groups, too.”



By mapping the subtle ways that group size shapes behavior, the researchers add a new layer to our understanding of how animals share information and make collective decisions. 



Such insights may apply well beyond pigeons, offering clues to the social cognition of many flocking or herding species, and even echoing back to the street-corner instincts of our own species.



The full study can be found in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004225011186" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Pigeons exhibit the same behavior as humans by following the gaze of others in their flock

Anyone who has ever stopped on a busy street because...

Heatwaves aren’t just getting hotter and more frequent - they’re also lasting longer. And the more the planet warms, even by small amounts, the faster those heatwaves will stretch out.



Traditional climate models simulate average conditions over weeks or months. A study, led by <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a> and <a href="https://www.uai.cl/">Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez</a> in Chile adds a new twist. 



The research introduces a statistical term that connects one day’s temperature to the next - something scientists refer to as a “memory” of heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-memory-reshapes-forecasts">Climate memory reshapes forecasts</h2>



When that feedback was added, the simulations showed a clear global pattern. Heatwaves grow longer at a faster rate with each small increase in background climate temperature.



Study senior author David Neelin, a distinguished professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences at UCLA, noted that each fraction of a degree of warming will have more impact than the last.



“The acceleration means that if the rate of warming stays the same, the rate of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-power-of-imagination-in-climate-change-adaptation/">adaptation</a> has to happen quicker and quicker, especially for the most extreme heatwaves, which are changing the fastest," said Neelin. 



“We found that the longest and rarest heatwaves in each region - those lasting for weeks - are the ones that show the greatest increases in frequency,” added lead author Cristian Martinez-Villalobos, a researcher at the Universidad Adolfo Ibañez.



Accounting for local temperature shifts, the team found heatwave durations are already accelerating just as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/">climate models</a> predict.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-climate-fuels-faster-heatwaves">Warming climate fuels faster heatwaves</h2>



Recent headlines bear out the model’s warning. In late June, a heat dome lingered over much of the United States, stretching emergency services and even warping infrastructure such as a Virginia drawbridge.



Europe faced record-setting temperatures during the first week of July. The heat temporarily closed tourist landmarks and triggered Wimbledon’s “Operation Ice Towel.”



Such events highlight the study’s real-world stakes. Longer heatwaves raise health risks, stress power and water systems, reduce crop yields, and increase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-are-changing-the-quality-of-our-air/">wildfire</a> threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longest-heatwaves-in-tropics">Longest heatwaves in tropics</h2>



Not every part of the globe will feel the acceleration equally. In areas where day-to-day temperatures already swing widely, an extra degree of average warmth adds proportionally less strain than it does in regions with relatively stable climates.



“If you have large variations in current climate, then a fraction of a degree change will have less impact than if you have a more stable climate,” Neelin said.



“So impacts in tropical regions tend to be bigger than in temperate regions, and winter warm spells will change less than summer because summer tends to have smaller variability.”



Because of that dynamic, the <a href="http://v">tropics</a> - and especially equatorial Africa, Southeast Asia, and northern South America - are expected to suffer the most pronounced lengthening of extreme heat.



The analysis suggests that in equatorial Africa, heatwaves exceeding 35 days could become roughly 60 times more common during 2020-2044 than they were in 1990-2014.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-budget-cuts-stall-climate-science">Budget cuts stall climate science</h2>



Beyond quantifying future risk, the study supplies a mathematical framework that engineers, public-health officials, and wildfire managers can plug into existing risk assessments. 



Projections of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-land-based-water-storage-has-drastically-diminished-and-its-not-being-replaced/">soil-moisture depletion</a>, for example, feed directly into crop-yield forecasts and fire-weather indices.



However, the authors caution that translating the new insights into action requires sustained investment in climate modeling.



“Addressing those will depend on having high-accuracy weather and climate models, but the current federal budget is putting a pause on the United States’ capabilities and eliminating excellent young scientists from the field,” Neelin said.



“Deprioritizing and defunding climate and science research will limit our capacity to make region-specific projections for risk management. Without that, we’ll have much less ability to adapt to climate change at the very time when we need to accelerate adaptation planning.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heatwaves-demand-faster-action">Heatwaves demand faster action</h2>



The research highlights an uncomfortable truth: adaptation timelines must shorten as the planet warms, because the rate at which heatwaves lengthen speeds up with each incremental rise in temperature.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-greening-predicting-the-cooling-effects-of-trees/">Urban planners</a> drafting heat-action plans today will need to revisit them sooner than expected. Electric-utility managers can’t assume linear growth in demand, and public-health officials must prepare for more frequent multi-week emergencies.



All of that work hinges on reliable, high-resolution climate projections - exactly the kind of scientific endeavor that recent funding cuts threaten.



Whether communities can keep pace with the accelerating hazard may depend as much on political will to support climate science as on any thermodynamic process in the atmosphere.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-025-01737-w">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Climate equation predicts a rapid rise in extreme heatwaves

Heatwaves aren’t just getting hotter and more frequent - they’re...

Chimpanzees are showing us that culture isn't just about tools or survival. A new study at a sanctuary in Zambia has revealed something remarkable. Several chimpanzees began to copy each other by dangling blades of grass from their ears or behinds, for no clear reason. 



The unexpected behavior appeared only in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-chimpanzee-mothers-raise-babies-more-successfully/">groups</a>, despite all living in similar environments.



“This shows that, like humans, other animals also copy seemingly pointless behaviors from one another,” said <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> researcher Edwin van Leeuwen. “And that, in turn, may offer insights into the evolutionary roots of human culture.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mimicking-others-without-clear-purpose">Mimicking others, without clear purpose</h2>



People often copy odd trends like shaving eyebrow lines or dressing their pets. These habits spread fast but serve no obvious function.



In animals, copying usually relates to survival. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/">Chimps</a> teach each other how to crack nuts or fish for termites. But sometimes, animals embrace habits that seem to lack any benefit. Orcas wearing dead salmon as hats is one recent example.



This study focuses on such non-functional behaviors, rarely explored in depth. Back in 2010, a chimpanzee named Julie at <a href="https://www.chimfunshiwildlife.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage</a> Trust started putting grass in her ear. Soon, seven others followed. Even after Julie’s death, her group kept the habit.



Researchers saw this as a cultural tradition, as it remained confined to her group and persisted over years. The behavior looked more like a fashion statement than a survival tactic.



Years later, another group at the same sanctuary began doing the same. They had no contact with Julie’s group, ruling out direct copying. Five out of eight chimps in the new group copied the grass-in-ear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-curiosity-starts-young-and-helps-us-survive/">behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-copying-an-odd-trend">Chimpanzees copying an odd trend</h2>



In an unexpected twist, the new group added a unique spin. Six chimps began inserting grass into their behinds, letting it dangle freely. Scientists named this “grass-in-rectum behavior.”



The researchers closely observed the spread of both habits. In August 2023, a chimp named Juma was the first to do both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-rhythmic-drumming-to-communicate-in-forests/">behaviors</a>. 



Within a week, four others copied the grass-in-ear trick. Within six weeks, five others copied the grass-in-rectum behavior. This happened without external prompting or visible irritation in their ears or behinds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-social-learning">Evidence of social learning</h2>



The researchers analyzed how these behaviors spread within the groups. They used a statistical method called Network-Based Diffusion Analysis (NBDA).



The analysis showed that both behaviors spread mainly through social learning. In fact, over 80% of the chimps adopted them through copying others. Social ties strongly predicted who picked up the habits first.



Interestingly, even new chimps integrated into the group later copied the grass-in-ear habit within months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-may-copy-humans">Chimpanzees may copy humans</h2>



The researchers also considered the role of humans. Both chimp groups with these behaviors shared the same caregivers. 



The caregivers sometimes cleaned their ears with grass or sticks. Other groups with different caregivers did not develop such habits.



“The chimps in the one group then figured out to stick the blade of grass in another place as well,” said Van Leeuwen.



In the wild, such trends are absent among chimpanzees. Captivity offers more free time and fewer survival pressures. That might explain why chimps experiment with odd habits there.



“Why they do exactly this particular thing, I’m not really concerned about. But them copying the behaviour from each other, that is the important insight,” noted Van Leeuwen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-human-culture">Lessons for human culture</h2>



Some scientists think humans evolved culturally because we copy tiny details, even useless ones. Animals supposedly cannot do this, yet the study suggests otherwise.



“Our study shows that chimpanzees are able to copy small, useless behaviors from each other,” said Jake Brooker from Durham University. “That is why we felt it was important to share these new observations.”



Van Leeuwen’s team noted that these behaviors may not be entirely useless. They might serve as social signals.



“It could also serve a social purpose. By copying someone else’s behavior, you show that you notice and maybe even like that individual. So, it might help strengthen social bonds and create a sense of belonging within the group, just like it does in humans,” said Van Leeuwen.



The researchers also suggest these behaviors may reflect a deep social drive. Young chimps often form alliances and bonds through mimicry. In this case, lower-ranking males copied higher-ranking ones, likely to gain approval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-may-copy-for-social-reasons">Chimps may copy for social reasons</h2>



Scientists propose that copying odd behaviors might help chimps integrate socially. Just like humans, they may copy group norms to build trust and reduce conflict.



One theory, the Zone of Proximal Acquisition, suggests that animals copy behaviors they can already physically perform but haven’t yet tried in that exact way. The grass behaviors fit this model well.



Another theory, the Zone of Bounded Surprisal, suggests animals are drawn to behaviors that surprise them yet feel familiar. Chimps already examine each other’s behinds frequently, making this behavior more noticeable and likely to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-have-complex-social-lives">Chimps have complex social lives</h2>



The findings challenge long-held views about animals’ cultural limits. Chimps show they can adopt unusual, non-functional behaviors through social learning. Whether these habits offer hidden social benefits remains to be seen.



Still, the very act of copying and passing down such behaviors highlights the complexity of animal cultures. It suggests that even seemingly pointless acts may hold value in the social lives of chimpanzees.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/beh/aop/article-10.1163-1568539X-bja10313/article-10.1163-1568539X-bja10313.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Behaviour</a>.



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Chimpanzees copy strange, useless trends just like humans do

Chimpanzees are showing us that culture isn't just about tools...

Walk into any drugstore or open TikTok - everywhere you look, skin care products are calling your name. They promise miracles - clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-skins-bacteria-could-be-a-natural-sunscreen/">skin</a>, no wrinkles, no acne. But how do you know what works, especially now, with summer heating up?



Here’s the problem. The more products there are, the harder it gets to make sense of it all. You try one cream, then another, but still don't know what to choose. Luckily, a new study cuts through the noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ingredients-for-common-skin-problems">Ingredients for common skin problems</h2>



A research team at Northwestern University <a href="https://www.feinberg.northwestern.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Feinberg School of Medicine</a> set out to clarify skin care confusion. 



They identified ingredients that dermatologists most often recommend for seven common skin concerns. The study helps bridge the gap between marketing claims and actual results.



The project was led by Dr. Murad Alam, an expert in dermatology at Northwestern. His research provides a much-needed foundation for consumers seeking trustworthy information. 



According to the study, one of the most highly recommended ingredients is <a href="https://health.clevelandclinic.org/mineral-vs-chemical-sunscreen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mineral sunscreen</a>. It shields skin from wrinkles, redness, and dryness. 



<a href="https://www.henryford.com/blog/2022/10/what-you-need-to-know-about-retinoids" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Retinoids</a>, derived from vitamin A, also earned strong endorsements. Dermatologists trust them to reduce acne, wrinkles, dark spots, large pores, and oily skin.



The full study lists ingredients matched to specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-tech-will-track-emotions-through-changes-in-our-skin/">skin</a> problems. These findings allow consumers to focus on what works best for their unique needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selecting-the-most-effective-ingredients">Selecting the most effective ingredients</h2>



This study isn’t based on guesses. It followed a method called <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/delphi-method.asp">Delphi consensus</a> - a fancy name for a simple process. Experts rate ingredients, talk about them, and then rate them again.



Dozens of dermatologists took part. They gave each ingredient a score from 1 to 9. Then they discussed the results. After a second round of scoring, only the top-rated ingredients stayed on the list.



“This is the first time experts have come together nationally to cut through the overwhelming number of skin care options,” said Dr. Alam. 



“We wanted to help both doctors and everyday users understand which ingredients are backed by the most expert support.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fewer-skin-care-products-work-best">Fewer skin care products work best</h2>



Many people assume that using more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-c-promotes-skin-renewal-and-anti-aging-at-the-genetic-level-dna-demethylation/">products</a> leads to better results - a cleanser here, a serum there, and a moisturizer on top. It seems like more effort should mean better skin.



Dr. Alam strongly disagrees. “Using too many products can irritate your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teen-skin-bacteria-could-hold-the-secret-to-acne-prevention/">skin</a> and make things <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-plastics-chemical-bpa-linked-to-autism-adhd-in-children/">worse</a>,” he said. “It’s about knowing which ingredients are most effective for your specific concerns and are best for your routine.”



This matters, especially now, with social media hyping endless skin routines. Simplicity works best. Too many layers may backfire. Your skin doesn’t need a ten-step routine. It needs smart choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-care-products-are-not-strictly-tested">Skin care products are not strictly tested</h2>



There's another reason this study is noteworthy: skincare products aren’t held to the same rigorous standards as medications. 



While drugs must pass strict testing by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, your favorite serum typically bypasses that level of scrutiny.



Dr. Alam noted that most cosmetic products lack scientific review. This study fills that gap. The purpose is simple - give people a clearer path to healthier skin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simplify-your-skin-care-routine-nbsp">Simplify your skin care routine&nbsp;</h2>



Summer has fully arrived, bringing longer, hotter days along with plenty of sun exposure. This season often leads to more sweating, increased oiliness, and various skin problems such as breakouts, redness, and dryness. 



It is a time when your skin needs extra care and protection, but that does not mean you need a complicated routine. This is the perfect moment to simplify how you take care of your skin. 



Dermatologists recommend focusing only on ingredients that are backed by strong research and expert agreement, such as mineral sunscreen and retinoids. These ingredients have been shown to work effectively for many skin concerns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stick-with-what-works">Stick with what works</h2>



It is easy to get distracted by every new product that appears in stores or on social media. However, constantly switching between trendy products can do more harm than good. 



Instead, stick with what works. Choose the ingredients that dermatologists trust. Be consistent with your routine and, over time, your skin will show improvements.



New products will continue to appear in beauty stores. Brands will keep releasing items that promise fast results. But now, you can make smarter choices by focusing on proven solutions instead of getting caught up in every trend.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jaad.org/article/S0190-9622(25)00612-7/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology</a>.



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These are the very best skin care ingredients, according to an in-depth national study

Walk into any drugstore or open TikTok - everywhere you...

Everyone talks about mindfulness these days. People say it helps with stress, improves sleep, and makes life calmer. But here is a question: can meditation actually sharpen your focus? Turns out, it can.



A new study from the <a href="https://gero.usc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC Leonard Davis School of Gerontology</a> reveals something surprising: just thirty days of guided mindfulness meditation can change how quickly and accurately people focus. Age does not seem to matter here.



This is not about feelings or guesswork. Researchers used eye tracking, a tool that shows exactly where your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/">attention</a> goes. 



“This study shows that mindfulness isn’t just about feeling more relaxed - it can literally change the way your brain handles attention,” said Andy Jeesu Kim, the study’s first author. “And that’s incredibly important for maintaining cognitive health as we age.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-focus-fades-with-age">Why focus fades with age</h2>



As people get older, their brains <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meditation-can-rapidly-reduce-ptsd-without-revisiting-trauma/">slow down</a>. They do not react as fast. Distractions take over easily.



This happens because of a brain system called the locus coeruleus–noradrenaline system. It controls attention, memory, and alertness - and it weakens with age.



Professor Mara Mather from the USC Leonard Davis School has studied this system for years. She found connections between its decline and early Alzheimer’s disease.



Earlier research hinted that mindfulness could strengthen this brain system. Meditation might boost areas that help with focus. But no one had tested this idea using precise eye-tracking methods - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meditation-s-effect-on-focus">Meditation’s effect on focus</h2>



The researchers did not just ask people how mindful they felt. They watched their eyes when they recruited 69 people. Some were young adults. Others were middle-aged or older.



Half of the group practiced mindfulness meditation using the Headspace app. Just 10 to 15 minutes each day. The other half listened to an audiobook for the same amount of time.



Three times, participants visited the lab. They did visual tasks that measured how fast and accurately they could focus. Their eyes revealed everything. Every glance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meditation-rewires-the-emotional-centers-of-the-brain/">distraction</a>, or quick decision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attention-improves-with-practice">Attention improves with practice</h2>



After a month of mindfulness meditation, something changed. People began reacting faster - their eyes moved directly to the right target, they ignored distractions more easily, and it didn’t matter how old they were.



“We expected older adults to benefit the most, but we found that mindfulness improved attention similarly across young, middle-aged, and older adults,” Kim said. “This suggests mindfulness can be a useful tool at any stage of life.”



Oddly, when the participants filled out mindfulness questionnaires, their answers did not change much. They did not <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-meditation-and-critical-thinking-matter-in-the-age-of-ai/">feel</a> different. Their brains, however, told a different story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-second-test-backs-meditation">Second test backs meditation</h2>



The findings did not end there. Another study backed them up. Once again, participants practiced mindfulness meditation using Headspace for 30 days. 



The researchers tracked their eye movements while they performed attention tasks, examining both proactive focus and reactive responses. Reaction times improved again. People’s eyes became quicker - regardless of age.



However, not every gain came from meditation. Some improvements likely came from practicing the task itself. But meditation clearly sped up their visual attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meditation-works-quietly">Meditation works quietly</h2>



The second study confirmed something interesting. Meditation did not boost self-reported mindfulness. People did not feel much different.



But their eyes told a different tale. They reacted faster, spotted targets quicker, and showed subtle changes in focus.



This tells us something crucial. You might not notice the benefits of meditation right away. Yet your brain could already be working better in the background.



Both studies found that age did not limit the benefits. Young, middle-aged, or older, everyone improved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharper-focus-for-daily-needs">Sharper focus for daily needs</h2>



People often think mindfulness is just about peace and calm. But these studies reveal something bigger.



Mindfulness can sharpen the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/action-observation-network-human-brain-perception-see-what-we-expect-to-see-mind-eye/">brain</a>’s attention. This affects everyday activities. Driving. Reading. Holding a conversation. Even crossing the street.



Sure, the audiobook group also improved a little. That is likely because they practiced the task more. But the meditation group improved faster and more clearly.



Mindfulness does not just make people feel calmer. It changes how the brain works with attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-meditation">Future research on meditation</h2>



The researchers are not done yet. They want to see what happens with longer mindfulness meditation programs. Could more time bring stronger results? They are also curious whether these quick gains stick around long term.



“We’re excited about the potential of digital mindfulness interventions to help people support their brain health,” Kim said. “It’s simple, low-cost, and widely accessible. The key is consistency.”



Mindfulness may seem small. Just a few minutes a day. But it is clear. It can quietly improve your brain’s focus, no matter your age. And all it takes is a little patience and practice.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.eneuro.org/content/early/2025/06/26/ENEURO.0356-23.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eNeuro</a>.



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Mindfulness meditation can rewire your brain for sharper focus

Everyone talks about mindfulness these days. People say it helps...

If you've ever forgotten to water your plants for a couple of days, you probably noticed something interesting. The flowers droop quickly. The grass gets dry. But the trees? They’re fine. 



That’s because not all plants handle water the same way. Some use water freely, while others hold back, adjusting to dry conditions in very different ways.



Yet for years, many climate models haven’t taken those differences into account. They’ve relied on simple assumptions that treat every plant alike. That may soon change, thanks to new research that puts plant behavior into the equation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-model-gets-plant-upgrade">Climate model gets plant upgrade</h2>



Scientists from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> and San Diego State University have built a better way to look at how soil dries out after rain. 



Their model shows that plants don’t follow a one-size-fits-all response to water stress. Instead, they behave in complex, adaptive ways - something the researchers say could help sharpen predictions about climate, weather, and water use.



Kelly Caylor, a professor at UCSB’s Bren School of Environmental Science &amp; Management, is the senior author of the study.



“We found that plants don't respond to water stress in a simple, straight-line way,” she said. “Instead, they have dynamic response patterns that reveal whether they're ‘water spenders’ or ‘water savers.’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-rainwater-really-goes">Where rainwater really goes</h2>



After it rains, water goes in a few directions. Some of it runs off into rivers. Some seeps down into the ground. 



The rest goes back up into the air - either by evaporating or by moving through plants, which release water through their leaves in a process called transpiration. Together, these are known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/water-cycle/">evapotranspiration</a>.



How quickly soil dries out affects everything from crop growth to wildfire risk to weather forecasts. But until recently, scientists didn’t have good large-scale data on how this drying process worked. Instead, they built models based mostly on rainfall and streamflow.



“Ironically, most models do not use soil moisture data, although the soil moisture is a central component to hydrological behavior,” said lead author Ryoko Araki, a joint doctoral student at UCSB and SDSU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-respond-in-unique-ways">Plants respond in unique ways</h2>



Until now, even the more advanced models made a big assumption: that all plants slow down their water use in the same way, at the same rate, under the same conditions.



“All plants - no matter young or old, summer or winter, tree or grass, small or large,” Araki said. But that assumption skips over a critical part of the picture. Different plants behave differently under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-secret-weapon-for-surviving-stress/">stress</a>.



By ignoring that, the models miss out on useful clues. So Araki and her colleagues wondered - could a nonlinear model, one that accounts for more complex plant responses, offer better insights?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-smarter-way-to-model-moisture">A smarter way to model moisture</h2>



The team began with a standard, linear model based on time and moisture levels. Then they added a nonlinear factor that could reflect how plants adjust their water use as conditions change.



One thing that set this project apart was the data. The scientists used information from NASA’s SMAP satellite, which tracks <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/">soil moisture</a> across the globe using microwave sensors. That gave them a way to test their model against real-world conditions.



And it worked. The nonlinear model outperformed the two most widely used linear models. The older models tended to overestimate how fast soil dries out. That can lead to bad predictions—especially in regions where water supply is already tight.



Still, not everyone in the field is on board. Some researchers say the added complexity isn’t worth the trouble.



“Even though the nonlinear model is more complicated, it fits the data better, and it captures more of the system’s behaviors,” Araki said. “It provides a way to investigate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-adapt-to-survive-a-changing-climate/">plant adaptations</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-plants-work-from-space">Watching plants work, from space</h2>



There’s no easy way to track how individual plants manage water stress. You can’t just walk into a forest and see whether a tree is slowing down its water use or pushing forward through dry soil.



“Do they keep growing as much as they can while they still have some amount of water, or do they just completely stop transpiring to prevent tissue damage?” said co-author Bryn Morgan, a former UCSB doctoral student who is now a postdoctoral fellow at MIT.



That’s why this model matters. It gives scientists a window into plant behavior on a massive scale. It also shows that there’s more going on beneath the surface - literally - than many models have accounted for.



For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardeners-can-make-small-changes-to-benefit-pollinators/">gardeners</a>, farmers, and anyone keeping an eye on climate trends, this kind of research could lead to better tools and smarter predictions. Because as it turns out, understanding how a tree survives a dry spell might help all of us prepare for what’s ahead.



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Not all plants handle water the same - here’s why it matters

If you've ever forgotten to water your plants for a...

A new 3D simulation tool is helping scientists better predict landslides, rockfalls, and avalanches in the Alps - a region with steep, unpredictable terrain packed with ice, snow, and rock. These conditions have long made hazard forecasting extremely difficult.



Scientists at <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zurich</a> and the WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research (SLF) have built a model that can better simulate how these massive natural movements unfold. And it just passed its first real-world test: the evacuation of the village of Brienz in 2023.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-avalanches-in-3d">Simulating avalanches in 3D</h2>



Until recently, most simulations used to forecast mass movements relied on 2D, depth-averaged models. These methods estimate average flow direction, speed, and thickness. They’re fast and helpful for general risk estimates, but their usefulness declines in rugged, highly variable landscapes.



“While classical depth-averaged models are very useful for first-order estimates, many have difficulties when dealing with rugged, irregular terrain like that seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-collapse-buried-a-village-in-the-swiss-alps/">Blatten</a>, where flow behavior is highly three-dimensional,” explained Professor Johan Gaume of ETH Zurich and SLF.



In 2022, he and his team published a paper outlining a new 3D avalanche model aimed at solving this problem. They accurately recreated several well-known disasters after the fact, including the 2017 Piz Cengalo rock-ice avalanche and the 1963 Vajont landslide.



But those were all simulations run after the events had happened. The real test would be to predict an event before it occurred.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avalanche-prediction-proved-accurate">Avalanche prediction proved accurate</h2>



In spring 2023, the mountainside above Brienz began to shift. Authorities ordered an evacuation. Without tweaking their model or adjusting any parameters, the ETH and SLF team ran what they called "blind simulations."



They used surface movement data and conservative estimates from rock lab tests to gauge how much mass might fall and how it would move. 



“Our simulation predicted that the resulting avalanche would stop just tens of meters short of the first houses. These results were shared informally with cantonal authorities and ultimately matched the actual extent of the real landslide very closely,” Gaume said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tougher-avalanche-simulation">A tougher avalanche simulation</h2>



In May 2025, a new risk appeared. This time, it was the village of Blatten. The hazard was even greater, involving a mix of rock, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-snow-complexity-can-improve-winter-safety/">snow</a>, and glacier ice from the Birch Glacier. 



Once again, the ETH and SLF team jumped into action. They weren’t officially commissioned and had no direct contact with authorities, but they saw an opportunity to test their avalanche model against a much more complex challenge.



“Given the dramatic situation in Blatten and the novelty of our modeling approach, we proceeded with great caution and subjected the model to a rigorous verification process to ensure its accuracy and reliability,” Gaume said.



They estimated that the falling mass could be around 10 million cubic meters - a mix of 3 to 5 million cubic meters of rock and 5 million cubic meters of glacier ice. That estimate later proved extremely accurate: a post-event analysis confirmed a total of 9.3 million cubic meters.



For the sliding friction, they used a coefficient of 0.2 - a cautious pick based on past events. Though later tests suggested 0.23 would have been even closer to the final outcome, the match between simulation and reality was striking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-shows-avalanche-shockwaves">3D shows avalanche shockwaves</h2>



Most standard tools in hazard modeling assume the mass always stays in contact with the ground, sliding along the surface. But in Blatten, part of the avalanche flow shot into the air. That “airborne phase” created shockwaves and debris that flew over 100 meters above the terrain. The ETH-SLF model captured that too.



“In contrast, our 3D model allows particles to detach from the surface, reducing ground friction and accurately capturing airborne phases - this is critical for simulating flow behavior and runout in steep or complex terrain,” said Gaume.



The simulation showed a runout of 1.2 kilometers on the southwest valley wall and 700 meters on the northeast side. Those numbers almost exactly matched what actually happened. Most of Blatten was destroyed. Weissenried, nearby, was spared by a narrow margin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-the-tool-widely-usable">Making the tool widely usable</h2>



The ETH and SLF researchers are working to make their 3D tool for avalanches accessible to officials and engineers.



“Our aim is not to replace existing 2D tools, but to offer a complementary solution where classical models may reach their limits. We are actively working to make our model accessible and usable for practitioners and authorities,” says Gaume.



The team emphasized that their simulations were not officially part of the risk management process in Blatten. But the results speak for themselves. They show how much more accurate hazard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bridging-the-gap-the-quest-for-accurate-weather-forecasts/">forecasts</a> could become.



“We now have a reliable, ready-to-use tool that enables us to support the authorities with simulations assessing the potential consequences of impending mass movements,” said Gaume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-respect-for-lives-and-limits">Respect for lives and limits</h2>



Gaume expressed his respect for the way local officials handled the crisis, praising authorities in the Lötschental and in Brienz for their exemplary management and expressing deep compassion for residents who lost their homes and belongings.



“Tragically, the glacier collapse also claimed one life, which reminds us of the very real human cost behind these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-disasters-are-on-the-rise-but-hazard-plans-are-inadequate/">natural disasters</a>,” he said.



Looking back, Gaume remembers feeling unsure of the predictions. “The initial results I obtained seemed rather unrealistic, particularly due to the significant upslope flow toward Weissenried."



"Had I had the opportunity to visit the site before running the simulation, I would likely have found these results even less plausible, given the elevation of the village relative to the Lonza," he said. "I therefore felt it was essential to discuss them with my colleagues before taking any more formal steps.”



With continued refinement and real-world testing, this new 3D model may help save lives and minimize damage in future avalanches. It marks a shift in how we understand and respond to complex alpine hazards -with more accuracy, humility, and responsibility.



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Breakthrough model will transform avalanche prediction

A new 3D simulation tool is helping scientists better predict...

Lakes are lifelines across the world - storing water, sheltering diverse wildlife, and supporting millions of people. But today, these vital ecosystems are facing a growing threat that could upend the balance they have long sustained.



Climate change is putting pressure on these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-shock-lakes-are-losing-oxygen-faster-than-expected/">water</a> bodies. Scientists want to know whether lakes rely more on rain or groundwater. This information can help protect lakes from water stress during droughts.



In a new study, researchers collected data from 350 lakes in 18 European countries. They studied how these lakes react to climate shifts.



The team presented their findings at the <a href="https://conf.goldschmidt.info/goldschmidt/2025/meetingapp.cgi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goldschmidt Conference</a> in Prague. Their results show why every drop of water counts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources-of-lake-water">Sources of lake water</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.avcr.cz/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Czech Academy of Sciences</a> used hydrogen and oxygen isotopes, called 18O and 2H, to study the lakes.



The isotopes reveal how much water comes from rain and how much from underground <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lakes-are-warming-toward-the-point-of-no-return/">sources</a>. They also show how much water is lost through evaporation.



The researchers gathered data on weather, land use, and lake characteristics. They looked at temperature, rainfall, humidity, forests, farms, and even city areas near lakes.



The data was combined using machine learning, which allowed the experts to identify patterns and predict future risks for the lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groundwater-provides-more-stability">Groundwater provides more stability</h2>



Lakes fed by groundwater proved to be more resilient, maintaining steady water levels even during dry spells. 



In contrast, shallow lakes were far more vulnerable. With their broad surfaces, they lose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/">water</a> rapidly through evaporation and have little ability to replenish it. 



The study warns that as temperatures continue to rise, these shallow lakes could face increasingly severe challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lowland-lakes-face-high-risks">Lowland lakes face high risks</h2>



Lakes in lowland areas face greater danger. The study predicts that many of these lakes will face critical water loss by 2050.



Artificial lakes, like reservoirs, face the biggest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-lake-capable-of-filling-three-and-a-half-olympic-swimming-pools/">risks</a>. They are often shallow and lack strong groundwater connections.



Many of these lakes also sit in farming regions. Fertilizers and other chemicals from farms often wash into them, harming water quality. This creates both pollution and water shortage risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-lakes-are-more-stable">Mountain lakes are more stable</h2>



Lakes at high altitudes are currently more resilient. Cooler temperatures help lower evaporation rates. Groundwater connections in these lakes are often stronger.



High-altitude lakes also largely avoid pollution, at least for now. Most are far from intensive farming areas. However, that could change soon.



Farming is slowly expanding into higher areas. This could bring new pollution risks to mountain lakes in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-strategies-are-needed">Different strategies are needed</h2>



At the conference, Dr. Cristina Paule-Mercado from the <a href="https://www.avcr.cz/cs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Czech Academy of Sciences</a> explained the study results. She noted that her team initially expected the same controlling factors to apply across all lakes, but that wasn't the case. 



"While we can draw some general insights from the analysis, we also observed how each region has different dynamics driven by the interaction of multiple variables," said Dr. Paule-Mercado.



"This highlights the importance of considering all these factors - and particularly groundwater-lake connectivity - when designing sustainable management strategies to address climate change and water scarcity."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-lakes-from-water-stress">Protecting lakes from water stress</h2>



The study has not ended here. In fact, it has just started growing. The research team is expanding their work to include over 400 lakes across different regions.



The main goal is to build a global database of lakes and water systems. This database will help track changes and guide future water protection efforts.



The researchers draw on a wide range of data sources, including open-access databases that provide freely available information. They also conduct fieldwork, visiting lakes in person to collect fresh water samples for detailed analysis.



The project has grown into a truly collaborative effort. Scientists from around the world are now contributing, and local communities are playing an active role. 



Citizen science has also become a big part of the research, with residents living near the lakes helping to collect data and monitor water conditions firsthand. 



By combining all these efforts, the team hopes to protect lakes from water stress and improve management for communities worldwide.



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Why some lakes may disappear faster than others

Lakes are lifelines across the world - storing water, sheltering...

Space might be far colder than Earth, but the frozen water found on comets, icy moons, and interstellar dust is far more complex than the ice in a home freezer.



A new computational and laboratory study from scientists at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) and the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> overturns a decades-old assumption about “space ice.”



Instead of being a totally shapeless solid, low-density amorphous ice contains countless nanoscopic crystals. The team reports that these crystals are only a few billionths of a meter across.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-ice-versus-space-ice">Earth ice versus space ice</h2>



Earthly ice is familiar because its molecules assemble into a highly ordered lattice. The six-fold symmetry of snowflakes reflects that underlying structure.



By contrast, researchers have long believed that water freezing in the ultra-cold, near-vacuum conditions of space lacks the energy needed to form such lattices, locking into a completely random arrangement. The new study challenges that view.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-space-ice-at-an-atomic-level">Viewing space ice at an atomic level</h2>



Using state-of-the-art molecular dynamics simulations, the team modeled how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-water-vapor-become-a-reliable-source-of-fresh-water/">water vapor</a> condenses at temperatures around –120 °C (-184 °F), a typical environment for amorphous ice formation. 



Next, the researchers compared the predicted structures with archival X-ray diffraction data collected from laboratory samples.



The best match occurred when about 20 percent of the simulated solid consisted of orderly nanocrystals embedded within a disordered matrix only slightly wider than a DNA strand.



Study lead author Michael B. Davies, a professor at UCL, argued the discovery provides a long-missing atomic-level picture of the Universe’s dominant ice.



“We now have a good idea of what the most common form of ice in the Universe looks like at an atomic level,” said Davies. "This is important as ice is involved in many cosmological processes, for instance in how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-planets-formed-in-the-harsh-early-universe/">planets</a> form, how galaxies evolve, and how matter moves around the Universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-crystals-grow-with-warming">Hidden crystals grow with warming</h2>



To confirm the simulations, the researchers fabricated several kinds of amorphous ice in cryogenic chambers.



One method mimicked interstellar dust conditions by depositing water vapor on a surface kept at –110 °C (-166 °F). Another began with high-density amorphous ice - created by mechanically crushing ordinary ice at –200 °C (-328 °F) - and then let it relax until it reached the low-density state.



Next, the team warmed each sample gently so that hidden crystals could grow large enough to be detected. 



Crucially, the final crystalline arrangement differed depending on how the ice had originally formed, implying that each amorphous sample had retained a “memory” of its past in the form of pre-existing seed crystals. 



If the material had been fully disordered to begin with, every warm-up should have produced identical crystals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-ice-and-life-s-origins">Space ice and life’s origins</h2>



For decades, some astrobiologists have proposed that comets delivered the first amino acids to early Earth, a scenario called panspermia. 



These theories often assumed that low-density amorphous ice could store organic molecules in its wide, random pores. 



Since the new work shows the ice is partly crystalline, those cavities may be scarcer than previously thought.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/space-ice_tiny-crystallites_different-structure_credit-UCL_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/space-ice_tiny-crystallites_different-structure_credit-UCL_1s.webp" alt="Visual representation of the structure of low-density amorphous ice. Many tiny crystallites (white) are concealed in the amorphous material (blue). Credit: Michael B Davies, UCL and University of Cambridge" class="wp-image-1976972"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Visual representation of the structure of low-density amorphous ice. Many tiny crystallites (white) are concealed in the amorphous material (blue). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Michael B Davies, UCL and University of Cambridge</figcaption></figure>



“Our findings suggest this ice would be a less good transport material for these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-breakthrough-sheds-light-on-the-beginning-of-life/">origin of life</a> molecules,” Davies explained.



“That is because a partly crystalline structure has less space in which these ingredients could become embedded. The theory could still hold true, though, as there are amorphous regions in the ice where life’s building blocks could be trapped and stored.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-advanced-technology">Implications for advanced technology </h2>



The results ripple into materials science on Earth. Study co-author Christoph Salzmann pointed out that everyday technologies - from fiber-optic cables to pharmaceutical tablets - depend on truly amorphous solids.



“Ice on Earth is a cosmological curiosity due to our warm temperatures. You can see its ordered nature in the symmetry of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-science-of-snowflakes-and-their-astonishingly-predictable-movement/">snowflake</a>,” Salzmann said. 



“Ice in the rest of the Universe has long been considered a snapshot of liquid water - that is, a disordered arrangement fixed in place.



"Our findings show this is not entirely true. Our results also raise questions about amorphous materials in general. These materials have important uses in much advanced technology.”



Glass fibers that carry data over long distances must remain amorphous - or disordered - to function properly, so eliminating any tiny crystals within them could enhance their performance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-expanding-ice-family"><a></a>An expanding ice family</h2>



Scientists already recognized two amorphous ices - low-density and high-density - before the same UCL-Cambridge collaboration revealed a medium-density form in 2023. 



The medium type matches liquid water’s density, so it would neither sink nor float in a glass. The latest study shows that even supposedly structureless ice can contain hidden order. 



Researchers now wonder: could there be a truly crystal-free variant, or does some degree of hidden order inevitably form whenever water freezes in space?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-foundation-for-future-missions">A foundation for future missions</h2>



Future investigations will probe whether the fraction or size of these nanocrystals depends on how quickly the ice forms, the presence of salts and organics, or exposure to cosmic radiation.



Answers could refine climate models for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uranus-and-its-icy-moons-broadening-the-search-for-alien-life/">icy moons</a>, improve planning for missions that mine extraterrestrial ice as fuel, and deepen fundamental understanding of water’s many quirks.



“Water is the foundation of life but we still do not fully understand it. Amorphous ices may hold the key to explaining some of water’s many anomalies," said co-author Professor Angelos Michaelides.



According to Davies, ice is potentially a high-performance material in space. "It could shield spacecraft from radiation or provide fuel in the form of hydrogen and oxygen. So we need to know about its various forms and properties."



Whether for fueling rockets, protecting astronauts, or seeding life, the Universe’s most common ice now appears more sophisticated - and more structured - than scientists ever suspected.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prb/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevB.112.024203">Physical Review B</a>.



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Astronomers discover that 'space ice' is unlike anything found on Earth

Space might be far colder than Earth, but the frozen...

Horses are helping fill a major gap in mental health care for children. With long waitlists and limited success from traditional talk therapy, many kids are still falling through the cracks. 



For some, sitting in a therapist’s office just doesn’t work. But therapy sessions held outdoors, with horses as part of the team, are starting to make a real difference.



A recent study from the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a> shows that equine-assisted therapy is shifting the way social workers support children. The research highlights the experiences of ten professionals already using horses to connect with kids in powerful ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-horse-therapy-in-nature">Horse therapy in nature</h2>



Equine-assisted interventions (EAI) are a form of therapy that brings children and horses together in natural, outdoor settings. 



The sessions are led by trained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-reduces-depression-and-anxiety-in-children-and-teens-with-mental-health-issues/">mental health</a> professionals working alongside experienced equine practitioners. And the results, according to those involved, can be transformative.



The study found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supportive-adults-help-protect-children-from-mental-health-issues/">children</a> often connect more easily in this environment than they do in traditional therapy rooms. The calm of nature, the presence of horses, and the physical space to move and breathe - these all contribute to a sense of safety and openness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-children-trust-horses">Children trust horses</h2>



Morgyn Stacy, a University of South Australia Social Work graduate who led the study as part of her Honors project, noted that conventional talk therapy doesn’t work for every child.



“But give them the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-nature-heals-outdoor-activities-greatly-improve-mental-health/">space</a> to be outside, to connect with a horse, and something powerful happens. They begin to feel safe, calm, and ready to open up,” noted Stacy.



The connection doesn’t happen by chance. Horses are naturally sensitive to human emotions and body language. 



The horses reflect the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/words-shape-how-our-brains-process-feelings-and-guide-decisions/">feelings</a> of the child standing next to them. This mirroring effect can help children understand and manage their emotions in ways they haven’t before.



One practitioner in the study described the experience as “being seen through the eyes of a horse,” a kind of connection that can shift something deep inside a child.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extended-benefits-of-horse-therapy">Extended benefits of horse therapy</h2>



Therapists working in these settings don’t just use the horses - they also use the land. Sessions might include walking barefoot in sand, noticing animal tracks, or standing quietly with a horse. These simple activities help children feel grounded and present.



"The benefits go beyond mental health," said Stacy. "Children often gain confidence, improve communication skills, and build stronger emotional resilience."



Some kids even come in afraid of horses. Therapists help them work through those fears by matching them with the right animal. And when a child overcomes that fear, it becomes a confidence boost they can carry into other areas of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-horses-can-help-kids-with-trauma">Horses can help kids with trauma</h2>



Dr. Fatin Shabbar, a senior researcher at the University of South Australia and a qualified social worker, said this approach can be especially helpful for children who have experienced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-can-cause-physical-pain-in-late-life/">trauma</a>, such as those in the child protection system.



"Practitioners in the study described deeply moving examples of children bonding with horses in ways that sparked emotional breakthroughs where other therapies had failed," said Dr. Shabbar.



But this kind of therapy isn’t widely available. It costs a lot to care for horses and maintain rural therapy spaces. Without funding support - from programs like the NDIS or child protection services - many families just can’t afford it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-recognition-and-guidelines">Need for recognition and guidelines</h2>



Despite its potential, equine-assisted therapy still faces major roadblocks. The absence of national standards in Australia means there's no consistent guarantee of practitioner training - raising serious concerns about the safety of both children and animals.



"Another concern is the lack of regulation in Australia," said Dr. Shabbar. "Without clear guidelines, unqualified practitioners may offer equine-assisted services without appropriate training, which puts both children and the animals at risk."



Even highly qualified professionals face an uphill battle. The therapy isn’t formally recognized as evidence-based in many settings.



"This research shows that equine-assisted therapy can be a deeply healing experience. But for it to reach more children, we need formal recognition, ethical guidelines and proper funding," noted the authors of the study. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-what-healing-looks-like">Rethinking what healing looks like</h2>



This study isn’t just about horses. It’s about expanding how we think about healing. It’s about listening to the people on the ground - therapists, social workers, and most importantly, the kids - who are saying that there’s another way to do things.



With the right support, equine-assisted therapy could become more than a niche offering. It could become a trusted option for children who need something different, something real, and something that works.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02650533.2025.2495741">Journal of Social Work Practice</a>.



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Therapy horses are helping children heal from trauma

Horses are helping fill a major gap in mental health...

A broad survey of Colorado dispensaries found that nearly half of all cannabis flower products are mislabeled. The THC potency listed on the package often doesn’t match what’s actually inside.



Most of the inaccurate labels overstate the amount of THC - the psychoactive compound in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-extract-cbd-proven-highly-effective-at-killing-mosquitoes/">cannabis</a>. By contrast, testers found that almost all of the concentrates examined - including oils and waxes - were labeled correctly. In fact, 96 percent fell within an acceptable margin of error.



These findings come from the first large-scale audit of potency labels in a legal cannabis market. The researchers provide a rare look at today’s cannabis potency, highlighting where testing is reliable and where it needs improvement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thc-labels-are-often-inaccurate">THC labels are often inaccurate</h2>



Study senior author Cinnamon Bidwell is an associate professor of psychology and neuroscience at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> and co-director of the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/center/cuchange/">Center for Health and Neuroscience, Genes, and Environment</a> (CU Change).



“Cannabis use has complex and wide-ranging effects, and we are working hard to better understand them,” said Bidwell. “While that research plays out, we should, at the very least, be providing accurate information about the amount of THC in these products.”



The <a href="https://www.instituteofcannabisresearchcolorado.org/">Institute of Cannabis Research</a> - Colorado’s official cannabis research institute - funded the project, which researchers carried out with <a href="https://www.medpharm.com/">MedPharm Research, LLC</a>, a licensed testing lab, manufacturer, and retailer.



“We want to instill and foster trust in products, and the only way to do that is to continually evaluate and correct any issues that might be discovered,” said Duncan Mackie, director of pharmacology at MedPharm and a co-author of the paper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-reveals-true-cannabis-potency">Testing reveals true cannabis potency</h2>



Because federal regulations prohibit university scientists from purchasing or handling commercially available cannabis, the team collaborated with MedPharm to collect samples.



A “secret shopper” visited 52 dispensaries across 19 Colorado counties. They purchased 277 products: 178 flower items - including loose buds and pre-rolled joints - and 99 smokable concentrates, ranging from distilled oils to Moroccan hash and waxy “sugar.” Edibles were not part of this phase of the study.



The shopper photographed each label and anonymized every sample with a number. MedPharm chemists, blind to the labeling information, then tested each product.



Flower samples averaged 21 percent THC; concentrates averaged 71 percent, with some as high as 84 percent. For perspective, marijuana in the 1980s typically contained about 8 percent THC.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-thc-labels-fall-short">Where THC labels fall short</h2>



Colorado considers a cannabis label accurate if the product’s THC content is within 15 percent (higher or lower) of the printed value. Among flower products, 44 percent missed that mark. Of those, 54 items overstated THC levels, while 23 contained more THC than advertised.



Though the average discrepancy was modest - about two percentage points - some errors were large. One sample labeled 24 percent THC, for instance, tested at only 16 percent.



Concentrates fared much better: only four samples fell outside the acceptable range. “When it comes to concentrates, Colorado gets a good grade for labeling accuracy, but there are some real issues with flower,” Bidwell said.



Previous work in other states suggests some third-party testing labs inflate potency results, possibly to satisfy businesses seeking stronger-sounding products.



Yet concentrates, which are homogeneous oils, are easier to measure than the heterogeneous structure of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trema-micrantha-brazilian-plant-found-to-contain-cannabis-cbd-compound/%C3%B9">plant</a> material. 



This difference offers another explanation for why flower labels run off-target. Standardizing plant sampling methods could reduce label discrepancies, the authors note.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-labels-miss-key-compounds">Labels miss key compounds</h2>



Colorado requires labels to list <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-reduces-the-unwanted-side-effects-of-thc/">cannabidiol</a> (CBD) content, and 80 to 85 percent of products complied. However, only 16 percent included information on other cannabinoids, such as cannabigerol (CBG) and cannabigerolic acid (CBGA).



Interestingly, the tests found greater quantities of CBG and CBGA - compounds with potential anti-inflammatory and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-relieves-anxiety-without-the-risks-that-come-with-thc/">anti-anxiety</a> effects - than CBD across product types. Yet labels rarely show those figures.



“Focusing on THC on the label can actually do a disservice for consumers, because it creates an environment in which people buy based solely on THC content,” Bidwell said. “Our data suggests that multiple other cannabinoids should also be reported there.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edibles-will-be-examined-next">Edibles will be examined next</h2>



Backed by additional funding from the Institute of Cannabis Research, the team plans to extend its label audit to include edibles and other product categories.



As more states legalize cannabis for medical and recreational use, accurate labeling will become increasingly important for patient safety, informed recreational use, and public trust.



“We all want the same thing: a strong, successful industry that regulators can feel good about, businesses can thrive in, and customers can trust,” Mackie concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-03854-3">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Cannabis potency: Why you shouldn't trust the label

A broad survey of Colorado dispensaries found that nearly half...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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