Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

An asteroid larger than ten buses aligned end to end is currently on an interstellar journey, with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/">Earth</a> being its next point of interest. This gigantic space rock, known as 2013 WV44, is set to have a close encounter with our planet, according to information provided by <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a>.



The asteroid is estimated to boast a colossal diameter of up to 524 feet (160 meters). This surpasses the heights of iconic structures such as the London Eye, which stands at 394 feet, and Big Ben, at 310 feet. 



This enormous rock is expected to grace our sky, in close astronomical terms, on Wednesday at approximately 9am BST.



According to experts, 2013 WV44 is speeding along at an impressive 11.8 km per second. That's over 26,000 miles per hour – a staggering 34 times the speed of sound!



<h2 id="h-no-cause-for-alarm-from-2013-wv44">No cause for alarm from 2013 WV44</h2>



Despite its rapid pace and considerable size, there is no cause for alarm. Even at its closest approach, asteroid 2013 WV44 is projected to remain at a safe distance of approximately 2.1 million miles from our planet. 



Although this distance is around nine times farther than our Moon, it still earns the asteroid the classification of a near-Earth object (NEO).



NEOs, which can be comets or asteroids, are celestial bodies that have been nudged by the gravitational attraction of nearby planets into orbits that bring them into the Earth's neighborhood. They mainly consist of water ice with embedded dust particles. Most of them are the remnants from the solar system formation process about 4.6 billion years ago.



"The scientific interest in comets and asteroids is due largely to their status as the relatively unchanged remnant debris from the solar system formation process some 4.6 billion years ago," said a representative from NASA.



<h2 id="h-near-earth-objects-neos">Near-Earth objects (NEOs)</h2>



The fascinating cosmic designation of a NEO is applied when a celestial object comes within 1.3 astronomical units (AU) (120.8 million miles) of the sun. Thus, within 0.3 AU (27.8 million miles) of Earth's orbit. 



Given its projected distance of 2.1 million miles from Earth, asteroid 2013 WV44 comfortably fits into this category.



While the asteroid has grabbed attention due to its size and relative proximity, it does not meet the criteria for a potentially hazardous asteroid (PHA). That status is determined by an asteroid's potential to make threateningly close approaches to Earth, and also its size. 



Specifically, to be labeled a PHA, an asteroid needs to come within 0.05 astronomical units (4.65 million miles) of Earth. It also needs to be larger than 459 feet (140 meters) in diameter.



NASA's diligent tracking of NEOs is indeed crucial. According to their records, there are 32,254 known near-Earth asteroids in our solar system as of now. The list has grown since last October, when only 30,000 were documented.&nbsp;



More than 10,000 of these are estimated to be larger than 460 feet (140 meters) in diameter. Another 1,000 are larger than 3,280 feet (1km) in diameter. These figures underscore the importance of keeping a close eye on these celestial travelers.



<h2 id="h-more-about-asteroids">More about asteroids</h2>



Asteroids are rocky, airless remnants left over from the early formation of our solar system about 4.6 billion years ago. They are primarily located in the asteroid belt. This is a region of space located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. However, asteroids can be found throughout the solar system including near Earth.



Asteroids can vary greatly in size, ranging from small boulders to objects that are hundreds of kilometers in diameter. The largest asteroid in the asteroid belt is Ceres, which is also classified as a dwarf planet. It has a diameter of about 940 kilometers.



Asteroids are made up of different types of rock and metal, and many have craters or grooves. They can be categorized into different types based on their composition:



<h3 id="h-c-type-carbonaceous-asteroids">C-type (carbonaceous) asteroids</h3>



These are the most common type, making up about 75% of known asteroids. They are very dark in appearance and are composed of clay and silicate rocks.



<h3 id="h-s-type-silicate-based-asteroids">S-type (silicate-based) asteroids</h3>



These are the second most common type and are composed primarily of stony materials and nickel-iron.



<h3 id="h-m-type-metallic-asteroids">M-type (metallic) asteroids</h3>



These are composed mainly of metallic iron and are less common.



Asteroids can have significant scientific and economic value. Scientifically, they offer clues about the early solar system, the origin of life and the origin of water. Economically, asteroids could potentially be mined for precious metals and other resources in the future.



It's also important to track asteroids because they can pose a threat to Earth. While large impacts are rare, the potential damage is enormous, so astronomers continually monitor Near-Earth Objects (NEOs).



—--



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Asteroid 2013 WV44 is bigger than ten buses, and it's headed our way

An asteroid larger than ten buses aligned end to end...

A,Spotted,Dolphin,Family,Leaping,Out,Of,The,Clear,Blue

In an intriguing discovery that highlights similarities across diverse species, a new study has found that dolphins adopt a high-pitched voice when interacting with their offspring. 



Such "baby talk" is a characteristic behavior often observed in human adults when they communicate with young children.&nbsp;



According to the new study, which was carried out by researchers at the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/who-we-are/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> in Massachusetts, baby talk is not confined to the realm of human communication alone.



The experts analyzed the acoustic patterns of bottlenose dolphins in their natural habitats. The research focused on a group of 19 adult female bottlenose dolphins. They were recorded during catch-and-release health assessments near Sarasota Bay, Florida. 



The goal was to examine their high-pitched whistle communications. First, to record them in the company of their offspring. Next, to record them when they were alone or interacting with other adult dolphins.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered-about-dolphins-baby-talk">What the researchers discovered about dolphins baby talk</h2>



The study revealed that these dolphins consistently exhibited a <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/dolphin-everything-you-need-to-know-about-these-magical-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shift in their vocalization patterns</a>. This depended on their audience. 



The frequency of their whistles increased significantly when they were in the presence of their young ones using baby talk. Then, the whistle tones returned to normal when they were alone or with other individuals. 



The range of frequencies used was also broader. This indicates an apparent diversification of their acoustic output during mother-calf interactions.



"'Motherese' is a speech pattern that is nearly universal across cultures and languages in human caregivers interacting with children. But evidence among non-human species is sparse. Here, we report evidence for motherese in the bottlenose dolphin, a species that shows parallels to humans in their long-term mother-offspring bonds and lifelong vocal learning," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



The researchers clarified that the median age of calves in the study was two years. Interestingly, this falls within the typical age range during which directed communication towards children is prevalent in humans. 



This finding suggests similar developmental milestones in both species when it comes to language acquisition and comprehension.



The experts speculate that this pattern of communication might serve to catch the attention of the young ones. It may also foster bonding and vocal learning. 



Dolphins, like humans, maintain strong long-term bonds with their offspring. They also continue to learn and refine vocalization patterns throughout their lives.&nbsp;



These shared traits make bottlenose dolphins a promising species for studying the evolution of vocal learning and language development in humans, said the researchers.



<h2 id="h-similar-baby-talk-behavior-among-other-animals">Similar baby talk behavior among other animals</h2>



To bolster their observations, the researchers referenced previous studies that showed similar behavior in other animals. For example, adult male zebra finches were found to alter their songs' acoustics when singing to juveniles compared to when they were singing alone or to adult females.&nbsp;



Similarly, squirrel monkeys and rhesus macaques were noted to employ distinct vocalizations when communicating with young monkeys as opposed to older ones.



Separate research from the University of Florida underscores the benefits of baby talk. This suggests that it aids infants in producing their own speech. By imitating the sounds of a smaller vocal tract, adults may be guiding infants to understand how words should sound when vocalized by them.



The current study, which is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, provides compelling evidence of shared communicative behaviors between humans and dolphins, potentially opening new doors to understanding language evolution and development across species.



<h2 id="h-more-about-dolphin-communication">More about dolphin communication</h2>



Dolphins are well known for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-have-genetically-mastered-the-art-of-adapting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advanced communication abilities</a>. They use a variety of signals to communicate with each other and with the environment around them. Here are some key aspects of dolphin communication:



<h3 id="h-acoustic-signals">Acoustic signals</h3>



This is the most significant aspect of dolphin communication, which includes clicks, whistles, and pulse sounds.



<h4 id="h-clicks">Clicks</h4>



Dolphins use clicks for echolocation. By emitting a series of clicks and listening to the echoes, they can identify and locate objects in their environment. This ability helps them find food and navigate their surroundings.



<h4 id="h-whistles">Whistles</h4>



Dolphins use a series of unique whistles, often referred to as their "signature whistle," to identify themselves. Each dolphin has a unique whistle that it uses much like a name. Dolphins also use whistles to express emotional states or intentions.



<h4 id="h-burst-pulsed-sounds">Burst-pulsed sounds</h4>



These complex sounds can signal social interactions and are often associated with aggressive behavior, like when asserting dominance or during conflict.



<h3 id="h-visual-signals">Visual signals</h3>



Dolphins use body movements as visual signals. This includes leaping out of the water, slapping the surface with their tails or pectoral fins, and even using their body postures. These behaviors can have various meanings like showing excitement, irritation, or as a way to get attention.



<h3 id="h-tactile-signals">Tactile signals</h3>



Dolphins are also very tactile creatures. They frequently touch each other using their flippers as a form of social bonding or reassurance. This contact can also be a form of play or may have other social implications.



<h3 id="h-chemical-signals">Chemical signals</h3>



Unlike many other animals, dolphins do not rely heavily on scent marking or pheromones for communication. They do have a sense of taste and can possibly use chemical cues in their environment, but this is a less understood aspect of their communication.



One fascinating aspect of dolphin communication is that different populations may have different "dialects" or variations in their acoustic signals. This reflects the cultural learning that happens within groups. 



Additionally, there is ongoing research to understand if dolphins can understand syntax and symbols. This could further imply a higher level of linguistic complexity.



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Dolphins use baby talk to communicate with their young, similar to how humans talk to their kids

In an intriguing discovery that highlights similarities across diverse species,...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-can-read-dogs-emotions-from-their-expressions/">Dogs</a> and humans share an extraordinary relationship that has evolved over thousands of years. A new study has now discovered that both species process social information and body posture in surprisingly similar ways.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a> and the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna have delved deeper into the evolution of this bond to determine what makes it so strong. Their study provides valuable insight into how dogs perceive both their human counterparts and their environment. 



This finding reinforces the central role of the temporal lobe in social communication and perception. The results are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-023-05014-7">Communications Biology</a>.



<h2 id="h-perceiving-social-information-from-faces-and-bodies">Perceiving social information from faces and bodies</h2>



The groundbreaking research looks into the temporal lobe. This is the part of the brain integral to perceiving faces and bodies. It is shared by both humans and primates. 



Dogs also have this lobe. Recent behavioral studies have showcased their ability to interpret facial expressions and body language such as hand gestures. These abilities mirror the same skills humans possess.



"Whether this behavioral expertise is also reflected in the dog brain was the content of our study. Only a few research groups can conduct comparative magnetic resonance imaging studies with dogs," explained study first author Magdalena Boch.



The research team is one of only four in the world conducting magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies with pet dogs. The experts have developed training protocols to ensure the dogs are very comfortable during the MRI. They are also able to leave the MRI machine whenever they wish.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered-about-body-posture">What the researchers discovered about body posture</h2>



This research involved 40 human participants and 15 pet dogs. It presents the first evidence of a specialized brain region in the canine temporal lobe dedicated to visually perceiving body postures. 



Furthermore, other areas of the dog brain were found to be equally engaged in perceiving social information through both faces and bodies. 



Notably, the study revealed that the canine response was not confined to visual areas. When dogs view faces and bodies, there's also a varied activation in regions responsible for processing odours.



In humans, the research confirmed the existence of regions specifically designed for facial recognition. "We humans often focus on the face when communicating with others. Our results suggest that faces are also an important source of information for dogs. However, body postures and holistic perception seem to play a superior role," explained Boch.



<h2 id="h-processing-information-using-specialized-brain-regions">Processing information using specialized brain regions</h2>



The specialized brain regions were equally activated in dogs when viewing images of their own species, or humans. This finding was particularly compelling for the researchers.



Study co-author Ludwig Huber suggests that this finding speaks to the profound connection between dogs and humans. "Dogs and humans may not be closely related, but they have been close companions for thousands of years," said Huber.



"Therefore, comparing dogs and humans also gives us new insights into the so-called convergent evolution of social perception and information processing processes," said study co-author Claus Lamm.



In other words, despite divergent evolutionary paths, the bond between dogs and humans has sparked similarities in social perception and information processing.



<h2 id="h-how-dogs-process-social-information-and-body-posture">How dogs process social information and body posture</h2>



Dogs have evolved alongside humans for thousands of years and have developed remarkable social cognitive abilities as a result. While dogs' specific cognitive processes are not entirely understood, they are believed to process social information through a variety of ways:



<h3 id="h-visual-cues">Visual cues</h3>



Dogs are sensitive to human body language, facial expressions, and gestures. For example, they can follow pointing gestures to locate hidden food and react differently to happy, sad, or angry facial expressions. Dogs also observe and react to social interactions between humans, and can even demonstrate jealousy-like behavior when their owner shows affection to other dogs.



<h3 id="h-auditory-cues">Auditory cues</h3>



Dogs are adept at processing vocal cues. They can recognize their owner's voice, respond to their name, and follow verbal commands. They can also distinguish between the emotional content of human speech, responding differently to happy, neutral, or angry tones.



<h3 id="h-olfactory-cues">Olfactory cues</h3>



Dogs' sense of smell is incredibly advanced. While it's not entirely understood how this contributes to their social cognition, it's likely that they gather a lot of social information through scent. For instance, they can recognize familiar humans or other dogs through smell and may also pick up on hormonal changes that indicate stress or fear.



<h3 id="h-empathy-and-emotional-contagion">Empathy and emotional contagion</h3>



Dogs seem to show empathetic responses, meaning they can pick up on and react to the emotions of humans. For example, dogs often respond to their owners' distress by providing comfort. This emotional contagion extends to picking up on other dogs' emotions too.



<h3 id="h-theory-of-mind">Theory of mind</h3>



While the idea that dogs possess a theory of mind (the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others) is still under debate, some research suggests dogs might understand the concept of human perspective to some extent. This is evident in behaviors like deceptive begging, where a dog will more often beg from a human who can see the food they're holding than one who can't.



<h3 id="h-learning-from-humans">Learning from humans</h3>



Dogs are able to learn from observing human behavior. For example, they can learn to solve a puzzle by watching a human do it first. This suggests that dogs are not only tuned in to human social cues but can use this information to learn new skills or solve problems.



<h3 id="h-attachment-and-social-bonding">Attachment and social bonding</h3>



Dogs form strong social bonds with humans, showing separation anxiety when apart from their owners and joy upon reunion. They also prefer to interact with humans over objects or food when given a choice, indicating that they value social interaction highly.



Remember that individual differences in breed, training, and personality can all influence how a particular dog processes and reacts to social information.



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Dogs and humans process body posture and social information in surprisingly similar ways

Dogs and humans share an extraordinary relationship that has evolved...

Female,Orangutan,Sitting,At,Tree,Trunk,And,Looks,Around,Against

According to a recent study led by the <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk/">University of Warwick</a>, orangutans are able to produce two separate sounds simultaneously. This ability is much like songbirds or human beatboxers. 



These findings could shed new light on the evolution of human speech. They may also help us understand the interesting rhythms of human beatboxing.



The experts observed two populations of vocalizing orangutans in Borneo and Sumatra for a total of over 3,800 hours. From this, they discovered that primates from both groups were capable of producing highly complex types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zebra-finches-use-both-calls-and-vision-to-coordinate-flight/">vocalizations</a>.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="pIqOEjKkO0-2819565-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-about-orangutan-sounds">What the researchers learned about orangutan sounds</h2>



“Humans use the lips, tongue, and jaw to make the unvoiced sounds of consonants, while activating the vocal folds in the larynx with exhaled air to make the voiced, open sounds of vowels. Orangutans are also capable of producing both types of sounds - and both at once,” explained study lead author Adriano Lameira, an associate professor of Psychology at Warwick.



“For example, large male orangutans in Borneo will produce noises known as&nbsp;“chomps” in combination with&nbsp;“grumbles” in combative situations. Female orangutans in Sumatra produce&nbsp;“kiss squeaks” at the same time as&nbsp;“rolling calls” to alert others of a possible predator threat. The fact that two separate populations of orangutans were observed making two calls simultaneously, is proof that this is a biological phenomenon.”



According to the scientists, humans rarely produce both voiced and voiceless sounds simultaneously. One exception is beatboxing. This is a form of vocal percussion in which individuals imitate drum sounds and create rhythmic patterns using their voice, mouth, lips, and throat in order to imitate the complex beats of hip hop music. 



<h2 id="h-evolutionary-link-between-beatboxing-and-orangutan-sounds">Evolutionary link between beatboxing and orangutan sounds?</h2>



The fact that humans are anatomically able to beatbox raises the question about where this fascinating capacity came from. The current study suggests that it may have evolved from vocal abilities already existent in our primate ancestors.



Unfortunately, previous research focused on the vocal abilities of birds has largely underestimated the amazing vocal control and coordination abilities of wild great apes and thus failed to identify the possible evolutionary link between primate vocalizations and the emergence of human speech and other complex vocal capacities such as beatboxing.



“Producing two sounds, exactly how birds produce song, resembles spoken language but bird anatomy has no similarity to our own so it is difficult to make links between birdsong, and spoken human language,” said co-author and independent researcher Madeleine Hardus.



&nbsp;“Now that we know this vocal ability is part of the great ape repertoire, we can’t ignore the evolutionary links. It could be possible that early human language resembled something that sounded more like beatboxing, before evolution organized language into the consonant – vowel structure that we know today,” Lameira concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad182">PNAS Nexus</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-orangutan-sounds">More about orangutan sounds</h2>



Orangutans are known to have a complex set of vocalizations, with several distinctive calls and sounds. They use these vocalizations to communicate with each other in various scenarios, such as alerting others to danger, indicating their presence, or expressing emotions such as frustration or fear. Here are some of the known orangutan vocalizations:



<h3 id="h-long-calls">Long calls</h3>



Adult male orangutans are famous for their "long call." It's a series of roars that can last up to two minutes and be heard as far as one kilometer away. The long call has many purposes, including attracting females, communicating with other males, and signaling their location.



<h3 id="h-kiss-squeaks">Kiss squeaks</h3>



Orangutans make a "kiss squeak" noise by pursing their lips and sucking in air. This is often a sign that an orangutan is annoyed or feels threatened. Some orangutans will even use leaves to make this sound louder, suggesting that it is a deliberate form of communication.



<h3 id="h-grumbles">Grumbles</h3>



Orangutans produce a grumbling sound, typically used for close-range communication, such as between a mother and her offspring. It's a general sound to express dissatisfaction or mild protest.



<h3 id="h-soft-hoots-or-squeals">Soft hoots or squeals</h3>



Young orangutans often emit soft hoots or squeals when they are playing, excited, or exploring. These vocalizations can also be used to gain the attention of the mother or other young orangutans.



<h3 id="h-throat-scrapes-and-rasps">Throat scrapes and rasps</h3>



Throat scrapes and rasps are low, quiet vocalizations used for close-range communication and often occur during social interactions.



Remember, these vocalizations can vary between different populations of orangutans, as these great apes are known to have culturally distinct behaviors. This means that different groups of orangutans, living in different geographical areas, may have their own unique sets of calls and responses.



Video Credit: Adriano R. Lameira and Madeleine Hardus



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Orangutans can produce two different sounds simultaneously, similar to human beatboxing

According to a recent study led by the University of...

In some human monarchies, inherited power offers a ladder to absolute authority. In hyena monarchies, such power can be a slippery downward slide. 



This, according to a new study conducted by the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB).&nbsp;



By examining hyena societies over three decades, the experts came to an interesting conclusion. The process by which these animals <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hyenas-inherit-their-mothers-social-network/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inherit rank from their mothers</a> (maternal inheritance) corrodes the social status of individuals. 



Every member of a hyena clan, besides the highest-ranking queen, experiences downward mobility during their lifetime.



<h2 id="h-hyena-clans-hierarchy">Hyena clans hierarchy&nbsp;</h2>



Hyena clans are arranged in a linear dominance hierarchy. Through this method, offspring inherit their rank below their mother through a monarchy-like process. 



Thus, at the top of the hierarchy is the queen. She is followed by her offspring, and then all the other females and their young.&nbsp;



According to study author Eli Strauss, a behavioral ecologist at MPI-AB, a hyena’s place in the hierarchy matters a lot. “A lower rank means you have less access to food, you have to travel more to hunt, you are harassed more, you even have less time nursing your babies,” he explained.



<h2 id="h-how-the-hyena-research-was-conducted">How the hyena research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



To assess whether hyenas can break rank and change status, Strauss examined a database from the Mara Hyena Project, which has been studying spotted hyenas in the Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya since the late 1980s. 



By analyzing over four decades of data on hyena behavior from four social groups, Strauss found that, although hyenas could move up and down in their social hierarchy over time, they tended to slid down much more often than jumping up.&nbsp;



“You wouldn’t think this downward mobility was happening if you were just observing the animals in the wild, because the process happens over many years. It’s only by taking an intergenerational view that you realize that a daughter born to the alpha queen has suffered a significant downturn in status throughout the course of her life,” Strauss said.



To determine what causes this persistent downward trajectory, Strauss examined more closely the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-life-has-long-term-effects-on-the-health-of-hyenas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life histories</a> of all individuals. He found that hyenas descended in rank most frequently because another hyena had joined or left the group (demographic turnover).



“It’s tempting to imagine the intrigue and machinations of Game of Thrones, where animals are plotting to overthrow each other. But in hyena societies, an individual’s power is passively eroded as other clan members are born or die,” he explained.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered-about-hyena-clans">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;about hyena clans</h2>



In a further step, by drawing on methods used to investigate social mobility in human societies, Strauss created computer simulated hyena societies, which allowed him to “turn off” various aspects of their biology and thus pinpoint the specific societal rules driving this surprising pattern.



The simulation revealed two causes of this specific pattern: the monarchy-like inheritance of hyena societies and the fact that higher-ranking females usually give birth to more offspring. 



These combined factors suggest that new group members are not being added randomly, but rather on the top of the hierarchy, under the dominant females, which pushes all other individual besides the queen downwards over time.



These findings provide evidence that societal features can have a major impact on individuals, often usurping their agency in altering the course of their lives. 



“It seems that no matter what a hyena does, they are going to experience a decline in rank over time. It’s hard to fathom that they navigate lives in which everybody, but the queen, suffers a loss in quality. Clearly, they do succeed, so the next question is how,” Strauss concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0308">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-hyenas">More about hyenas</h2>



Hyenas are a fascinating group of carnivorous mammals found primarily in Africa and parts of Asia. They belong to the family Hyaenidae. 



This family includes four species: the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), the brown hyena (Hyaena brunnea), the striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), and the aardwolf (Proteles cristata). Here are some key characteristics and facts about hyenas:



<h3 id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



Hyenas have a unique appearance, with a robust build, large heads, and sloping backs. They have strong jaws, powerful necks, and well-developed forelimbs. The size and appearance of hyenas vary depending on the species.



<h3 id="h-social-structure">Social structure</h3>



Spotted hyenas live in highly organized clans that can consist of up to 80 individuals. The clan is led by a dominant female called the matriarch. Female hyenas are typically larger and more dominant than males. Brown and striped hyenas are generally solitary or found in small family groups.



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



Hyenas are primarily scavengers, but they are also skilled hunters. They have strong jaws and teeth that allow them to crush and consume bones, which most other carnivores cannot do. Hyenas feed on a wide range of prey, including wildebeests, zebras, antelopes, and even larger animals like buffalo and giraffes.



<h3 id="h-hunting-techniques">Hunting techniques</h3>



Spotted hyenas are known for their exceptional hunting skills and cooperative hunting behavior. They often work together in groups to bring down larger prey. Brown and striped hyenas are more opportunistic hunters, targeting smaller animals and scavenging when possible.



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



Hyenas communicate using a variety of vocalizations, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-hyenas-recognize-each-other-from-their-distinctive-whoops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whoops</a>, giggles, and growls. These vocalizations can convey social status, alarm calls, or coordinate group activities. They also use scent marking to establish territory and communicate with other hyenas.



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



Hyenas are adaptable and can thrive in a range of habitats, including grasslands, savannas, woodlands, and deserts. They have a relatively wide distribution across sub-Saharan Africa and parts of the Middle East and India.



<h3 id="h-misconceptions">Misconceptions</h3>



Hyenas often face negative stereotypes due to their scavenging habits and vocalizations, which are sometimes associated with eerie laughter. However, they are highly intelligent and social animals with complex behaviors.



Hyenas play a crucial ecological role as scavengers and predators, helping to keep ecosystems balanced. Despite some conservation concerns, hyena populations are generally stable, although they face threats from habitat loss, poaching, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprising-number-of-hyenas-are-killed-by-vehicles-every-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conflicts with humans</a>.



Overall, hyenas are remarkable creatures with unique adaptations and behaviors, making them a significant part of the African and Asian wildlife.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Hyena clans have a social hierarchy where very few members have upward social mobility

In some human monarchies, inherited power offers a ladder to...

Due to human activities such as greenhouse gas emissions, our planet is rapidly warming. This is already causing devastating consequences for all living beings. 



An increasing corpus of scientific articles dealing with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-reporting-can-change-climate-change-beliefs/">climate change</a> and its impacts have recently been published. Parts of it are covered by a variety of popular media outlets. 



But how does media select and relay research related to these issues to larger audiences? 



To answer this question, a team of geoscientists and psychologists led by the <a href="https://www.unil.ch/central/en/home.html">University of Lausanne</a> (UNIL) in Switzerland has recently examined how a collection of over 50,000 scientific articles about climate change from 2020 made its way into the mainstream media.



The analysis revealed that most of the research selected by the media was biased to the natural sciences. They were focused mainly on large-scale climate projections that will occur in the future. They also focused on a narrow range of threats, such as droughts, storms, or melting glaciers, while discarding the social, economic, technological, and local aspects of climate change research. 



<h2 id="h-pushing-the-wrong-buttons">Pushing the wrong buttons</h2>



According to the experts, these types of narratives often fail to activate psychological mechanisms that might give rise to pro-environmental behaviors in their readers and may thus potentially backfire, leading to denial and avoidance.



“The individuals exposed to these facts, not feeling directly concerned by them, will tend towards a peripheral, superficial, and distracted treatment of the information,” said senior author Fabrizio Butera, a professor of Psychology at UNIL. “Only a central, deep, and attentive consideration will allow the public to transform what they know into mechanisms of action and commitment.”



“If the goal of mediating research is to have a societal impact, then it seems that we are pushing all the buttons that don’t work,” added lead author Marie-Elodie Perga, an associate professor of Earth Surface Dynamics at the same university.



<h2 id="h-presenting-problems-without-solutions">Presenting problems without solutions&nbsp;</h2>



Although large-scale threats such as those typically covered by mainstream media can create fear and potentially lead to behavioral changes in individuals and groups, such changes can only occur if the problems presented are also accompanied by solutions.&nbsp;



By contrast, faced with purely descriptive articles emphasizing highly selected elements of climate change, readers may tend to ignore the problem, search for less anxiety-provoking information, and surround themselves with networks presenting more reassuring scenarios.



<h2 id="h-more-engagement-is-needed">More engagement is needed</h2>



According to Perga, in order to communicate in a more effective way that could encourage society to engage more widely in climate action, “the treatment of environmental issues in a transversal and solution-oriented way would be useful. It would show that climate change has direct consequences on our lifestyles, our immediate environment or our finances, for example.”



Such an approach requires fundamental changes in the behavior of communication managers in research institutions, publishers, and media. “For the time being, the most renowned scientific publications favor end-of-century studies,” Perga explained. 



”Journalists then give very wide coverage to the publications of these journals, which are the most highly rated. Instead, in France, for example, a group of journalists has drawn up a charter advocating the adaptation of media coverage of these issues, and calling for more cross-disciplinarity.”



“With news usefulness defined as the ability to engage society in climate actions - through the publication and mediatization of more solution-oriented, interdisciplinary outputs that take into account the public’s resistance to change - both researchers and news professionals may move from being the&nbsp;whistleblowers&nbsp;of the problem to being part of the solution,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2023.102675">Global Environmental Change</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Media coverage of climate change fails to inspire action

Due to human activities such as greenhouse gas emissions, our...

A shocking new study has found evidence that ancient humans butchered and likely ate their ancestral relatives. If both parties were from the same species, this would be considered cannibalism. The research team has unveiled the earliest and most conclusive evidence to date.



Our close evolutionary relatives engaged in behavior that might seem unthinkable today. They were butchering and possibly even consuming one another.



Published today, June 26, in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-35702-7">Scientific Reports</a>, the new study is turning heads. The leading author is Briana Pobiner. She is a paleoanthropologist at the <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of Natural History</a>.



Together with her co-authors, they examined a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/hominin-tibia-bite-marks_Credit-Jennifer-Clark-scaled.jpg">left shin bone</a> that dates back approximately 1.45 million years. Unearthed in northern Kenya, this bone once belonged to a relative of Homo sapiens.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-on-ancient-humans-and-cannibalism-was-done">How the study on ancient humans and cannibalism was done</h2>



Their investigative process involved an in-depth analysis of 3D models of the fossil’s surface. The results were startling.



They discovered nine distinctive cut marks that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-made-the-earliest-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> would likely have caused. This astonishing find marks the earliest known evidence of such behavior with an incredibly high degree of certainty.



In Pobiner’s words, "The information we have tells us that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hominin-fossils-are-a-million-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominins</a> were likely eating other hominins at least 1.45 million years ago."



This revelation suggests that our evolutionary cousins might have had to consume each other for survival.



The journey to this groundbreaking discovery started innocently enough. Pobiner initially discovered the fossilized tibia while perusing the collections at Kenya’s Nairobi National Museum.



Equipped with a handheld magnifying lens, she meticulously examined the bone for any signs of bites from extinct creatures. But to her surprise, she found what appeared to be evidence of butchery instead.



<h2>Confirming suspicions of cannibalism from ancient humans</h2>



To confirm her suspicion, Pobiner created molds of the cuts. They created the molds with dental impression material. She then sent the molds to her co-author, Michael Pante of <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a>.



She gave Pante no context or information about the specimen. Pobiner just gave him a simple request to determine the source of the marks.



Pante used cutting-edge 3D scanning technology to examine the molds. He then compared these results with a comprehensive database. His database contained 898 different tooth, butchery, and trample marks from controlled experiments.



They identified nine out of the eleven marks as clear matches for damage that stone tools caused. The remaining two marks were likely left by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-world-american-serengeti/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large predatory cat</a>. They assumed this to be from a lion because it was the closest match.



The presence of these cut marks suggests the shin bone's owner might have become someone’s meal. As Pobiner pointed out, the cut marks were located where a calf muscle attaches to the bone.



This would be an optimal place to cut if the goal was to obtain a substantial chunk of meat. The consistent orientation of the cut marks indicates that a stone tool could have made them in rapid succession.



"These cut marks look very similar to what I’ve seen on animal fossils that were being processed for consumption," Pobiner said. "It seems most likely that the meat from this leg was eaten and that it was eaten for nutrition as opposed to for a ritual."



<h2>Not “technically” cannibalism?</h2>



However, it's crucial to clarify that this might not technically be a case of cannibalism. Cannibalism requires that both the eater and the eaten hail from the same species. In this instance, the shin bone's original owner's exact species is unknown.



Researchers initially identified the specimen as Australopithecus boisei and later reclassified it as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-human-footprints-ever-found-are-believed-to-be-300000-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Homo erectus</a> in 1990. However, experts now agree that there's insufficient information to definitively link the bone to a specific hominin species.



The use of stone tools also doesn't help narrow it down. Recent research from the museum’s Peter Buck Chair of Human Origins, Rick Potts, is skeptical. He has challenged the long-standing assumption that only the Homo genus used stone tools.



This discovery leaves us with a tantalizing possibility. This could be an instance of prehistoric cannibalism. Or perhaps an ancient case of one species dining on its evolutionary cousin.



Determining the exact sequence of events is tricky. None of the stone-tool cut marks overlap with the suspected bite marks from a big cat.



The big cat could have scavenged the remains after hominins removed most of the meat. Alternatively, the big cat might have made the kill and hominins might have chased it away before taking over opportunistically.



<h2>Not the first time ancient humans linked to cannibalism</h2>



This isn't the first time that researchers have debated potential cases of ancient hominins butchering each other. A fossilized skull, found in South Africa in 1976 and estimated to be between 1.5 to 2.6 million years old, has been the center of such discussions.



Two separate studies have disagreed on the origin of marks found below the skull’s right cheek bone. One study attributing them to stone tools and the other to sharp-edged stone blocks.



Pobiner expressed a desire to reexamine the South African skull using the same techniques applied in the current study. This new discovery, she explained, underlines the invaluable role of museum collections.



"You can make some pretty amazing discoveries by going back into museum collections and taking a second look at fossils," Pobiner said.



"Not everyone sees everything the first time around. It takes a community of scientists coming in with different questions and techniques to keep expanding our knowledge of the world."



This research was supported by the Smithsonian, the Peter Buck Fund for Human Origins Research, and Colorado State University.



<h2>More about humans and our ancient relatives</h2>



Human evolution is a complex field of study that spans millions of years and involves various species, not just our direct ancestors. There were many instances where different hominin species coexisted and interacted with each other.



These interactions encompassed not only competition but also cooperation, interbreeding, and even possible instances of violence or cannibalism.



<h3>Hominin Interactions and Interbreeding</h3>



There is genetic evidence that Homo sapiens, or modern humans, interbred with other hominins. These were most likely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-may-have-co-existed-for-many-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> and Denisovans. These interactions had lasting effects on our genetic makeup.



Around 2% of the DNA of non-African modern humans comes from Neanderthals. Some Melanesian populations have up to 6% Denisovan DNA. This shows that our ancient human ancestors didn't just compete with other hominin species. They also had intimate interactions with them.



<h3>Cooperation and Competition</h3>



Early hominins likely lived in groups, just as modern humans do. Living in groups allows for cooperation. This occurs through hunting, gathering, or child-rearing. However, competition would also have been a part of their lives. Competition for resources, mates, and territory. It's likely that inter-group conflicts occurred.



<h3>Tool Use and Cultural Transmission</h3>



Evidence of stone tool use dates back millions of years. Early hominins like Homo habilis are known to have used stone tools. Even earlier species might have as well.



This ability to use and make tools would have been a crucial cultural element passed down through generations, suggesting some form of teaching and learning within these early hominin societies.



<h3>Cannibalism and Violence</h3>



As controversial as it is, there's archaeological evidence suggesting that violence and even cannibalism were part of some prehistoric hominin interactions. Ancient bones with cut marks resembling butchery have been found. 



This indicates that hominins may have sometimes resorted to cannibalism. However, the reasons for this are still unknown. It could have been due to social rituals, warfare, or survival during hard times.



<h3>Symbolic Behavior and Art</h3>



Neanderthals, a close relative of modern humans, were capable of symbolic thought. This is shown by their use of pigments and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/denisovans-drawing-symbolic-imagery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creation of art</a>. They also intentionally buried their dead. 



This suggests some form of ritual or symbolic behavior. It also means that interactions between individuals and groups were probably more complex than we might assume. This probably derived from a purely survival-oriented perspective.



<h3>Migration and Interaction</h3>



Fossil and genetic evidence indicates that our ancestors migrated out of Africa in multiple waves over hundreds of thousands of years. Different populations of hominins would have encountered each other. 



This would have lead to a variety of interactions. These could have ranged from the exchange of ideas and technology to conflict and competition.



To sum up, our ancient human ancestors likely led complex social lives with a wide range of interactions with each other. These interactions included cooperation and conflict, learning and teaching, symbolic behavior. 



Even interbreeding with other hominin species. Understanding these dynamics helps shed light on our own evolution and the deep roots of human behavior.

Ancient humans used to butcher and likely eat their ancestral relatives, possibly practicing cannibalism

A shocking new study has found evidence that ancient humans...

A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) and the <a href="https://udelar.edu.uy/portal/">University of the Republic of Uruguay</a> has recently analyzed data from a large cohort of&nbsp; people aged 40 to 69 and found a causal link between regular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daytime-napping-may-boost-literacy-skills-in-preschoolers/">daytime napping</a> and larger total brain volume – a well-known marker of brain health leading to a lower risk of dementia and other neurodegenerative diseases. This surprising finding suggests that habitual napping may help preserve brain health by slowing the rate at which our brains shrink as we age.



“Our findings suggest that, for some people, short daytime naps may be a part of the puzzle that could help preserve the health of the brain as we get older,” said study senior author Victoria Garfield, an expert in Genetic Epidemiology at UCL.



Although previous research has found that daytime napping has significant cognitive benefits – with people who had a short nap performing better in cognitive tests in the hours after the nap than those who stayed awake – this study is the first to identify a causal relationship between naps and brain health.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



To determine people’s likelihood of habitual napping, the scientists used a technique called Mendelian randomization to examine 97 snippets of DNA. This statistical method is generally used in Epidemiology and Genetics to investigate the causal relationship between an exposure or risk factor and an outcome or disease. The technique is focused on sets of genetic variants that are randomly assigned at conception and are not influenced by environmental and confounding factors.&nbsp;



Then, by using data from 378,932 participants from the <a href="https://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/">UK Biobank</a>, they compared measures of brain health and cognition of people who were more genetically prone to nap with counterparts without these genetic variants. The genetic variants influencing our likelihood to nap were identified in an earlier study (based on data from 452,633 UK Biobank participants) through self-reported napping combined with objective measurements of physical activity recorded by wrist-worn accelerometers.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis revealed that participants predetermined to nap had a larger total brain volume, with the average difference in volume between people “programmed” to be habitual nappers and those who were not being equivalent to between 2.5 to 6.5 years of aging. Although the researchers did not have information on nap duration, earlier studies suggest that short naps (of half an hour or less) provide the best cognitive benefits, while napping earlier in the day is less likely to disrupt night-time sleep.



“This is the first study to attempt to untangle the causal relationship between habitual daytime napping and cognitive and structural brain outcomes. By looking at genes set at birth, Mendelian randomization avoids confounding factors occurring throughout life that may influence associations between napping and health outcomes. Our study points to a causal link between habitual napping and larger total brain volume,” said lead author Valentina Paz, an assistant professor of Psychology at the University of the Republic of Uruguay.



“I hope studies such as this one showing the health benefits of short naps can help to reduce any stigma that still exists around daytime napping,” Garfield added.



However, since all the participants were of white European ancestry, the findings might not be immediately generalizable to other ethnicities. In addition, further research is needed to assess how habitual nappers perform on three other important measures of brain health and cognition (hippocampal volume, reaction time, and visual processing). The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2023.05.002">Sleep Health</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-napping-and-health">More about napping and health</h2>



Napping can be beneficial to your health in several ways, but like many things, it's all about balance and moderation. Here are some ways that naps can be good for your health:



<h3 id="h-increased-alertness">Increased alertness</h3>



A quick nap, also known as a "power nap," can help improve your alertness and motor learning skills. This is particularly true if you are very tired or are in need of an alertness boost.



<h3 id="h-improved-memory-and-learning">Improved memory and learning</h3>



Naps can enhance your memory and cognitive ability. Some studies suggest that napping can improve creative problem-solving and verbal memory, as well as perceptual learning.



<h3 id="h-mood-enhancement">Mood enhancement</h3>



Napping can also help uplift your mood. Sleep, in general, has a significant influence on your mood, and a brief nap can serve as a quick mood booster during a stressful day.



<h3 id="h-reduced-fatigue">Reduced fatigue</h3>



Daytime naps can help reduce fatigue, increase wakefulness, and enhance performance and learning.



<h3 id="h-potential-downsides-of-napping">Potential downsides of napping</h3>



<h4 id="h-sleep-inertia">Sleep inertia</h4>



This is a term for the groggy, disoriented feeling that can come after waking up from a deep sleep. If you take a longer nap, you can wake up in the middle of a sleep cycle, which can lead to sleep inertia.



<h4 id="h-nighttime-sleep-problems">Nighttime sleep problems</h4>



Regular, lengthy napping during the day can interfere with nighttime sleep - especially if you're struggling with insomnia or poor sleep quality at night.



<h4 id="h-underlying-health-issues">Underlying health issues</h4>



Excessive daytime sleepiness, including the desire to take frequent or very long naps, can be a sign of an underlying health condition, like sleep apnea or depression.



<h3 id="h-tips-for-effective-napping">Tips for effective napping</h3>



<h4 id="h-keep-it-short">Keep it short</h4>



Aim to nap for only 10-20 minutes. The longer you nap, the more likely you are to feel groggy afterward.



<h4 id="h-choose-the-right-time">Choose the right time</h4>



The optimal time for napping tends to be in the middle of the afternoon, around 2 or 3 p.m. This helps because it's often a natural point of drowsiness in the circadian rhythm, and it's less likely to interfere with nighttime sleep.



<h4 id="h-create-a-restful-environment">Create a restful environment</h4>



Nap in a dark, quiet place with a comfortable room temperature and few distractions.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Regular daytime napping increases brain health

A team of researchers led by University College London (UCL)...

A recent study suggests that about 16.5 million Americans could be putting themselves at an increased risk of stroke due to intense physical exercise. The individuals at risk are those living with a condition known as carotid artery stenosis, which affects approximately five percent of the adult population in the United States.



Carotid artery stenosis is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-deer-are-protected-from-deadly-disease-by-genetics/">disease</a> characterized by the build-up of plaques within the carotid arteries, the crucial blood vessels running through the neck that are tasked with delivering oxygen and essential nutrients to the brain and parts of the face. The accumulation of plaque narrows these arteries, potentially compromising their function.



Alarmingly, regular physical activities such as brisk walking, swimming, or high-energy exercise could pose a significant threat to these individuals. According to the researchers, strenuous exercises can dislodge the plaque in the major arteries, which then travels to the brain and obstructs a blood vessel, leading to a stroke.



<h2 id="h-five-percent-of-americans-are-at-risk">Five percent of Americans are at risk</h2>



The prevalence of carotid artery stenosis has seen a dramatic increase over the past two decades. Data from the early 2000s suggested that about two million Americans suffered from this condition. However, recent figures from the Cleveland Clinic indicate that the number has jumped to approximately 16.5 million, which accounts for about five percent of all adults in the country.



Risk factors for carotid artery stenosis include obesity, a sedentary lifestyle, diabetes, and smoking. Consequently, those affected may need to reconsider the intensity of their workout routines to mitigate the risk of suffering a stroke.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The groundbreaking study, which was recently published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/pof">Physics of Fluids</a>, was conducted by building a computer simulation of a carotid artery. Three different carotid arteries were modeled, representing a healthy artery, one with a 'mild' 30 percent blockage, and one with a 'severe' 50 percent blockage.



Each model was then subjected to various heart rates corresponding to different levels of physical activity, including resting (67bpm), moderate exercise (100bpm), and strenuous exercise (140bpm). The latter heart rate can be achieved through brisk walking, cycling, or Zumba among other activities, especially in obese individuals.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that exercise proved beneficial for the health of the carotid arteries that were either healthy or mildly blocked. However, for those with severe blockage, the results were characterized as "concerning."



The simulation demonstrated increased stress on the severely blocked area, elevating the risk of rupture and subsequent dislodging of plaque into the bloodstream. This dislodged plaque could then travel to the brain, obstruct a blood vessel, and trigger a stroke.



"Intense exercise shows adverse effects on patients with moderate or higher stenosis levels," explained Dr. Somnath Roy, a mechanical engineer at the <a href="https://www.iitkgp.ac.in/">Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur</a> and the study's lead author. "It substantially increases the shear stress at the stenosis zone, which may cause the stenosis to rupture."



This disrupted plaque, Dr. Roy added, could then potentially journey to the brain, interrupt its blood supply, and cause an ischemic stroke.



The researchers made clear that while intense exercise can improve the cardiac performance of healthy individuals, it could have severe consequences for patients with significant arterial blockages, particularly at elevated heart rates due to extensive physical activities.



<h2 id="h-risk-of-stroke-doubles-post-exercise">Risk of stroke doubles post-exercise&nbsp;</h2>



Further supporting this discovery, prior research, including an analysis of stroke patients from 2010 and a meta-analysis of 13,000 strokes in 2021 in Europe, indicates that the risk of stroke doubles post-exercise. These studies also linked acute anger, emotional upset, and heavy physical exertion to an elevated risk of stroke, primarily due to their impact on heart rate.



The findings demonstrate that various forms of stress, whether physical, such as intense exercise, or emotional, like acute anger or emotional upset, can result in a boosted heart rate. This increase can potentially dislodge plaque, subsequently leading to a stroke.



Dr. Andrew Smyth, an epidemiologist at the National University of Ireland, Galway, sheds light on the intricate connection between these trigger events and the risk of stroke. "We believe that these trigger events may increase the heart rate, increase blood pressure and lead to hormonal changes that alter blood flows in vascular beds such as the brain, which may increase the risk of stroke," he told TODAY.



Nevertheless, Dr. Smyth was quick to reassure that not every stressful incident directly translates to a stroke. "That being said, not every episode of anger or emotional upset or heavy physical exertion leads to a stroke. Similarly, not every individual who has a high burden of cardiovascular risk factors will have a stroke."



These revelations highlight the importance of understanding the individual and cumulative effects of various risk factors on the likelihood of a stroke, especially in populations already at risk due to conditions like carotid artery stenosis. The findings also underscore the need for personalized approaches to exercise, particularly for individuals with significant arterial blockages.&nbsp;



The research adds another layer of complexity to the balance between the benefits of exercise and the potential risks for certain individuals, encouraging a nuanced conversation about the best ways to promote health and longevity.



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Millions of Americans are at risk of a stroke from intense exercise

A recent study suggests that about 16.5 million Americans could...

Sleep is a universal experience that encompasses complex biological functions. For us humans, it is divided into different phases – rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM sleep. These sleep phases have unique associations with our physiology, brain activity, and cognition.&nbsp;



During REM <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-counteracts-negative-effects-of-sleep-deprivation/">sleep</a>, our brain activity peaks and ushers in vivid, peculiar, and emotional dreams. Meanwhile, non-REM sleep, a time of metabolic slowdown, enables the brain to flush out waste products. This cleaning mechanism plays a vital role in preventing neurological disorders like Alzheimer's disease.



Despite the clarity in understanding human sleep, the question of whether birds undergo similar processes during sleep has been a mystery. However, new research led by Professor Onur Güntürkün, head of the Biopsychology Department at <a href="http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/en">Ruhr University Bochum</a>, has recently uncovered fascinating insights into avian sleep patterns.



<h2 id="h-what-is-happening-in-pigeon-brains-while-they-sleep">What is happening in pigeon brains while they sleep?</h2>



"Birds and mammals share a common evolutionary ancestor dating back about 315 million years, yet their sleep patterns, including both REM and non-REM phases, are remarkably alike," said Güntürkün.



In order to further investigate the intricacies of bird sleep, the research team combined cutting-edge technologies, namely infrared video cameras and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). They trained 15 pigeons to sleep under these experimental conditions, and closely observed their sleeping and wakeful states.



The video recordings revealed interesting details about avian sleep. "We observed whether one or both eyes were open or closed, tracked eye movements and changes in pupil size through the transparent eyelids of the pigeons during sleep," explained Mehdi Behroozi, a member of the Bochum team.



Simultaneously, the fMRI recordings delivered insights about brain activation and cerebral spinal fluid flow in the ventricles.



<h2 id="h-do-pigeons-dream-of-flying">Do pigeons dream of flying?</h2>



"During REM sleep, we observed strong activity in brain regions responsible for visual processing, including those areas analyzing the movement of a pigeon's surroundings during flight," said Behroozi. In addition, areas processing signals from the body, especially the wings, were also active.



Based on these observations, Behroozi suggests that birds may dream during REM sleep, possibly even reliving their flight experiences in their dreams.



Another intriguing finding was the activation of the amygdala during REM sleep. This implies that birds, like humans, may experience emotional content in their dreams.



"Pigeons’ dreams might include emotions as well," said Gianina Ungurean from the Avian Sleep Group at the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence. This theory is further supported by the birds' rapid pupil contraction during REM sleep, similar to their reactions during courtship or aggressive behaviors.



<h2 id="h-how-rem-sleep-helps-birds">How REM sleep helps birds</h2>



Just like in humans, non-REM sleep in pigeons is a period of enhanced cerebral spinal fluid flow through ventricles. However, a ground-breaking discovery was made: for the first time in any species, the researchers found that this fluid flow diminished significantly during REM sleep.



Niels Rattenborg, head of the Avian Sleep Group, explained this phenomenon: "The increased influx of blood into the brain during REM sleep, which supports the heightened brain activity, might obstruct the cerebral spinal fluid from moving from the ventricles into the brain. This implies that REM sleep and its functions might come at the cost of waste removal from the brain."



Despite this, the team is contemplating that REM sleep might aid in waste removal in unexpected ways. "The surge of blood at the onset of REM sleep increases vessel diameter. This could push cerebral spinal fluid that entered the space during non-REM sleep into the brain tissue, promoting outflow of waste-laden fluids," said Ungurean.



This cleaning process might be particularly critical for birds due to their higher neuronal density compared to mammals. As such, they might need more efficient, or more frequent flushing cycles to remove waste products.&nbsp;



Birds' sleep consists of more, but shorter REM phases compared to mammals. The frequent surges of blood associated with these REM phases might be instrumental in keeping their densely packed brains free of harmful waste products.



<h2 id="h-what-the-future-holds-for-bird-sleep-research">What the future holds for bird sleep research</h2>



The experts are enthusiastic about future research possibilities. They plan to delve further into the potential role of REM sleep in waste removal. Additionally, they hope to decode the content of a pigeon’s dream.



"We hope to train birds to report if and what they just saw upon awakening from REM sleep. That would be a crucial step towards confirming whether they dream," said Ungurean.



Without the detailed analysis of bird dreams, these new findings already enhance our understanding of sleep's role in birds and humans. The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38669-1">Nature Communications</a>, underscores the significance of sleep in sustaining a healthy brain and averting cognitive decline. It also suggests that dreaming, this peculiar yet universal phenomenon, has a deeply-rooted evolutionary history.



<h2 id="h-more-about-rem-sleep">More about REM sleep</h2>



Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep is one of the five stages of the human sleep cycle, named for the characteristic rapid movement of the eyes that occurs during this phase. REM sleep is distinct from the four stages of non-REM sleep, characterized by unique physiological, neurological, and psychological features.



<h3 id="h-physiologically">Physiologically</h3>



REM sleep is fascinating. While the brain shows activity levels similar to wakefulness, most of the body's voluntary muscles are paralyzed. This phenomenon, known as REM atonia, is believed to be a protective mechanism that prevents us from acting out our dreams. Heart rate and blood pressure tend to fluctuate, and breathing can become irregular.



<h3 id="h-neurologically">Neurologically</h3>



REM sleep is a period of high brain activity. Brain waves during this stage resemble those during wakefulness, which is why REM sleep is sometimes referred to as paradoxical sleep. Several neurotransmitters play pivotal roles in modulating REM sleep, including acetylcholine, which is particularly active, and monoamines (serotonin, norepinephrine, and histamine), which are almost completely inactive.



<h3 id="h-psychologically">Psychologically&nbsp;</h3>



REM sleep is the stage when the most vivid dreaming occurs. This is thought to be related to the high brain activity and the function of certain brain regions during REM sleep. The exact purpose of dreams is still a topic of ongoing scientific debate, but theories suggest they may help with processing emotions, consolidating memory, and learning.



Additionally, REM sleep is believed to play a crucial role in brain development. Infants, for instance, spend much of their sleep time in the REM phase. It's also during REM sleep that proteins are synthesized, contributing to brain repair and growth.



Though it's known that REM sleep is important, as evidenced by its conservation across many animal species and the negative health impacts linked to its deprivation, many aspects of REM sleep remain a mystery. Sleep, in general, is an active area of research as scientists continue to unveil its many complexities.



<h2 id="h-more-about-dreaming">More about dreaming&nbsp;</h2>



Dreaming is a fascinating and complex phenomenon that occurs during sleep, particularly during the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) phase, but also during certain stages of non-REM sleep. While we often associate dreams with vivid visual or auditory experiences, dreams can involve any of the senses and a wide range of emotions. Dream content can range from mundane daily activities to bizarre or surreal scenarios.



While everyone dreams, not everyone recalls their dreams. The ability to remember dreams varies greatly among individuals and can be influenced by a variety of factors including sleep stages, interruptions in sleep, stress, and certain lifestyle factors. Some people remember multiple dreams per night, while others recall their dreams infrequently.



There are many theories about why we dream, and understanding the purpose of dreams has been a subject of debate in the scientific and philosophical community for thousands of years. Here are a few key theories:



<h3 id="h-emotional-processing">Emotional processing&nbsp;</h3>



Some believe dreams are a way for the brain to process emotions and experiences from the day. This might explain why certain events or feelings from waking life often recur in dreams.



<h3 id="h-memory-consolidation">Memory consolidation</h3>



Another theory proposes that dreams play a role in consolidating and processing information gathered during the day, integrating it into long-term memory.



<h3 id="h-problem-solving">Problem-solving</h3>



Some theories suggest that dreams are a space where the brain can work on solving problems encountered during waking hours, without the constraints of reality.



<h3 id="h-neural-pathway-stimulation">Neural pathway stimulation</h3>



Dreams might serve as a means for the brain to stimulate and develop neural connections, especially during infancy and early childhood when brain development is most active.



<h3 id="h-psychodynamic-freudian-interpretation">Psychodynamic (Freudian) interpretation</h3>



Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud posited that dreams are a reflection of repressed desires and unconscious thoughts. While this theory has been influential, it is not widely accepted in contemporary neuroscience.



It's important to note that while these theories offer different perspectives, they're not mutually exclusive, and the true purpose of dreams may encompass elements from each theory or be something yet undiscovered.



A relatively new field of research, dream science, employs various technologies such as electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to better understand the neurological underpinnings of dreaming.&nbsp;



Despite advancements in this area, much about the nature and purpose of dreams remains enigmatic and continues to captivate both scientists and the general public.



The study represents the collective efforts of various researchers including the Bochum Biopsychology team, the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, the Max Planck Institute for Neurobiology of Behaviour, the Neurophysiology Department at Ruhr University Bochum, and the Université Claude Bernard Lyon. This cross-institution collaboration adds further robustness and breadth to these intriguing insights into avian sleep processes.



—-



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Do birds dream of flying? Scientists say they now know the answer

Sleep is a universal experience that encompasses complex biological functions....

Spider,Web,(cobweb),Varicoloured,Background

In the world of materials science, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-silk-can-help-human-cells-kill-cancer/">spider</a> silk is fascinating. It's a material that's super strong, incredibly light, and remarkably flexible. Yet, despite the tireless efforts of many researchers, the complex process spiders use to create this extraordinary substance remains a mystery.&nbsp;



If scientists can crack the code, synthetic spider silk would revolutionize industries, displacing Kevlar, polyester, and carbon fiber. This material could transform everything from the production of bulletproof vests to construction materials.



Biophysicist Irina Iachina has been studying spider silk since her master's degree at the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en">University of Southern Denmark</a> (SDU). She now carries out her research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, with financial backing from the Villum Foundation.



In collaboration with fellow SDU biophysicist Jonathan Brewer, Iachina has recently made an unprecedented breakthrough in her spider silk investigation.&nbsp;



For the first time, the pair has managed to delve into the interior structure of spider silk without having to cut or damage the fiber in any way. The groundbreaking research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



"We have utilized multiple advanced microscopy techniques, and we have also created a novel type of optical microscope that allows us to peer deep within a fiber and visualize its internal structure," explained Brewer.



Earlier attempts at analyzing spider silk utilized methods that required slicing open the fiber to capture a cross-section, or even freezing the samples. While these methods provided novel insights, Brewer points out the obvious drawbacks.&nbsp;



The processes invariably altered the natural structure of the silk, potentially skewing the findings. "We aspired to examine pure, unadulterated fibers that haven't been cut, frozen, or manipulated in any manner," said Iachina.



To avoid the need for invasive procedures, the team employed techniques such as Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering, Confocal Microscopy, Ultra-resolution Confocal Reflection Fluorescence Depletion Microscopy, Scanning Helium Ion Microscopy, and Helium Ion Sputtering.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The investigations led to the discovery that spider silk fibers consist of at least two outer lipid (fat) layers. Beyond these layers, within the fiber, there are multitudinous tightly packed fibrils in a linear arrangement.&nbsp;



These fibrils, with diameters between 100 and 150 nanometers, are beyond the measurement capabilities of conventional light microscopes. "They aren't twisted as we might have imagined, which informs us that there's no necessity to twist them while creating synthetic spider silk," said Iachina.



The research was specifically focused on the silk from the golden orb-web spider, Nephila Madagascariensis, which produces two distinct silk types. 



Major Ampullate Silk fibers (MAS) is used to build the spider's web and serve as a lifeline. It is robust with a diameter of around 10 micrometers. Minor Ampullate Silk fibers (MiS) is used for auxiliary construction. It is more elastic with a typical diameter of five micrometers.



The analysis has revealed that the MAS silk contains fibrils with a diameter of approximately 145 nanometers, while for MiS, it's around 116 nanometers. These fibrils are comprised of multiple proteins, generated by the spider during silk production.



<h2 id="h-new-insights">New insights</h2>



Gaining an understanding of how these strong fibers are created is crucial, yet the manufacture of these fibers also poses a significant challenge. Given these difficulties, many researchers depend on the spiders themselves to yield the silk required for study.



However, as technology evolves, there's a promising alternative. Many researchers are now turning to the realm of computational science, and Iachina is at the forefront of this transition at MIT. 



She is conducting computer simulations to understand the transformation of proteins into silk, a project that promises to unlock new insights into this enigmatic material.



"Currently, I'm engrossed in computer simulations of protein-to-silk transformation. The overarching objective, naturally, is to ascertain how to synthesize artificial spider silk. But beyond this, I'm profoundly committed to fostering a broader understanding of the world we inhabit," said Iachina.



<h2 id="h-more-about-spider-silk">More about spider silk</h2>



Spider silk is a protein fiber spun by spiders. Spiders use their silk to make webs or other structures, which serve as both a home and an effective trap for catching their prey. There are around 35,000 species of spiders, each spinning its own unique type of silk.



Spider silk is noteworthy for its remarkable characteristics. It's renowned for its strength and resilience. On a weight-to-weight basis, it is stronger than steel and tougher than Kevlar. The exact properties can vary, but all spider silks have some degree of strength, flexibility, and elasticity.&nbsp;



The silk also has a very high tensile strength, meaning it can be stretched a long way before it breaks. These traits vary depending on the type of silk a spider produces, with some silks being stronger or more elastic than others.



The silk's strength comes from the highly organized arrangement of proteins within the silk fibers. These proteins form complex structures that lend the silk its incredible durability and elasticity. 



In the SDU study, the scientists discovered that spider silk is composed of at least two outer layers of lipids (fats) and numerous tightly packed fibrils inside.



In addition to its mechanical properties, spider silk has a number of other interesting features. It's incredibly lightweight; a strand long enough to circle the Earth would weigh less than 500 grams. 



Spider silk is also biodegradable and biocompatible, which opens the possibility for various medical applications such as sutures, artificial ligaments, or tissue scaffolds.



Despite the significant scientific and industrial interest, producing spider silk on a large scale is challenging. Unlike silkworms, spiders can't be farmed for their silk as they tend to be territorial and cannibalistic.&nbsp;



Synthetic production also poses its own set of challenges due to the complex protein structure of the silk. However, ongoing research continues to bring us closer to understanding the secrets of spider silk and how to produce it artificially. If successful, this could lead to a new generation of materials with extraordinary properties.



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Scientists are closer to unlocking the secrets of the strongest spider silk in the world

In the world of materials science, spider silk is fascinating....

New research has discovered that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/centuries-of-cooling-have-been-reversed-in-the-gulf-of-maine/">cooling</a> effect produced by volcanic eruptions on Earth's surface temperature is likely underestimated by a factor of two, and potentially up to four, in standard climate models.&nbsp;



This revelation, while not significant enough to counteract human-induced global warming, alters our understanding of the complex global climate system.



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



Led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>, the research delves into small-scale volcanic eruptions, stating that they account for almost half of all the sulfur gases spewed into the upper atmosphere. These eruptions may lack the drama of their large-scale counterparts, but their cumulative impact is undeniable.



The results of the study, which are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2023GL103743">Geophysical Research Letters</a>, highlight the need for a more comprehensive representation of volcanic eruptions, regardless of their magnitude, in climate projections. This could enhance the reliability of these models, shedding a more accurate light on potential future scenarios.



<h2 id="h-volcanic-eruptions-and-climate">Volcanic eruptions and climate</h2>



The course of volcanic eruptions - both their location and timing - remains beyond human control. Yet, the role they play in the global climate system is undeniably important. Upon eruption, volcanoes emit sulfur gases into the upper atmosphere, which subsequently form tiny aerosol particles capable of reflecting sunlight back into space.&nbsp;



Major eruptions, such as the Mount Pinatubo incident in 1991, spew such a vast volume of volcanic aerosols that they single-handedly trigger a dip in global temperatures. But these large eruptions are relatively rare, occurring only a few times per century. On the other hand, small-scale eruptions occur every one to two years.



"Compared with the greenhouse gases emitted by human activity, the effect that volcanoes have on the global climate is relatively minor, but it’s important that we include them in climate models, in order to accurately assess temperature changes in future," said study first author May Chim.



Current climate projections, such as those outlined in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Sixth Assessment Report, base their assumptions on calculations of past volcanic activity (from 1850-2014) and estimates of future activity (from 2015-2100). This approach largely overlooks the impacts of small-scale eruptions.&nbsp;



“These projections mostly rely on ice cores to estimate how volcanoes might affect the climate, but smaller eruptions are too small to be detected in ice-core records,” explained Chim.



To address this gap, Chim and her team set out to analyze satellite data to develop a more comprehensive picture. Alongside collaborators from the University of Exeter, the German Aerospace Center (DLR), the Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Durham University, and the UK Met Office, the team generated a thousand different scenarios of future volcanic activity using state-of-the-art ice-core and satellite records.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



Through a series of simulations run on the UK Earth System Model, the experts discovered that current climate projections largely underestimate the plausible future level of volcanic activity, leading to a significant underestimation of the impact of volcanic eruptions on factors like global surface temperature, sea level, and sea ice extent.



“Volcanic aerosols in the upper atmosphere typically stay in the atmosphere for a year or two, whereas carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere for much, much longer,” said Chim. “Even if we had a period of extraordinarily high volcanic activity, our simulations show that it wouldn’t be enough to stop global warming. It’s like a passing cloud on a hot, sunny day: the cooling effect is only temporary.”



Despite the underestimation of volcanic activity in climate projections, it's important to note that the cooling effect of volcanoes does not compare to the warming effect of anthropogenic carbon emissions. However, the study underlines the importance of fully accounting for the role of volcanoes in our climate models to ensure their reliability.



<h2 id="h-future-research">Future research</h2>



Moving forward, the team plans to apply the insights gained from these simulations to investigate potential threats to the recovery of the Antarctic ozone hole. They aim to understand whether future volcanic activities could impede the healing process of this critical atmospheric layer and thus maintain a relatively high level of harmful ultraviolet radiation at the Earth's surface.&nbsp;



This work underscores the complexities of Earth's climatic systems and highlights the critical role that every element, no matter how minor it seems, plays in shaping our future environment.



In conclusion, while volcanic eruptions may be dwarfed by the scale of human activity in terms of their climate impact, their role is far from insignificant. This study is a powerful reminder that our planet operates on a complex web of interconnected systems, where even the seemingly minor players can exert a profound influence.&nbsp;



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Volcanic eruptions play an overlooked role in Earth's climate

New research has discovered that the cooling effect produced by...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

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</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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