Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Elasmosaurus,,Group,Of,Long-necked,Plesiosaurs,From,The,Late,Cretaceous,Period,

By describing the first known Jurassic vertebrate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-britains-jurassic-past/">fossils</a> in Texas, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a> has recently filled a major gap in the state’s fossil record. The weathered bone fragments are part of the limbs and bones of a plesiosaur, a marine reptile that inhabited the shallow sea which covered what is now northeastern Mexico and far western Texas about 150 million years ago.



The fossils were discovered in the Malone Mountains of West Texas during two hunting expeditions led by Steven May, an adjunct research professor of Vertebrate Paleontology at UT Austin.



<h2 id="h-texas-during-the-jurassic">Texas during the Jurassic&nbsp;</h2>



Before this unprecedented discovery, the only Jurassic fossils found in Texas belonged to marine invertebrates, such as snails and ammonites. The new findings provide solid evidence that massive vertebrates have also inhabited this region millions of years ago.



“Folks, there are Jurassic vertebrates out there. We found some of them, but there’s more to be discovered that can tell us the story of what this part of Texas was like during the Jurassic,” May said.



Jurassic fossils require Jurassic-aged rocks to be preserved in. However, due to its geological history, Texas hardly has any outcrops from this historical period, with the 13 square miles of Jurassic-aged rocks from the Malone Mountains representing most of such rocks in the state.



<h2 id="h-previous-clues">Previous clues</h2>



In 2015, May and his team found a clue in a 1938 paper on the geology of the Malone Mountains by Claude Albritton, who later became a professor of Geology at the Southern Methodist University (SMU): the mentioning of large bone fragments observed in that area.&nbsp;



Indeed, May’s subsequent research expedition to West Texas confirmed the presence of such bones, which although are eroded and broken up, could still shed more light on Texas’ prehistoric ecosystems and possibly lead to further discoveries in the near future.



“Geologists are going to go out there looking for more bones. They’re going to find them, and they’re going to look for the other things that interest them in their own special ways,” said co-author Louis Jacobs, an emeritus professor of Vertebrate Paleontology at SMU.



<h2 id="h-additional-specimens-found">Additional specimens found</h2>



While today the Malone Mountains rise above a dry desert landscape, during the Jurassic, the sediments were likely deposited just below sea level within miles of the shoreline. Besides the plesiosaur fossils, the researchers also discovered several other specimens providing a glimpse of this ancient shallow marine environment, including petrified driftwood filled with burrows from marine worms, the shells of ammonites, snails, and clams, as well as range of plant fossils, such as a pinecone and wood with possible growth rings.&nbsp;



According to co-author Lisa Boucher, a paleobotanist at UT Austin, since Jurassic plant fossils from lower attitudes close to the Equator are relatively rare, these findings could make the Malone Mountains a major place of interest to paleobotanists and other scientists working on paleoenvironmental reconstruction.



While the reasons for discovering only recently these prehistoric fossils are not completely clear, the findings highlight the crucial value of field work. “It’s frequently part of the scientific process. There’re a few lines buried in an old publication, and you think ‘surely somebody has already looked at that,’ but often they haven’t. You need to delve into it,” Boucher concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.24872/rmgjournal.58.1.19">Royal Mountain Geology</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-plesiosaurs">More about plesiosaurs</h2>



Plesiosaurs were a group of marine reptiles that lived during the Mesozoic Era, specifically from the Late Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous Period, approximately 203 to 66 million years ago. They are known for their distinctive body shape, with a small head, long neck, broad body, and four large flippers.



There were many different species of plesiosaurs, some of which were quite large. The smallest species were about the size of a person, while the largest could grow to lengths of over 15 meters.



There are generally two major body types of plesiosaurs. Some, known as the "plesiosauromorph" plesiosaurs, had long necks and small heads, somewhat similar to the popular image of the Loch Ness Monster. They likely used their long necks to catch fish and other small marine animals. Others, known as the "pliosauromorph" plesiosaurs, had shorter necks and larger heads, and were likely active predators of larger prey.



Plesiosaurs are not dinosaurs, but they lived during the same period. Like dinosaurs, they became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous Period, likely due to the same catastrophic event, often attributed to a large asteroid or comet impact.



The study of plesiosaurs contributes to our understanding of the diversity of life in the Earth's past and how organisms adapt to their environment over time. They are often studied in the field of paleontology, which involves the study of ancient life forms through the examination of fossil remains.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Plesiosaur fossils are the first evidence of Jurassic vertebrates in Texas

By describing the first known Jurassic vertebrate fossils in Texas,...

To clarify the magnitude of the ongoing climate crisis, scientists from a variety of fields have recently examined how different climate systems have changed and will continue to change as our planet warms. For instance, by using rigorous mathematical models and statistical methods, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California Santa Cruz</a> has analyzed snow cover trends in the Northern Hemisphere over the last half a century, and found evidence of declining snow cover in many regions.&nbsp;



Snow plays a major role in the global energy balance, with its high albedo (capacity to reflect light) and insulating characteristics affecting surface temperatures on a regional scale and thermal stability on a larger, continent-wide scale.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-widespread-decline-in-snow-cover">Widespread decline in snow cover</h2>



To better understand snow cover trends, the experts analyzed data collected from weekly satellite flyovers between 1967 and 2021, which was divided into grid sections. The investigation revealed that snow cover is currently declining in nearly twice as many grids as it is advancing.



“In the Arctic regions, snow is going away more often than not – I think climatologists sort of suspected this,” said study co-author Robert Lund, a professor of Statistics at UC Santa Cruz. “But it’s also going away at the southern boundaries of the continents.”&nbsp;



In an analysis that took nearly four years to complete, the experts found that snow presence in the Arctic and southern latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere is generally decreasing.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-snow-cover-has-increased-in-some-places">Snow cover has increased in some places</h2>



However, some regions such as Eastern Canada are experiencing an increase in snow cover, most likely due to rising temperatures in areas that are usually very cold. If temperatures remain below freezing, this phenomenon allows the atmosphere to hold more water, which then falls as snow.



As the researchers stress though, some of the satellite data gathered in mountainous regions proved to be unreliable, showing no snow in the winter. This was probably due to a flow in the algorithm processing satellite data to determine if snow was present or not.



“The reason this study took a lot of work is because the satellite data is so doggone poor,” Lund said. “Whatever the meteorologists did to estimate snow from the pictures in some of the mountainous regions just didn’t work, so we had to take all the grids in the Northern Hemisphere, and figure out whether the data was even trustworthy or not.”



By employing rigorous mathematical and statistical methods to analyze this frequently unreliable data, this study is among the first truly dependable analyses of snow cover trends in the Northern Hemisphere, and could serve as a valuable resource to scientists interested in the effects of climate change on snow cover trends in different areas or time-frames.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-22-0182.1">Journal of Hydrometeorology</a>.



<h2 id="h-why-is-snow-cover-important">Why is snow cover important?</h2>



Snow cover plays a crucial role in various aspects of the environment and climate. Here are a few reasons why it is important:



<h3 id="h-temperature-regulation">Temperature regulation</h3>



Snow acts as an insulator, keeping the ground beneath it warmer than it otherwise would be in winter. This insulation is beneficial for plants, insects, and other organisms that overwinter in the soil.



<h3 id="h-hydrological-cycle">Hydrological cycle</h3>



Snow is an essential part of the world's water supply. As snow melts in the spring, it recharges rivers, reservoirs, and groundwater supplies, providing essential water for drinking, irrigation, and energy production.



<h3 id="h-climate-impact">Climate impact</h3>



Snow's high albedo (its reflectivity to sunlight) helps regulate Earth's climate. It reflects most of the sunlight back to space, thereby cooling the planet. When snow cover decreases, the Earth absorbs more sunlight, which can accelerate global warming.



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



Many animals depend on snow cover for survival. For instance, certain species hibernate beneath the snow, which offers them protection from predators and harsh winter temperatures.



<h3 id="h-nutrient-cycling">Nutrient cycling</h3>



Snow can absorb chemicals and other atmospheric particles as it falls, then slowly release them into the soil as it melts, contributing to nutrient cycling and soil fertility.



<h3 id="h-recreation-and-economy">Recreation and economy</h3>



Snow cover is essential for winter sports like skiing, snowboarding, and snowmobiling, which contribute significantly to the economy of many regions.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Study reveals a widespread decline of snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere

To clarify the magnitude of the ongoing climate crisis, scientists...

Beautiful,Nature,Fantasy,-,Romantic,Beach,And,Full,Moon,With

As the summer twilight fades this evening, the Super Buck Moon will illuminate the sky. While the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-new-quasi-moon-will-stick-around-for-hundreds-of-years/">moon</a> may appear to be full for up to three days, it will reach its absolute peak on Monday, July 3 at 7:39 a.m. EDT.&nbsp;



Nearly a hundred years ago, the Maine Farmer's Almanac began referring to this particular moon as the "Buck Moon." They attributed this moniker to the Algonquin peoples of the northeastern United States.



According to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a>, each full moon has a myriad of names, many of which different cultures and traditions have passed down over centuries.



"Early summer is normally when the new antlers of buck deer push out of their foreheads in coatings of velvety fur," says NASA. Another name for this lunar phenomenon is the Thunder Moon. This is due to the frequency of thunderstorms that occur in early summer.&nbsp;



July's full moon also bears different names across various regions and cultures. Parts of Europe know it as the Hay Moon, reflecting the traditional haymaking season.



Others refer to it as the Mead Moon. Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain cultures honor it as the "Guru" Full Moon (or "Guru Purnima"), a time to pay respect to spiritual or academic gurus.



<h2 id="h-what-is-a-supermoon">What is a "supermoon"?</h2>



A careful observer of the night sky will notice that the moon not only goes through its phases but also seems to vary in size throughout the month. This phenomenon arises from the elliptical path that the moon follows as it orbits the Earth. 



At times, the moon swings closer to our planet, reaching its nearest point or "perigee." Other times, it ventures further away, reaching the farthest point or "apogee."



Each full noon we witness throughout the year is at a slightly different distance from Earth. This is due to its elliptical orbit.



As a result, some full moons appear smaller and dimmer, while others look larger and brighter in the sky. The most luminous full moons are called supermoons.



Astrologer Richard Nolle coined the term "supermoon" in 1979. He described it as "a new or full moon which occurs with the Moon at or near (within 90% of) its closest approach to Earth in a given orbit (perigee)."&nbsp;



Depending on the celestial mechanics of the year, we may see anywhere from two to five supermoons. In 2023, there will be four supermoons on July 3, August 1, August 31, and September 29.



<h2 id="h-brightness-of-the-super-buck-moon">Brightness of the Super Buck Moon&nbsp;</h2>



Without a side-by-side comparison, it's quite challenging to discern the size of any specific full moon relative to normal. However, the brightness of the moon is often more noticeable.&nbsp;



Retired NASA scientist Fred Espenak anticipates that the Super Buck Moon will shine roughly 25 percent brighter than this year's February apogee full moon, which is the farthest, smallest, and dimmest Full Moon of the year.



This makes it nearly 13 percent brighter than an average full moon, such as those we witnessed back in April or May.



The concept of the "moon Illusion" also plays into our perception of the lunar size. The illusion, which refers to the moon appearing larger when it's near the horizon compared to when it's high in the sky, has been a subject of discussion among scientists and observers alike.&nbsp;



Even though we know the moon's size remains constant, the visual distortion created by this illusion can make comparisons challenging. However, this doesn't hinder our appreciation of the moon's enhanced brightness during a supermoon.



<h2 id="h-full-moon-superstitions">Full Moon superstitions</h2>



Full moons have been a source of fascination and wonder for millennia, leading to a number of superstitions and beliefs. While there's no scientific evidence to support these superstitions, they are still quite intriguing.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-increased-lunacy-during-a-full-moon">Increased lunacy during a full moon</h3>



The term "lunacy" comes from the Latin word for Moon ("luna"). There's a longstanding belief that a full moon can trigger erratic and outrageous behavior in people. This belief is so ingrained that even today, some people think they are busier in emergency rooms and police stations during a full moon.



<h3 id="h-werewolves-and-shape-shifting">Werewolves and shape-shifting</h3>



The most famous full moon myth might be the legend of the werewolf. The legend goes that some humans transform into a wolf during a Full Moon. This concept is popular in folklore and pop culture, but thankfully, there's no evidence of werewolves existing in real life.



<h3 id="h-sleep-disruption-caused-by-full-moon">Sleep disruption caused by full moon</h3>



Some people believe that a full moon can interfere with sleep. While this might be partially true for light-sensitive sleepers who have their blinds open, scientific studies generally haven't found a substantial connection between sleep quality and lunar phases.



<h3 id="h-increased-fertility">Increased fertility</h3>



In many cultures, the Moon is associated with femininity and fertility. Some myths suggest that a Full Moon can enhance a woman's fertility. While this is a beautiful concept, there's no scientific data to support it.



<h3 id="h-good-luck">Good luck</h3>



In some cultures, people believe that if you make a wish at the time of a full moon, it will be granted. Other superstitions suggest that the full moon is an optimal time for rituals, spells, and other magical practices.



—-



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Tonight's Buck Moon will be the first of four ultra-bright supermoons

As the summer twilight fades this evening, the Super Buck...

A new announcement from the UK's <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/">Met Office</a> reveals that June 2023 has officially taken the title as the hottest ever recorded.&nbsp;



The news underscores the growing concern around climate change and persistent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-are-fueling-more-extreme-heatwaves/">heatwaves</a>, with scientists cautioning that the worst effects are likely still ahead of us.



<h2 id="h-small-temperature-increase-big-implications">Small temperature increase, big implications&nbsp;</h2>



The average temperature for June clocked in at 15.8C (60.4F), surpassing the prior records set in 1940 and 1976 by an additional 0.9C. Despite the seemingly small margin, this incremental increase bears significant implications.&nbsp;



Paul Davies, the Met Office's chief meteorologist and climate extremes principal fellow, told <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news">BBC News</a>: "An increase of 0.9C may not seem a huge amount, but it's really significant because it has taken the average daytime and the night time temperature for the whole of the UK."



Davies emphasized that this pervasive heat, sustained both during the day and throughout the night, is especially noteworthy in the context of a warming climate. He explained that the elevated temperatures have consequential impacts on society, implications that extend far beyond the confines of scientific observation.



<h2 id="h-record-heat-less-rainfall">Record heat, less rainfall</h2>



Across the UK, new records were established in 72 of the 97 areas where temperature data is collected. Mark McCarthy, the Met Office's Climate Science Manager, confirmed, "It's officially the hottest June on record for the UK, for mean temperature as well as average maximum and minimum temperature."



In the west, temperatures were consistently higher than in the east, where increased cloud cover provided some mitigation of the daytime heat. June also saw a deficiency in rainfall, with only 68% of the average precipitation for the month. Wales, in particular, experienced a dearth of rain, with a total that barely exceeded half of its average monthly rainfall.



<h2 id="h-fingerprints-of-climate-change">Fingerprints of climate change&nbsp;</h2>



This data, collected and analyzed by a supercomputer, has enabled scientists to trace the fingerprints of climate change on the weather.&nbsp;



"We found that the chance of observing a June beating the previous joint 1940/1976 record of 14.9°C has at least doubled since the 1940s," Davies explained. He asserted that alongside natural variability, human-induced climate change has significantly amplified the likelihood of such record-breaking temperatures.



The warm weather aligns with current predictions for a changing climate in the UK. Dr. Richard Hodgkins, senior lecturer in physical geography at University of Loughborough, notes that the patterns are consistent with the expectation of longer, more intense heatwaves, due to weather patterns that appear to get "stuck. "&nbsp;



Dr. Hodgkins described the June heatwave as being "somewhat like a typical weather event for the UK, but stretched out in time much longer than normal."



<h2 id="h-severe-repercussions">Severe repercussions&nbsp;</h2>



The impacts of this unseasonal heat extend beyond human discomfort, with severe repercussions for local wildlife and ecosystems.&nbsp;



Environment groups have sounded the alarm on the harm inflicted upon fish populations, with the warm weather causing water temperatures to rise, and flowering plants wilting under the persistent heat. Wildlife Trusts lamented that nature is being "pounded by extreme weather without a chance to recover."



This heated June comes on the heels of last year's unprecedented event, where the UK saw temperatures above 40C for the first time. Scientists claimed such a high would have been "virtually impossible without climate change."



All this serves as a reminder of the larger, long-term transformations taking place as a result of human-induced climate change.&nbsp;



The world has seen an increase in temperature of about 1.1C since the advent of the industrial revolution approximately 200 years ago, with greenhouse gases from activities such as fuel burning heating the Earth's atmosphere. This latest data from the UK is yet another manifestation of this global phenomenon, underscoring the urgent need for concerted action on climate change.



—-



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June was the hottest on record for the UK, and the worst is yet to come

A new announcement from the UK's Met Office reveals that...

In the span of nearly a decade, deforestation in Indigenous Territories (ITs) within the Brazilian Amazon has led to the emission of a staggering 96 million metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2). This alarming figure represents a shift in the role of these forests, altering them from a carbon sink to a source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-rivers-in-the-andes-are-hotspots-for-emissions/">emissions</a>.&nbsp;



The data was revealed in a study led by a Brazilian team of experts and published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.11606/issn.2316-901x.v0i66p108-129">Scientific Reports</a>. The shocking trend is not subtle. The last three years of the study period alone (2019-2021) have accounted for almost 60% of this emission, which can be attributed to the rapid acceleration of forest destruction.



<h2 id="h-emissions-from-its-on-the-rise">Emissions from ITs on the rise</h2>



The researchers found that from 2013 to 2021, a total of 1,708 square kilometers (km²) were deforested in ITs, a figure that constitutes 2.38% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-on-the-brink-of-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">total deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon</a>. 



They closely studied 232 ITs and discovered an average annual deforestation of 35 km², showing an alarming increase of 129% between 2013 and 2021. Even more shockingly, the increase soared to 195% in the last three years of this period.



The experts also demonstrated that the distance from the borders of the ITs to the areas of deforestation significantly increased during this time, rising 30% from an average of 6.80 km to 8.87 km.



Celso H. L. Silva-Junior, first author of the article and a professor in the Program of Graduate Studies in Biodiversity and Conservation at the Federal University of Maranhão (UFMA), emphasized the gravity of the situation.



“In absolute numbers, the areas deforested in these ITs may not seem so large, but ITs are supposed to be environmentally protected, so the impact is all the greater," said Professor Silva-Junior.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-cascading-effects-of-amazon-deforestation">Cascading effects of Amazon deforestation </h2>



He further highlighted the cascading effects of deforestation, from the destruction of nature to diseases and threats to the survival of isolated Indigenous communities. A recent instance involved the Yanomami community, many of whom lost their lives due to encroachment by wildcat miners.



Indigenous Territories, typically seen as an effective model of forest conservation, are increasingly succumbing to illegal alluvial panning and mining operations. The authors point to policy reversals on Indigenous rights by the government as a contributing factor to the growing deforestation problem, thereby jeopardizing the Amazon’s essential function as a carbon storehouse.&nbsp;



Tropical forests are critically important in mitigating the detrimental impacts of climate change, serving as carbon sinks when left undisturbed. However, rampant logging, burning, and clearing are transforming these areas into substantial sources of carbon emissions, reinforcing the critical role of ITs in promoting conservation and battling deforestation.



Guilherme Mataveli, a co-author of the study and a researcher in the Earth Observation and Geoinformatics Division (DIOTG) of Brazil’s National Space Research Institute (INPE), emphasized the strategic importance of ITs in achieving Brazil's environmental goals and mitigating climate change impacts.&nbsp;



"Conservation of the forest and rivers in these areas is essential. The law must be enforced so that they continue acting as a force field to protect the standing forest and the traditional communities who live in them," Mataveli stated.



<h2 id="h-previous-warning-signs-from-the-brazilian-amazon">Previous warning signs from the Brazilian Amazon</h2>



The study, partly funded by the Research Center for Greenhouse Gas Innovation (RCGI) and the <a href="https://bv.fapesp.br/en/40/global-climate-change/">FAPESP Research Program on Global Climate Change</a> (RPGCC), echoes previous warnings.



In a Science article published the previous year, Mataveli cautioned about escalating deforestation in ITs jeopardizing Brazil’s ability to meet its environmental targets. As a part of its Nationally Determined Contribution targets under the 2015 Paris Agreement, Brazil had committed to restoring and reforesting 12 million hectares of forest by 2030 and aiming for zero net carbon emissions by 2050.



Another study by the same group of scientists underscored the alarming expansion of illegal mining activities, particularly by wildcat miners, in the Indigenous Territories within the Legal Amazon, a federally designated area spanning nine Brazilian states created for environmental protection and development.&nbsp;



This type of mining activity saw an enormous 1,217% increase from 1985 to 2020, growing from 7.45 km² to 102.16 km². Almost 95% of this increase occurred in the Kayapó, Munduruku, and Yanomami ITs in the states of Pará and Roraima.



<h2 id="h-urgent-need-for-conservation">Urgent need for conservation</h2>



The scientists’ most recent study found that deforestation intensified in 42% of the analyzed ITs, notably in 20 ITs ranging from Arara in Pará, with a rate of 0.02 km² per year, to Apyterewa, also in Pará, with 8.58 km² per year.&nbsp;



On a more positive note, deforestation decreased in 11% of the ITs analyzed, significantly in five of them. One such area is Alto Turiaçu in Maranhão state, home to approximately 1,500 members of the Awa Guajá, Ka’apor, and Tembé communities.



According to Silva-Junior, these encouraging reductions in deforestation can be attributed to initiatives launched by the Indigenous communities themselves. “The focus of the article was the threats to Indigenous Territories, but this decrease was an interesting finding. In the case of Maranhão, for example, the Indigenous communities achieved this positive result because they have initiatives of their own to combat deforestation, such as groups who patrol the area as forest guardians," he said.



As scientists continue to analyze and reveal the devastating impacts of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon's Indigenous Territories, their findings highlight the urgency of conservation and the importance of these areas in the global fight against climate change.&nbsp;



The challenge that lies ahead is considerable, but the evidence increasingly points to the critical need to uphold and reinforce the protection of these areas for the survival of their Indigenous communities, the preservation of biodiversity, and the health of our global environment.



—-



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Brazilian Amazon crisis: Deforestation is escalating in Indigenous Territories

In the span of nearly a decade, deforestation in Indigenous...

A recent study conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>’s College of Agricultural Sciences reveals that traumatic events or "shocks," such as climate disasters and loss of family income, may inflict a long-term toll on the academic progress and future food security of young people. 



With climate change exacerbating the frequency of extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-change-affect-extreme-weather-events/">weather</a> events and other climate disasters, this problem could see a significant escalation.



Drawing from data gathered in Peru, the researchers found a direct correlation between exposure to a higher number of shocks in early life and lower reading and vocabulary test scores over time.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the impacts extended to a reduced level of food security. The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11113-023-09787-x">Population Research and Policy Review</a>, provides insights that could potentially inform policies to alleviate the effects of shocks.



<h2 id="h-policies-needed-to-minimize-effects-of-shocks-on-youth">Policies needed to minimize effects of shocks on youth</h2>



The research was led by Carolyn Reyes, a senior research associate at Public Wise. "As climate change leads to more frequent and severe weather events, and economic crises and an ongoing pandemic continue to create challenges for families, it's critical for policies to help minimize the effects of these shocks," said Reyes.



As possible solutions to the rising problem, Reyes suggests potential interventions such as unconditional cash transfers, expanded social protections, and more accessible and widely available insurance programs.



Moreover, the study indicated that recent shocks have a stronger association with negative learning and well-being outcomes. 



In particular, Peruvian adolescents aged 15 who had experienced a shock within the preceding three to four years were found to have lower test scores, less food security, poorer health, and a greater burden of household duties.



<h2 id="h-impact-of-climate-disasters-and-shocks-on-youth-is-global">Impact of climate disasters and shocks on youth is global</h2>



"Household shocks experienced by kids can take an important toll on health and learning no matter where they live," said study co-author Professor Heather Randel.&nbsp;



"For example, if teens have to help take care of siblings or assist their parents in earning income, this may divert resources and attention away from school. This in turn can affect the amount of time teens have to focus on schoolwork, or it may push them out of school altogether."



It's worth noting that children are often more vulnerable to shocks than other members of a household. Especially young children could face significant, long-lasting impairment to their physical and cognitive development due to early life shocks.&nbsp;



This problem exacerbates for children from rural households, who could face additional hurdles due to environmental shocks. For example, children may be pulled out of school to compensate for family income loss due to crop failure in a drought.



<h2 id="h-study-focused-on-climate-disasters-and-shocks-on-young-people">Study focused on climate disasters and shocks on young people</h2>



Although previous studies have identified links between shocks and adverse educational outcomes, most of them relied on cross-sectional data instead of longitudinal data, or only examined the effects of one or two types of shock. 



Reyes and Randell intended to expand the study to analyze the impacts of multiple shocks on education and multiple aspects of well-being over a 15-year time span.



The study leveraged data from the Young Lives Longitudinal Survey involving 1,713 children from Peru, collected over 15 years. 



The researchers considered a diverse range of shocks, including economic or agricultural ones like job loss or crop failure, environmental ones such as floods or earthquakes, and family shocks like divorce or the death of a family member.



Several plausible explanations were proposed by the researchers for these findings. For instance, if a flood wipes out a family's crops, children might be compelled to work more to make up for the lost income, detracting them from school or study. Conversely, a family member's death could have psychological impacts that hinder school progress.



Reyes suggests that the implications of experiencing multiple shocks in early life could potentially extend far beyond adolescence and persist for many years.&nbsp;



“Because education and early work experiences are so important for future economic and social success, exposure to shocks could create circumstances that result in a lifetime of hardship,” she said. 



“Additional research could explore the exact mechanisms of how these shocks affect schooling and well-being, which could then help in the design of targeted and effective interventions.”



—-



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Climate disasters and other shocks have long-term impacts on youth

A recent study conducted by researchers from Penn State’s College...

A new report on the mating success of blue tits provides insights into the fascinating world of bird song, its evolution, and its impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-shows-giant-sea-spiders-mating-for-the-first-time/">mating</a> rituals. The study is an exciting development in the field of avian behavioral studies.



Male blue tits that display the ability to repeatedly hit the same note in a song with high precision have the best chance of attracting a female mate, the study suggests. 



The researchers also discovered that the male bird needs to perform a diverse array of songs to sustain the female's interest and prevent her from getting bored.



This intriguing study, led by scientists from <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/">Lancaster University</a> and Manchester Metropolitan University, helps illuminate the intricate evolution of bird song. 



Over a span of two years, the scientists recorded and analyzed over 7,000 songs of blue tits in the wild, as they were breeding in monitored nest boxes.



<h2 id="h-how-the-blue-tits-study-was-conducted">How the blue tits study was conducted</h2>



In an interesting experiment, researchers played song recordings to receptive female birds. The experts found that the key factor that triggered sexual excitement in the females was the male's vocal consistency. This refers to the precise repetition of the same pattern of notes. 



However, it seems that being a "one hit wonder" doesn't suffice in the bird world. Perfect renditions of the same note, while initially attractive, eventually bored the female blue tits. The females' response diminished until the males transitioned to a different song type.



The results offer new insight into why bird songs are not extremely variable among most species. Instead, birds typically present moderate variations. This creates a fine balance between sending a reliable signal of quality and preventing female habituation, thereby maintaining their interest.



Dr. Javier Sierro, the lead author of the study, shared his thoughts on the significance of this finding. 



"In songbirds, singing requires the execution of complex motor patterns within the bird. Precisely hitting those repetitive notes is the way a male bird can demonstrate to potential mates these qualities, which also cut across social status, reproductive output, longevity, sexual attractiveness, and ability to defend territories," explained Dr. Sierro.



<h2 id="h-vocal-consistency-important-for-male-blue-tits">Vocal consistency important for male blue tits</h2>



The study revealed that male blue tits with higher vocal consistency experienced higher reproductive success. Researchers confirmed this by finding a larger number of eggs in their nests. 



The pattern underlines the theory that individuals of higher quality exhibit the trait of vocal consistency. These are the birds who will contribute significantly to future populations.



The scientists also observed that vocal consistency increased over the breeding season, peaking during the 7 to 10 day period when the female was at her most fertile and laid an egg daily. This suggests an astute understanding and adaptation of male birds to their mates' reproductive cycles.



According to the researchers, a harmonious balance between consistency and diversity in birdsong could resolve a longstanding paradox in avian communication studies and provide an explanation for the level of variability in singing styles between species.



Dr. Selvino de Kort from Manchester Metropolitan University, and co-author of the study, reflected on the findings: “Our results explain why most birds repeat song structures and do not sing in a way that advertises song diversity, by continuously producing novel notes or song types.”



Dr. Ian Hartley, from the Lancaster Environment Centre at Lancaster University, added: “Birdsong seems to have evolved under opposing selective effects, which may result in a balance between repetition to achieve the ‘sexiest’ song, and diversity between songs to reduce the psychological effect of habituation.”



The report is published in the prestigious journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-39308-5">Nature Communications</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-blue-tits">More about blue tits</h2>



Small passerine birds known as Blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) inhabit Europe and parts of Asia. Their vibrant blue and yellow plumage makes them easily recognizable and popular among birdwatchers. 



Here are some key facts about blue tits:



<h3 id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



Blue tits have a bright blue crown and wings, a yellow underside, and a white face with a black stripe running through the eyes. The color intensity may vary depending on the bird's age, sex, and subspecies.



<h3 id="h-size">Size</h3>



Blue tits are small birds, measuring around 10 to 12 centimeters (4 to 4.7 inches) in length, with a wingspan of approximately 18 to 20 centimeters (7 to 8 inches). They weigh about 9 to 12 grams (0.3 to 0.4 ounces).



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



Blue tits are adaptable birds that inhabit various habitats, including woodlands, gardens, parks, and orchards. You can also find them in urban areas where suitable nesting sites and food sources are available.



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



These birds have a diverse diet. They primarily feed on insects, spiders, and caterpillars, but they also consume seeds, berries, and small fruits. Blue tits demonstrate their acrobatic foraging skills by clinging to branches and leaves while searching for food.



<h3 id="h-breeding">Breeding</h3>



Blue tits are cavity nesters and will nest in tree holes, crevices, or nest boxes. The female builds the nest using moss, feathers, and hair, and lays a clutch of 7 to 14 eggs. The eggs are incubated by the female for about 12 to 16 days. Both parents participate in feeding the chicks, which fledge after about 18 to 21 days.



<h3 id="h-behavior">Behavior</h3>



Blue tits are highly active and agile birds. Their energetic and acrobatic movements while searching for food or communicating with other members of their flock are notable traits of the Blue tits. They have a wide repertoire of calls and songs, which they use for communication.



<h3 id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



Blue tits are not currently considered a threatened species. They have adapted well to human-altered environments and readily use nest boxes, which has helped increase their populations in some areas.



Blue tits are charming and delightful birds that bring color and liveliness to their surroundings. Their adaptability and attractive appearance make them a favorite subject for bird enthusiasts.



—-



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Blue tits have more mating success when males perform a variety of songs

A new report on the mating success of blue tits...

Scientists at the <a href="https://medschool.duke.edu/">Duke School of Medicine</a> have developed a cutting-edge method that uses DNA barcoding to identify the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-diets-are-proven-better-for-human-and-environmental-health/">plant-based foods</a> an individual has consumed, based on analysis of DNA markers in fecal samples. 



This innovative technique promises to bridge the gap between what people say they've eaten and what they've actually consumed. These two things often diverge significantly. The breakthrough could improve the accuracy of clinical trials, nutrition studies, and much more.



<h2 id="h-dna-barcoding-tech-uses-genetic-markers">DNA barcoding tech uses genetic markers</h2>



This technology builds upon previous research that sought to compare the DNA found in feces to reported diets. 



Under the direction of Professor Lawrence David, who specializes in molecular genetics and microbiology, researchers have developed a genetic marker for plant-based foods. 



“We can go back after the fact and detect what foods were eaten,” explained study lead author Brianna Petrone.



The marker identified is a specific region of DNA that plants utilize to power chloroplasts, the organelles responsible for converting sunlight into sugars. Known as trnL-P6, this genomic region is present in all plants, but varies subtly from species to species.



The team put their marker to the test. They analyzed more than 1,000 fecal samples from 324 study participants across five different studies. Approximately 20 of these participants maintained high-quality dietary records.



As reported in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2304441120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, the team found that these DNA markers can indicate not only what foods were consumed. They can also identify the relative quantities of specific food species. 



The researchers observed that a person's diet, age, and household income influenced the diversity of plant DNA found in their feces.



<h2 id="h-distinguishing-between-major-crops">Distinguishing between major crops</h2>



For the investigation, Professor David's lab made use of a reference database that contains markers for 468 species of plants typically consumed by Americans in plant-based foods. 



By associating detected versions of trnL-P6 with specific plant sources, their DNA barcoding method was able to distinguish 83 percent of all major crop families.



Petrone noted that people in other parts of the world tend to consume the subset of crop families that are currently undetectable. The lab is now working on adding crops such as pearl millet and pili nuts to their database. 



The team has yet to track meat intake, but Professor David assures that the technology has that capability as well. “That relative ratio of plant to animal intake is probably one of the most important nutritional factors we might look at,” he said.



The researchers applied their DNA barcoding technique to fecal samples from participants of a weight loss intervention program. By examining the DNA markers, the team knew exactly what the participants had been fed a day or two prior. 



For instance, the scientists searched for markers of a dish called mushroom wild rice pilaf's components in fecal samples after serving it.



<h2 id="h-dna-markers-reveal-dietary-patterns">DNA markers reveal dietary patterns </h2>



The team found that the DNA barcoding technique not only identified the plants but also the relative amounts consumed of certain plants. 



“When big portions of grains or berries were recorded in the meal, we also saw more trnL from those plants in stool,” Petrone said.



The team then analyzed samples from 60 adults who participated in two fiber supplementation studies. The number of plants detected by trnL aligned well with dietary diversity and quality as estimated from participants’ survey responses.



Researchers later applied DNA barcoding to a study involving 246 adolescents from diverse racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds.



The study revealed 111 different markers from 46 plant families and 72 species in the adolescents’ diet. Notably, over two-thirds of the subjects consumed wheat, chocolate, corn, and the potato family.



The technique is not without its limitations. For example, it can't distinguish between individual members of closely related plant families, such as the brassica family, which includes broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kale, and cauliflower.&nbsp;



However, the research revealed a pattern of greater dietary variety among higher-income study participants and a decline in fruit, vegetable, and whole grain food intake as the adolescents aged. This may be a result of older children eating less often with their families.



Professor David is optimistic about the potential of the barcoding technique. He asserts that it can effectively identify the diversity of plants found in a sample as a surrogate for dietary diversity. Dietary diversity is a well-known indicator of nutrient adequacy and superior heart health.



<h2 id="h-future-research-opportunities">Future research opportunities&nbsp;</h2>



Interestingly, the researchers conducted these genomic analyses on samples they had collected years prior. This suggests that researchers could potentially use the DNA barcoding method to reconstruct dietary data for already concluded studies.



The research team believes that this novel methodology will significantly benefit various studies of human nutrition.&nbsp;



"We are limited in how we can track our diets, or participate in nutrition research or improve our own health, because of the current techniques by which diet is tracked," said Professor David. 



"Now we can use genomics to help gather data on what people eat around the world, regardless of differences in age, literacy, culture, or health status.”



Looking to the future, the team plans to apply this technique to global studies of disease. They also plan to monitor food biodiversity in settings facing climate instability or ecological distress.



<h2>More about DNA barcoding</h2>



DNA barcoding is a method of identifying species. It uses a short DNA sequence from a specific part of the genome.



In animals, the commonly used barcode region is a portion of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 gene (CO1). Researchers use this gene because it varies highly among species and is relatively stable within species. For plants, the standard barcode regions are two chloroplast genes, matK and rbcL.



The process begins by extracting DNA from a small tissue sample of an organism. Next, the DNA is amplified using a technique called Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). 



This step makes numerous copies of the barcode region. Scientists then sequence the amplified DNA to determine the order of nucleotides, forming a unique pattern for different species.



Researchers compare the obtained sequence to a reference database. If researchers find a match, they identify the species. If they find no match, the sequence could represent a new species.



DNA barcoding has several applications. Researchers use it in species identification, biodiversity studies, and food safety. It helps in identifying mislabeled products, detecting invasive species, and understanding ecosystem dynamics. 



Despite its strengths, DNA barcoding has limitations. These include difficulty in distinguishing closely related species and potential errors due to contamination or sequencing errors.



—--



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Nutrition science breakthrough: DNA barcoding can identify exactly what a person ate

Scientists at the Duke School of Medicine have developed a...

Aerial,View,Of,Earth,Surrounded,By,Space,Junk,From,Space

A new study conducted by researchers at the <a href="https://www.uma.es/?set_language=en">University of Malaga</a> (UMA) reveals a dark side to space exploration and satellite technology. Space debris, or space junk, is a threat to space exploration and also our planet.



The escalating quantity of defunct objects in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-surges-of-cosmic-radiation-from-space-directly-linked-to-earthquakes/">space</a> is a direct result of human activities beyond Earth's atmosphere. The mess we have made in space could be setting us up for a potentially devastating future.



Since the launch of the first satellite in 1957, the proliferation of space debris has been relentless. The <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA) estimates that there are now over 131 million pieces of space junk. These range in size from one millimeter to ten centimeters, circumnavigating our planet at speeds of 36,000 kilometers per hour.&nbsp;



Remnants of rockets, dysfunctional satellites, and even stray astronaut tools make up the clutter. The debris presents a serious threat to operational satellites and future space missions. “Any piece larger than one centimeter is potentially lethal in case of collision," said Professor José Luis Torres.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-theoretical-model">Theoretical model</h2>



Together with Professor Anelí Bongers, Torres led a project focused on Space Economy, which applied quantitative analysis to establish a theoretical model that outlines an optimal rate of satellite launches based on the existing amount of space debris.



Using data from NASA and ESA, the model uses computational simulations to investigate the impact of anti-satellite tests on the volume of space debris and the consequential probability of collisions with operational satellites. There are approximately 6,000 satellites that are currently orbiting Earth.



The UMA researchers dynamically calculated the quantity of space debris based on the optimal behavior of space-operating companies in determining the rate of satellite launches and the number of satellites. Their study shows that the amount of space debris adversely influences the quantity of launches and satellites.&nbsp;



“The calculations also show that anti-satellite tests generate more than 102,000 new pieces of this waste larger than one centimeter and that its negative effects take 1,000 years to disappear due to the high altitude at which tests are carried out," said the researchers.&nbsp;



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="sA5iz7AQa5-2831809-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 id="h-unregulated-global-market">Unregulated global market</h2>



The experts approached the study of space debris from an economic perspective. They view outer space as a global common good that, similar to the high seas, risks overexploitation.



This approach highlights the lack of express regulation beyond a non-binding United Nations International Treaty. As a consequence, they identify a clear "market failure," where the absence of property rights encourages misuse of this resource, resulting in negative externalities.



The researchers express concern that our increasing dependence on tech companies operating in space implies a continued rise in the volume of space debris. With that comes an increased probability of collision. “We are facing a huge unregulated market, which problems have just started," they wrote.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-hypothetical-space-war">Hypothetical space war</h2>



In a startling scenario, the UMA study also investigates the fallout of a hypothetical space war. The simulation assumed the destruction of 250 satellites. Under such circumstances, the model predicts a surge of space debris by an astonishing 25.5 million fragments,each larger than one centimeter. This would exponentially escalate the probability of collision and satellite destruction.



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2023.220802">Defense and Peace Economics</a>, is a stern reminder of the potential consequences of space debris on our global economy and the physical problems it may impose on Earth. 



The research also highlights the implications for human activities in space, both commercial and scientific. If we don't check the current rate of space debris generation, it could render space exploration impossible.



<h2 id="h-more-about-space-debris">More about space debris&nbsp;</h2>



Space debris, also known as space junk, refers to objects that are no longer functional and orbit the Earth. These objects include defunct satellites, spent rocket stages, fragments from collisions, and other remnants of human activities in space. The accumulation of space debris poses a significant threat to operational satellites, spacecraft, and even astronauts.



<h3 id="h-key-points-about-space-debris">Key points about space debris:</h3>



<h4 id="h-origins">Origins</h4>



Space junk can originate from various sources, such as satellite launches, on-orbit explosions, and mission-related activities. Collisions between objects in space generate more debris, creating a cascade effect known as the Kessler Syndrome.



<h4 id="h-types-of-debris">Types of debris</h4>



Space debris can vary in size, from tiny paint flecks and screws to larger objects like dead satellites. Even smaller debris particles can pose a risk due to their high velocities in orbit.



<h4 id="h-orbital-zones">Orbital zones</h4>



Space junk can be found in different orbital regions, including low Earth orbit (LEO) below 2,000 km, medium Earth orbit (MEO) between 2,000 km and 35,786 km, and geostationary orbit (GEO) at 35,786 km. The majority of debris is concentrated in LEO.



<h4 id="h-risks-and-challenges">Risks and challenges</h4>



Space debris poses risks to operational satellites, as even a small collision with debris can cause significant damage or complete destruction. This risk increases with the growing number of satellites in orbit. It also poses a threat to crewed missions and the International Space Station (ISS).



<h4 id="h-tracking-and-monitoring">Tracking and monitoring</h4>



Space agencies and organizations track and monitor space debris using radar systems, telescopes, and other technologies. They catalog and predict the trajectories of larger objects to minimize the risk of collisions.



<h4 id="h-mitigation-measures">Mitigation measures</h4>



To address the problem, several mitigation measures have been proposed and implemented. These include designing satellites and rockets with measures to limit debris generation, deorbiting satellites at the end of their operational life, and removing larger debris through active removal missions.



<h4 id="h-international-cooperation">International cooperation</h4>



Space debris is a global issue that requires international cooperation. Organizations like NASA, ESA, and other space agencies collaborate to develop guidelines, share tracking data, and work on debris mitigation strategies.



Efforts are underway to develop advanced technologies for cleaning up space debris and prevent further accumulation. These include concepts like active debris removal, space-based lasers, and other innovative solutions. The goal is to ensure the long-term sustainability of space activities and preserve the space environment for future generations.



—--



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Future space exploration could be shut down by orbiting space debris

A new study conducted by researchers at the University of...

Three,Parasaurolophus,Stand,On,A,Rock,Beach.,Pterasaurs,Fly,Over

An astonishing new study concludes that human ancestors survived the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-details-on-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid impact</a> that killed the dinosaurs. This fact, and other new insights into the timeline of animal evolution, are rocking the scientific community.



Researchers conducted a thorough analysis of the fossil record. They discovered that placental mammals – a group that includes humans, dogs, and even bats — originated in the Cretaceous period.



<h2 id="h-placental-mammals-human-ancestors-and-dinosaurs">Placental mammals, human ancestors, and dinosaurs</h2>



This suggests that these mammals shared the planet with dinosaurs for a brief period before the mass extinction event. This finding that throws a curveball into the long-standing debate among researchers.



Until now, it was a point of contention whether placental mammals walked alongside dinosaurs or only came into existence after the large reptiles had vanished.



Fossils from placental mammals only showed up in rocks less than 66 million years old. That was the time when an asteroid had a fateful encounter with Earth.



This evidence seemed to suggest that placental mammals appeared only after the dinosaurs' dramatic exit. However, molecular data has been hinting at an older age for this group. This finding has completely complicated the narrative.



<h2>How the placental mammal study was conducted</h2>



In an exciting breakthrough, a team of paleobiologists from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> and the <a href="https://www.unifr.ch/home/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Fribourg</a> published a paper in the journal Current Biology. In this paper, they offer a new perspective.



Using statistical analysis, they dissected the fossil record. Their findings confirmed that placental mammals did indeed originate before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs-ignited-massive-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur extinction event</a>. This incident is also known as the catastrophic Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction.



Shockingly, their conclusion means that placental mammals, the ancestors of humans, briefly co-existed with dinosaurs.



<h2>Human ancestors thrived when dinosaurs vanished</h2>



However, the story doesn't end there. Their research shows that placental mammals began to flourish only after the asteroid impact wiped out the dinosaurs. This suggests that the removal of dinosaurs as competition allowed these mammals to diversify and thrive.



To reach this conclusion, the scientists embarked on a mission to collect extensive fossil data from placental mammal groups. This fossil data went all the way back to the mass extinction event, 66 million years ago.



"We pulled together thousands of fossils of placental mammals and were able to see the patterns of origination and extinction of the different groups," explained Emily Carlisle of Bristol’s School of Earth Sciences, the lead author of the paper. "Based on this, we could estimate when placental mammals evolved."



Co-author Daniele Silvestro from the University of Fribourg elaborated on their methodology.



"The model we used estimates origination ages based on when lineages first appear in the fossil record and the pattern of species diversity through time for the lineage. It can also estimate extinction ages based on last appearances when the group is extinct.”



<h2>Human ancestors, dinosaurs and asteroids</h2>



The researchers also highlighted how examining both the origins and extinctions can provide a clearer picture of the impact of major events. One such example is the K-Pg mass extinction.



Professor Phil Donoghue, a co-author from Bristol, stated, “By examining both origins and extinctions, we can more clearly see the impact of events such as the K-Pg mass extinction or the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM).”



<h2>Primates, rabbits, dogs and dinosaurs living in harmony</h2>



Even more intriguing is the finding that primates, the group that includes the human lineage, as well as Lagomorpha (rabbits and hares) and Carnivora (dogs and cats), evolved just before the K-Pg mass extinction.



This implies that our very own ancestors once rubbed shoulders with dinosaurs.



Following the cataclysmic asteroid impact, placental mammals demonstrated a rapid diversification. The extinction of the dinosaurs might have paved the way for the successful expansion of our mammalian ancestors.



If that asteroid had not killed the dinosaurs, the world as we know it today would be much different, indeed.



<h2>More about the K-Pg mass extinction event</h2>



The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction event is also known as the K-T extinction event (Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event). It is one of the most well-known extinction events in Earth's history.



The K-Pg occurred approximately 66 million years ago, marking the end of the Cretaceous period and the beginning of the Paleogene period.



Here's an in-depth look at this crucial turning point in Earth's history:



<h3>Cause</h3>



The prevailing hypothesis about the cause of the K-Pg extinction event is that a large asteroid or comet struck the Earth near the present-day Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. It was approximately 10 to 15 kilometers in diameter, and it created the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicxulub-asteroid-struck-at-deadliest-possible-angle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chicxulub Crater</a>.



The impact would have released an enormous amount of energy. This would have caused fires, tsunamis, severe storms with high winds.



In addition, a subsequent "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-impact-sparked-two-years-of-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact winter</a>" would have resulted, caused by debris thrown into the atmosphere blocking sunlight. This would have drastically altered the Earth's climate in the following months and years. There would have been a devastating impact on life across the globe.



<h3>Victims</h3>



The most famous victims of the K-Pg extinction event are the non-avian dinosaurs. However, many other organisms also became extinct. These included certain groups of mammals and birds, as well as marine reptiles and invertebrates. In total, it's estimated that about 75% of all species on Earth disappeared.



<h3>Survivors</h3>



Some species managed to survive the mass extinction. This set the stage for the world's biodiversity today.



These include birds, small mammals, amphibians, crocodiles, turtles, and many invertebrates. Some of these creatures were likely able to endure the harsh conditions because they were small. They could find shelter, and they didn't require a lot of food to survive.



Some plants and marine plankton also survived. Their recovery and evolution played a key role in shaping the post-K-Pg world.



<h3>Recovery and Evolution</h3>



The recovery of life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-asteroid-killed-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">after the K-Pg extinction event</a> took millions of years. In the absence of the dinosaurs, mammals underwent significant adaptive radiation. They began diversifying and evolving to fill many of the ecological roles left vacant.



<h3>Fossil Evidence</h3>



There's a distinctive layer of sediment in the Earth's crust worldwide, known as the K-Pg boundary. It is full of iridium, a rare metal on Earth but more common in asteroids and comets.



This layer serves as the primary evidence for the asteroid impact hypothesis. Fossil evidence also shows a dramatic decrease in biodiversity following this layer.



<h3>Research</h3>



The K-Pg extinction event continues to be a subject of intense scientific study. The asteroid impact hypothesis is the most widely accepted cause. 



However, other factors such as intense volcanic activity in the Deccan Traps (modern-day India) and potential climate change leading up to the event are also considered as contributing factors to the extinction event.



Keep in mind that our understanding of the K-Pg extinction event is continually evolving. New research and technology provide us with more detailed and precise information every day about this fascinating period in Earth's history.

Ancient human ancestors actually did live with dinosaurs, according to stunning new research

An astonishing new study concludes that human ancestors survived the...

Honey,Bee,On,Lavender

In a study focused on the foraging behavior of honey bees and bumble bees, researchers from the <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/">U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service</a> have uncovered some fascinating insights. 



The results suggest that honey bees exhibit a higher degree of fidelity to their chosen flower patches compared to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/californias-bumble-bees-are-vanishing/">bumble bees</a>.



The study was led by Johanne Brunet, an ecologist with the ARS Vegetable Crops Research Unit in Madison, Wisconsin, along with postdoctoral associate Fabiana Fragoso.&nbsp;



An impressive 76% of honey bees in the study demonstrated a committed loyalty to the same plot of alfalfa flowers. They would routinely return to these locations for collecting more pollen and nectar. 



In contrast, eastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-flowers-do-bees-like-to-eat-most-scientists-think-they-have-figured-it-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumble bees</a> exhibited a slightly more nomadic approach, with only 47% revisiting the same flower patches.



<h2 id="h-flower-patch-size">Flower patch size</h2>



Interestingly, the study pointed out the pivotal role of flower patch size. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumble-bees-can-play-with-objects-for-fun/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bumble bees</a> showed a greater allegiance to larger flower patches, suggesting that they are influenced by the abundance and variety offered by these areas.&nbsp;



However, honey bees appeared indifferent to the size of the flower patches, maintaining their loyalty irrespective of whether the patches were large or small. 



The large patches studied were nearly 15 by 15 yards and contained 225 plants, more than double the 100 plants found in the smaller patches, which were about 10 by 10 yards.



<h2 id="h-differences-in-flower-patch-fidelity">Differences in flower patch fidelity</h2>



An animal or insect's fidelity to a specific location is contingent on their robust spatial memory. This allows them to navigate intricate landscapes and repeatedly return to familiar sites.&nbsp;



The researchers explained that both honey and bumble bees have demonstrated the ability to return to the same sites. Species-specific factors likely govern their differing degrees of patch fidelity.



The differences in patch fidelity may stem from distinct foraging behaviors exhibited by the two species. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-flowers-are-critical-for-the-survival-of-bumble-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bumble bees</a>, characterized by their explorative nature, are prone to diverse foraging bouts. They often visit more than one flower type during a foraging event.&nbsp;



On the other hand, honey bees possess a sophisticated communication system, epitomized by the famous "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-refine-their-dancing-skills-by-watching-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waggle dance</a>." 



This unique behavior, performed by honey bee foragers upon returning to the hive, effectively shares the location of fruitful food sources with other members of the colony. In contrast, bumble bees do not perform this dance.



According to Brunet, the heightened patch fidelity displayed by honey bees might be indicative of a higher degree of risk aversion. We can understand this as a strategy aimed at preventing the squandering of energy and resources or minimizing potential encounters with predators.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



The implications of these findings stretch far beyond the distinct behaviors of these two bee species. A better understanding of the factors influencing patch fidelity could equip beekeepers, farmers, and conservation biologists with the knowledge needed to better support pollinator health. This would ultimately ensure successful crop pollination.&nbsp;



The research, which is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.4606">Ecosphere</a>, also offers potential insights into the mechanisms of gene flow. This is the process by which the gene pools of two distinct populations of the same species intermingle.&nbsp;



"Bumble bees' lower patch fidelity can translate into higher gene flow among the patches they visit, creating a higher probability for bumble bees to move genes longer distances," said Brunet. "Higher gene flow in plant populations in the natural environment will also tend to homogenize their genetic diversity."



<h2 id="h-more-about-honey-bees">More about honey bees</h2>



Honey bees are a subgroup of bees which represent a small fraction of the approximately 20,000 known species of bees. Honey bees are known for their role in pollination and for the production of honey and beeswax. There are several species of honey bees, with the most common being the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera).



<h3>Colony life</h3>



Honey bees are social insects, meaning they live in well-organized colonies that can contain up to 60,000 individuals. A colony typically consists of one queen, a few hundred drones (males), and tens of thousands of workers. The workers are infertile females.



The queen bee's primary role is to reproduce. Workers perform a variety of tasks to maintain the colony. These include cleaning, feeding larvae, producing wax and constructing the hive, guarding the colony, and foraging for nectar and pollen. Drones are responsible for mating with a virgin queen, after which they die.



<h3>Nectar and honey</h3>



Honey bees produce honey from nectar, which they collect from flowers. The bees carry the nectar in a special stomach and once back in the hive, they pass it from bee to bee. 



This process changes the nectar’s composition and protects it from bacteria. The bees then store the altered nectar in the wax cells of the hive. Neatly tucked away in the cells, it slowly dries out and turns into honey.



<h3>Vital for pollination</h3>



Honey bees are vital for pollination, which is the process by which plants reproduce. When a bee collects nectar from a flower, some pollen from the male parts of the flower sticks to the bee's body. When the bee visits another flower, some of this pollen rubs off onto the female parts of the flower, fertilizing it and enabling the plant to produce fruit and seeds.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-lifespans-are-mysteriously-declining/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worldwide decline</a> in honey bee populations over recent years is a significant concern because of the bees' role in pollination. This decline is believed to be due to a combination of factors, including pesticides, diseases, climate change, and habitat loss. Efforts to help sustain and increase honey bee populations are crucial to maintaining biodiversity and global food security.



—-



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Honey bees are very loyal to their flower patches

In a study focused on the foraging behavior of honey...

Selangor.malaysia.01.10.2021.,Coke,Zero,Does,Not,Contain,Any,Calories,Or,Sugar

In a world increasingly concerned about the negative health effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sugar-taxation-could-help-combat-climate-change/">sugar</a> consumption, sweeteners have been hailed by many as a healthy substitute. However, a growing collection of research suggests that artificial sweeteners may not be healthier than sugar after all.&nbsp;



Numerous studies have linked sweeteners to various health concerns - from certain types of cancers to anxiety and cardiovascular diseases. As a result,&nbsp; many health professionals are expressing concern about their widespread use.&nbsp;



Sugar, however, is not without its own set of risks, including a higher likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes, heart disease and strokes, not to mention obesity and tooth decay.



<h2 id="h-potential-cancer-risk">Potential cancer risk</h2>



This ongoing debate is now back in the spotlight following a groundbreaking report stating that the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) is set to declare the artificial sweetener aspartame as a potential cancer risk to humans. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a subsidiary body of the WHO, is expected to classify it as "possibly carcinogenic to humans" in the upcoming weeks.



Aspartame is a common ingredient in numerous soft drinks, including household names like Diet Coke and Dr. Pepper, as well as a range of juices, yogurt, and even some over-the-counter medicines. The declaration has prompted the question of whether artificial sweeteners pose a greater health risk than sugar.



In a quest for clarification, <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">MailOnline</a> sought the expertise of Professor Gunter Kuhnle, a professor of Nutrition and Food Science at the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>. In his view, the prime advantage of sweeteners lies in their non-caloric nature, which allows for the provision of sweetness without sugar. This feature makes sweeteners particularly beneficial for people living with diabetes, as they do not affect blood sugar levels.



<h2 id="h-lack-of-evidence">Lack of evidence</h2>



Addressing the possible downsides of sweetener use, Professor Kuhnle said that while they have been scrutinized by various regulatory agencies and found to be harmless at permitted levels, there is a lack of data regarding their safety at higher levels. Thus, the absence of evidence does not equate to the proof of their safety.&nbsp;



However, Professor Kuhnle went on to note that there is no current reason to worry about their use, adding that debates surrounding their impact on the microbiome have yet to yield concrete evidence of an issue. "As far as I'm aware, there is no risk associated with it as long as it is used within the recommended amounts," he added.



Nevertheless, Kuhnle noted that sweeteners can't substitute the "functionality of sugar, " which includes the preservation of certain foods like jam or cakes and the texture they provide in the mouth.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-safe-consumption-levels">Safe consumption levels</h2>



The debate around sweeteners extends to the quantity that can be safely consumed. In the US, the safe daily aspartame consumption is 50mg per kg of body weight, while in the UK it stands at 40mg per kg. This means, for a 70kg adult in the UK, the recommended limit is approximately 2800mg.&nbsp;



To put that in perspective, an average can of Diet Coke contains 180mg of aspartame, implying an adult would need to drink about 15 cans a day to risk health consequences from the sweetener, according to the <a href="https://www.bda.uk.com/">British Dietetic Association</a>.



Yet, Professor Kuhnle pointed out that aspartame contains phenylalanine, which renders it unsuitable for individuals with phenylketonuria, a rare but potentially serious disorder preventing the body from breaking down certain proteins.



<h2 id="h-potential-health-benefits">Potential health benefits&nbsp;</h2>



According to the International Sweeteners Association, zero and low-calorie sweetened foods have been connected with improved diet quality, can help reduce calorie intake, and do not promote teeth decay. Short term trials on drinks sweetened with zero-calorie sweeteners have demonstrated that they can help reduce energy intake and weight gain when consumed in place of sugary drinks.



Global public health organizations have largely accepted these benefits of sweeteners. As the NHS explains, "Sweeteners that don’t increase blood glucose can be used as part of a healthy diet for diabetes," primarily because they don't affect blood glucose levels.&nbsp;



Before any sweetener can be used in food and drink in the UK, it undergoes a rigorous safety assessment. All approved sweeteners are considered a safe and acceptable alternative to sugar, with laws determining their permissible amounts and product inclusion.



<h2 id="h-aspartame-and-sucralose">Aspartame and sucralose</h2>



Despite this, there is a diverging school of thought among some experts. Professor Erik Millstone, a science policy expert at the University of Sussex who has spent nearly four decades studying the impact of sweeteners on human health, voiced his concerns to MailOnline:



"Evidence showing that we could not be sure that aspartame is safe has been available since the mid-1980s." He further highlighted that "reliable evidence that it can cause cancer in laboratory animals emerged in 2005 and has subsequently strengthened."



Professor Millstone criticized large food and beverage corporations and their trade associations for attempting to discredit the IARC. According to him, they are attacking the IARC simply for providing a message they don't want to hear. Professor Millstone hailed the IARC as more reliable than most other official bodies because it excludes individuals with commercial conflicts of interest, unlike many government bodies.



Further supporting these concerns, a 2017 study published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal examined data from over 400,000 individuals over ten years and found a significantly higher risk of weight gain, obesity, and related illnesses such as type 2 diabetes among those consuming one or more artificially sweetened beverages daily.



A 2018 study by George Washington University also indicated that sucralose, a common sweetener, increases levels of a protein called GLUT4, which promotes fat accumulation in cells. This alteration is associated with an increased risk of obesity, according to the scientists.



<h2 id="h-children-and-sweeteners">Children and sweeteners</h2>



In the UK, a soft drink industry levy launched in 2018 - aimed at addressing rising childhood obesity rates - imposed a tax of 24p per liter on any beverage containing 8g or more of added sugar per 100ml. Almost all major UK soft drink brands cut the sugar content of their products and replaced the missing sweetness with artificial alternatives in response to this tax.



However, there's mounting concern over the effects of sweeteners in children's diets. Dr. Vicky Sibson, a public health nutritionist and director of the charity First Steps Nutrition Trust, warned MailOnline about the risks of children developing a sweet palate from consuming sweeteners and craving sweetness in all its forms, whether from sugar or not.



Dr. Sibson explained that both sugary and artificially sweetened foods and drinks can cause dental decay - a major public health concern - and contribute to excess energy intake and weight gain. More crucially, she warned against the formation of a lifelong preference for sweet foods due to taste preferences forming in the early years. With that in mind, she underscored how much sweeter artificial sweeteners are than sugar.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Are artificial sweeteners safe? The debate is heating up

In a world increasingly concerned about the negative health effects...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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