Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

In a pioneering study, researchers from Nanjing University and the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> have discovered that the early ancestors of reptiles, birds, and mammals might have given birth to live young. This counters the prevailing belief that the secret to the evolutionary success of amniotes - a group of vertebrates whose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-ever-dinosaur-found-incubating-eggs-with-embryos/">embryos</a> develop within a protective membrane inside an egg - was the hard-shelled egg (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/amniotic-egg_credit-Mike-Benton.png">here</a>).



The research team analyzed a mix of 51 fossil species and 29 contemporary species. They classified these species as either oviparous (laying hard or soft-shelled eggs) or viviparous (birthing live offspring).&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>, present an intriguing twist. Evidence of viviparity and extended embryo retention (EER) cropped up across all major evolutionary branches of Amniota. This included Mammalia, Lepidosauria (lizards and their kin), and Archosauria (dinosaurs, crocodilians, birds).



EER refers to a process where the mother retains the young inside her for varying periods. This duration likely depends on optimal survival conditions. Despite the conventional notion that the hard-shelled egg represents a pinnacle of evolutionary innovation, this study proposes EER as the primary protective mechanism for these species.



<h2 id="h-the-evolutionary-journey-toward-the-egg">The evolutionary journey toward the egg</h2>



Michael Benton, a professor in Bristol’s School of Earth Sciences, described the evolutionary journey. He noted that the first tetrapods, which evolved limbs from fish fins, were generally amphibious in nature. They depended on proximity to water for feeding and reproduction, akin to modern amphibians like frogs and salamanders.



The advent of amniotes around 320 million years ago marked a significant shift. With the evolution of waterproof skin and mechanisms to control water loss, they could break free from water bodies.&nbsp;



"But the amniotic egg was the key. It was said to be a ‘private pond’ in which the developing reptile was protected from drying out in the warm climates and enabled the Amniota to move away from the waterside and dominate terrestrial ecosystems," explained Professor Benton.



<h2 id="h-challenging-the-current-textbooks">Challenging the current textbooks</h2>



However, this traditional perspective has now been challenged, according to project leader Professor Baoyu Jiang. Biologists had observed that many lizards and snakes exhibit flexible reproductive strategies, shifting between oviparity and viviparity.&nbsp;



"Sometimes, closely related species show both behaviors, and it turns out that live-bearing lizards can flip back to laying eggs much more easily than had been assumed," said Professor Jiang.



Fossil evidence, too, has indicated a predilection for live birth. "Many of them were live-bearers, including the Mesozoic marine reptiles like ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs," noted Dr. Armin Elsler.



He also mentioned the case of a choristodere from the Cretaceous of China, which underscored the recurring interplay between oviparity and viviparity across various groups, not just in lizards.



Dr. Joseph Keating elaborated on the pervasiveness of EER among today's vertebrates: "Their young can be released, either inside an egg or as little wrigglers, at different developmental stages."&nbsp;



Dr. Keating also speculated on the potential ecological advantages of EER. The strategy could potentially allow mothers to birth their young when conditions are most favorable - when temperatures are warm enough, and food supplies are abundant.



The "reptile egg" model once lauded in textbooks now seems to be obsolete, according to Professor Benton. He argued that the earliest amniotes likely employed EER instead of laying hard-shelled eggs. This enabled them to safeguard the developing embryo within the mother for an adjustable duration, thereby postponing birth until conditions were favorable.&nbsp;



"Whether the first amniote babies were born in parchment eggs or emerged as live, quick little insect-eaters remains a mystery," said Professor Benton. "However, this adaptive parental protection gave them an edge over the earlier tetrapods."



<h2 id="h-study-upends-long-held-beliefs">Study upends long held beliefs</h2>



This research provides a profound revision of our understanding of early vertebrate evolution. It replaces the idea of the hard-shelled egg as the key protective measure with the concept of EER.&nbsp;



The latter not only provides the offspring with a safeguarding environment but also allows for birth to be delayed until the most suitable conditions are met. This significantly enhances the offspring's chances of survival and, consequently, the successful continuation of the species.



The evidence from both fossil and living species sheds new light on the reproductive flexibility in the animal kingdom. It underlines how nature's strategies for survival can be far more diverse and adaptable than previously assumed.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-shaking-the-foundations-but-still-much-to-learn">Shaking the foundations, but still much to learn</h2>



This aspect, which seems to be particularly relevant among lizards and snakes, suggests that the reproductive methods of these creatures are much more plastic and reactive to environmental conditions than we understood before.



In conclusion, the research shakes the foundations of the conventional belief surrounding the evolution of amniotes. The study highlights how early reptiles, birds, and mammals might have leaned more toward live birth than egg-laying.&nbsp;



Although it raises as many questions as it answers, one thing is certain: this finding injects fresh perspective into our understanding of the complex journey of life on Earth. The story of amniotes and their reproduction methods is evidently more intricate and fascinating than we ever imagined.



<h2 id="h-more-about-amniotes">More about amniotes</h2>



Amniotes are a group of tetrapods (four-limbed animals with vertebrae) that includes reptiles, birds, and mammals. The defining characteristic of amniotes is the presence of the amnion during embryonic development—a thin, tough membrane that surrounds the embryo, enclosing it in an amniotic cavity filled with fluid.



Here's a deeper look into what makes amniotes unique:



<h3 id="h-evolutionary-origin">Evolutionary origin&nbsp;</h3>



Amniotes first appeared during the Carboniferous period, roughly 312 million years ago. The earliest amniotes, like Casineria and Westlothiana, were small, lizard-like animals. They were among the first land-dwelling vertebrates, evolving from amphibian ancestors.



<h3 id="h-amniotic-egg">Amniotic egg</h3>



The name "amniote" comes from the amniotic egg, which is a key evolutionary adaptation. The egg contains several extraembryonic membranes: the amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois. The amnion, as mentioned before, surrounds the embryo in a fluid-filled cavity, protecting it from desiccation and physical shock. The chorion facilitates gas exchange. The yolk sac provides nourishment from the yolk, while the allantois deals with waste management and also aids in respiration.



<h3 id="h-water-independent-reproduction">Water-independent reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



The evolution of the amniotic egg allowed amniotes to reproduce away from bodies of water, unlike their amphibian ancestors which needed to return to water to lay their eggs. This was a significant development that helped amniotes spread across the globe and colonize a variety of terrestrial habitats.



<h3 id="h-internal-fertilization">Internal fertilization&nbsp;</h3>



Amniotes also exhibit internal fertilization, meaning the egg is fertilized inside the body of the female. This is another adaptation that allowed amniotes to become fully terrestrial.



<h3 id="h-diverse-classification">Diverse classification</h3>



There are two main classes of amniotes: the synapsids and the sauropsids. Synapsids include mammals and their extinct relatives. Sauropsids include birds, reptiles, and their extinct relatives, such as dinosaurs. This division is based on differences in the number and arrangement of temporal fenestrae (openings) in the skull.



<h3 id="h-thermoregulation">Thermoregulation&nbsp;</h3>



Amniotes can be ectothermic (relying on external sources to regulate body temperature) like most reptiles, or endothermic (regulating body temperature internally) like birds and mammals.



<h3 id="h-variety-in-size-and-habitats">Variety in size and habitats</h3>



Amniotes can range from very small creatures such as shrews and hummingbirds, to some of the largest animals ever to have existed, like the blue whale and the long-necked, long-tailed dinosaurs known as sauropods. They have colonized nearly all habitats on Earth, from the deepest oceans (like whales) to the air (like birds), and from tropical rainforests to polar regions.



<h3 id="h-anatomical-features">Anatomical features&nbsp;</h3>



Other common features of amniotes include a more advanced jaw structure compared to amphibians, a high metabolic rate, a well-developed nervous system, and complex social behaviors.



More research is being done to understand the evolution and adaptation mechanisms of amniotes, including studies related to their reproductive strategies.



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Did the reptile or the egg come first? Scientists have changed their minds

In a pioneering study, researchers from Nanjing University and the...

Kepler-35

An unprecedented multi-planetary system discovery by an international team of astronomers has ignited new interest in the fascinating field of space science.&nbsp;



This team has announced the discovery of the second multiplanetary circumbinary system ever found. This system, which is not your everyday planetary system, features <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/">planets</a> orbiting not one, but two stars at its core, in stark contrast to the single-star orbit we see in our own Solar System.



<h2 id="h-researchers-name-the-system-bebop-1c">Researchers name the system BEBOP-1c</h2>



Published in today's issue of the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41550-023-01948-4.">Nature Astronomy</a>, the discovery is the result of rigorous research by the team at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>. The researchers have named their new discovery as BEBOP-1c, echoing the project that produced the data, called BEBOP, which stands for Binaries Escorted By Orbiting Planets. The system is also referred to as TOI-1338.



This planetary system is not entirely new to us. It's the same system where, back in 2020, astronomers detected a circumbinary planet, TOI-1338b, using data from NASA’s TESS space telescope. The University of Birmingham team played a part in that discovery, too.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-transit-method-vs-the-doppler-method">Transit method vs. the Doppler method</h2>



The finding was possible through the transit method, which involves observing a planet passing in front of its host star. This particular planet happened to transit the brighter of the two stars in its system multiple times, catching the team's attention.



“The transit method permitted us to measure the size of TOI-1338b, but not its mass which is the planet’s most fundamental parameter," explained study lead author Dr. Matthew Standing, who earned his PhD at the University of Birmingham and is currently a researcher at The Open University.



As it turns out, the BEBOP team was already tracking this system, using a different detection method, known as the Doppler method. This method, which measures the velocity of stars, led to the first-ever detection of an exoplanet.



<h2 id="h-high-tech-equipment-used-in-the-atacama-desert">High-tech equipment used in the Atacama Desert</h2>



Using cutting-edge equipment installed on telescopes located in the Atacama Desert in Chile, the team set out to measure the mass of TOI-1338b. Despite years of hard work and dedication, the team was unable to accomplish this. But instead, they found a second planet, BEBOP-1c, and were able to measure its mass.



David Martin, a Sagan Fellow and astronomer at Ohio State University, points out that “only 12 circumbinary systems are known so far, and this is only the second that hosts more than one planet.”



“BEBOP-1c has an orbital period of 215 days, and a mass 65 times larger than Earth, which is about five times less than Jupiter’s mass," said Dr. Standing.



The detection of this system posed numerous challenges, including a six-month-long interruption due to the COVID pandemic when the Chilean telescopes were forced to close down. The critical part of the planet's orbit only became observable again last year, which allowed the team to finalize their detection.



<h2 id="h-more-planets-may-be-found-in-bebop-1c">More planets may be found in BEBOP-1c</h2>



This multiplanetary circumbinary system, TOI-1338/BEBOP-1, currently known to host two planets, may hold more surprises in the future. The researchers are hopeful that further observations could reveal additional planetary bodies.



Despite their scarcity, circumbinary planets play a significant role in enhancing our understanding of planetary formation. Dr. Lalitha Sairam is a researcher at the University of Birmingham and second author of the study. She noted that planets are born in a disc of matter surrounding a young star, where mass progressively gathers into planets.



<h2 id="h-how-circumbinary-systems-work">How circumbinary systems work</h2>



When it comes to circumbinary systems, the disc of matter encompasses both stars. As the stars orbit each other, their gravitational forces interact with the disc, like a massive paddle stirring up the surrounding matter.&nbsp;



This disrupts the disc close to the stars, preventing planet formation except in quiet regions that are distant from the binary system. "It is easier to pinpoint the location and conditions of planet formation in circumbinary systems compared to single stars like the Sun," said Dr. Sairam.



<h2 id="h-the-next-phase-of-the-study">The next phase of the study</h2>



The research team still has work to do with BEBOP-1c. While they have determined its mass, the size of the planet remains a mystery. In an effort to solve this, the researchers are planning to use the transit method to measure its dimensions.



During their attempts to detect the inner planet, TOI-1338b, the team managed to place a stringent upper limit on its mass. This boundary has revealed that the planet has a lower density than a Victoria Sponge cake, a trait that sets it apart as a particularly unique celestial body.&nbsp;



As such, it becomes an ideal candidate for further investigation with the James Webb space telescope. Future observations may shed light on the chemical environment in which this rare circumbinary planet formed.



This exciting find marks yet another leap forward in our understanding of the cosmos. It challenges us to broaden our conceptions of planetary systems and offers invaluable insights into the processes that shape them. The ongoing study of circumbinary planets may well hold the key to unlocking more of the universe's many secrets.



<h2 id="h-more-about-circumbinary-systems">More about circumbinary systems</h2>



Circumbinary systems, as the name suggests, are astronomical systems featuring two stars at the center with planets orbiting both stars. The term "circumbinary" is derived from Latin, with "circum" meaning around and "binary" referring to a system of two stars.



The concept of a planet in a stable orbit around two stars, also known as a binary star system, challenges our traditional perspective of a solar system like ours, where planets orbit a single star.



The existence of circumbinary planets was purely theoretical until the first such planet was detected in 1993. This planet, called PSR B1620-26 b, was discovered orbiting a pair of stars: a pulsar and a white dwarf. However, this discovery was an unusual case because the planet is thought to have originally formed around the pulsar before it became a neutron star.



<h3 id="h-kepler-spacecraft-found-the-first-one">Kepler spacecraft found the first one</h3>



The first detection of a circumbinary planet formed in a protoplanetary disc, like how planets form in our Solar System, occurred in 2011 with the discovery of Kepler-16b by NASA's Kepler spacecraft. The planet, located about 200 light-years away, orbits two stars that are also orbiting each other.



Observing and studying circumbinary systems can be more challenging than single-star systems. For instance, the gravitational dynamics in these systems are more complex due to the interaction of the two stars and their planets. Additionally, these planets follow a more complicated path, and the gravitational forces they experience can vary significantly as the distance between the two stars changes.



<h3 id="h-many-questions-remain-about-circumbinary-systems">Many questions remain about circumbinary systems</h3>



The discovery of circumbinary systems has significant implications for our understanding of planetary formation. For example, the existence of circumbinary planets challenges the classical model of planet formation, suggesting that planet formation processes are more flexible and diverse than previously assumed.



There are roughly a dozen known circumbinary systems. However, scientists anticipate discovering more as observational technology and techniques continue to improve. Despite their rarity, these systems are of considerable interest to scientists, as they provide a unique perspective on the processes of star and planet formation.



Image Credit: NASA



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Astronomers discover planetary system that resembles Tatooine from Star Wars

An unprecedented multi-planetary system discovery by an international team of...

Fitness,Woman,Celebrating,Fitness,Workout,Success,And,Motivation,Towards,The

A research team led by the <a href="https://nin.nl/">Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience</a> has recently explored the role of the neurotransmitter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-influences-our-motivation-to-exercise/">dopamine</a> in learning and motivation. Traditionally, there have been two contrasting perspectives on dopamine’s function, one suggesting that it serves as a learning signal and the other proposing that it drives motivation. However, a series of experiments has now revealed that dopamine may in fact be involved in both of these processes.



The role of the dopamine system in signaling reward-related information and facilitating rewarding actions is widely recognized. Researchers commonly investigate this phenomenon through two types of conditioning experiments.



<h2 id="h-pavlovian-and-operant-conditioning">Pavlovian and operant conditioning</h2>



Pavlovian conditioning involves the formation of associations between previously unrelated situations or stimuli in the brain. A famous illustration is Pavlov’s experiment with a dog, where a sound (initially unrelated to food) was repeatedly paired with food delivery. As a result, the dog eventually learned to associate the sound alone with the impending arrival of food, leading to a salivation response.



By contrast, operant conditioning - also known as instrumental learning - focuses on an individual’s behavior to earn a reward. In this scenario, the individual must engage in a specific action, referred to as an operant response, following the presentation of a stimulus (such as a sound) to obtain the reward. For instance, in animal experiments, pressing a lever is a common operant response used to receive a food reward.



By employing both Pavlovian and operant conditioning experiments, researchers can gain insights into the intricate workings of the dopamine system, its role in processing rewards, and its influence on motivated behavior.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



In the new study, the scientists used two groups of male rats to compare the two conditioning paradigms while measuring dopamine release in their nucleus accumbens, a key brain region involved in processing reward-related information.&nbsp;



In the Pavlovian group, a cue light was illuminated for five seconds, followed by the delivery of a food pellet into the reward magazine after the light turned off. In the operant conditioning group, turning off the cue light triggered the extension of a lever below the light into the operant box. Pressing the lever once immediately resulted in the delivery of a food pellet reward into the food magazine. If no lever press occurred within five seconds, the lever was retracted, and no reward was given.



<h2 id="h-what-the-experts-discovered">What the experts discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The experiments revealed that rats in both groups released the same amount of dopamine when the reward-predictive cue was presented. However, only the operant-conditioning group exhibited a sustained plateau of dopamine concentration throughout the entire five-second cue presentation, which persisted even before the lever press. This sustained dopamine release was consistently observed across various experimental parameters and behavioral training manipulations.&nbsp;



The researchers suggest that sustained dopamine levels may serve as an intermediary between learning and action, closely linked to the motivation to perform actions that lead to reward attainment.



“Our results bring together the two camps of scientists that often battle with each other: one says that dopamine is a so-called reward-prediction error signal, meaning that dopamine is released when something better than expected happens, and is suppressed when something worse than expected happens. It is a learning (or teaching) signal,” said study senior author Ingo Willuhn, a neuroscientist at the Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience.&nbsp;



“The other camp says that this is not true. They say that dopamine has something to do with motivation. Increased dopamine release will invigorate the subjects and they work harder to get the reward. There have been a few attempts in the past to bring these two camps together, but there is still need for more knowledge on the subject.”



“What we saw in our study is that only in the operant-learning task dopamine levels stayed high. It seems that the motivation is encoded in this plateau. Reward prediction is the initial dopamine peak, but how much the signal stays up, reflects motivation. Thus, our paper suggests that there is a possibility that dopamine is involved in both, learning and motivation. The next steps will be to get more details out of this. We need to replicate the experiments and make them more sophisticated. The more sophisticated you make it, the more precise our predictions have to be. We are going to build on it and see whether it still holds up.”



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Since dopamine is not only involved in everyday life, but also in disorders such as addiction, schizophrenia, or Parkinson’s disease, these findings could have significant clinical implications. For instance, prescribed drugs could influence both the learning and motivation systems at the same time, making most of them problematic for treating various conditions.&nbsp;



“If you give schizophrenic patients classic antipsychotic medication, they become slow and cannot act much because their motivation system is down. Parkinson’s patients take pro-dopamine drugs essentially because they lost their dopamine, but some patients start to gamble because their dopamine system is on overdrive suddenly. We cannot influence learning and motivation components separately. As soon as you give a drug it is going to hit all of it, so it is good to keep that in mind,” Willuhn explained.&nbsp;



Thus, better understanding the complex role dopamine plays in the brain could potentially lead to the development of more efficient treatments and positively contribute to individual and public health. The study is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1527-22.2023">The Journal of Neuroscience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Dopamine regulates both learning and motivation

A research team led by the Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience...

By using MRI and audio recordings, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.utdallas.edu/">University of Texas at Dallas</a> has recently found that caregiver speech is positively linked to infant brain development in ways that improve long-term language skills. The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101240">Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience</a>, suggests that children who hear more words during infancy will likely have better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conversations-kids-language-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language</a> skills.



The experts enrolled 52 infants from the <a href="https://ibis-network.com/">Infant Brain Imaging Study</a> (IBIS) - a project involving eight universities in the US and Canada and focused on developmental disorders such as autism – and collected home language recordings when children were nine months old and again six months later. In addition, the researchers performed a series of MRI scans at three months, six months, one year, and two years of age.



“This timing of home recordings was chosen because it straddles the emergence of words,” said study senior author Meghan Swanson, an assistant professor of Psychology at UT Dallas. “We wanted to capture both this prelinguistic, babbling time frame, as well as a point after or near the emergence of talking.”



<h2 id="h-study-focused-on-development-of-language-skills">Study focused on development of language skills</h2>



Although scientists have long known that infants’ home environment - particularly the quality of caregiver speech - significantly influences language skills and acquisition. The neural mechanisms behind these processes were not clear. The current study revealed major links between caregiver speech and how the brain’s white matter – which facilitates communication between various gray matter regions (where information processing takes place) - develops in children.



“The arcuate fasciculus is the fiber tract that everyone in neurobiology courses learns is essential to producing and understanding language, but that finding is based on adult brains. In these children, we looked at other potentially meaningful fiber tracts as well, including the uncinate fasciculus, which has been linked to learning and memory,” Swanson explained.



The scientists used the MRI scans to measure fractional anisotropy (FA), a metric for the freedom or restriction of water movement in the brain that can be used as a proxy for the progress of white matter development. 



“As a fiber track matures, water movement becomes more restricted, and the brain’s structure becomes more coherent,” Swanson said. “Because babies aren’t born with highly specialized brains, one might expect that networks that support a given cognitive skill start out more diffuse and then become more specialized.”



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered-about-language-skills">What the researchers discovered about language skills</h2>



The analysis revealed that infants who heard more words had lower FA values, suggesting that the structure of their white matter was slower to develop. This finding aligns with previous research showing that slower maturation of white matter confers cognitive advantages, leading to better language skills.



“As a brain matures, it becomes less plastic - networks get set in place. But from a neurobiological standpoint, infancy is unlike any other time. An infant brain seems to rely on a prolonged period of plasticity to learn certain skills. The results show a clear, striking negative association between FA and child vocalization,” Swanson explained.



“This work highlights parents as change agents in their children's lives, with the potential to have enormous protective effects. I hope our work empowers parents with the knowledge and skills to support their children as best they can,” she concluded.



<h2 id="h-more-about-language-skills-and-development">More about language skills and development</h2>



Language development and language skills in babies is an incredible process that involves a combination of natural growth processes, imitation, and learning. It usually unfolds in stages and varies significantly among individuals, but generally follows a similar pattern.



<h3 id="h-cooing-0-3-months">Cooing (0-3 months)</h3>



Newborns start their communication through crying, but soon start to experiment with their vocal cords to produce different sounds, which is referred to as cooing. These are usually vowel sounds such as "ah", "eh", "uh".



<h3 id="h-babbling-4-6-months">Babbling (4-6 months)</h3>



As they grow, babies start to add consonants to their sounds, creating babbling noises like "ba-ba" or "da-da". This is an important stage in language development because it represents the beginning of intentional vocalization.



<h3 id="h-jargon-and-gestures-6-12-months">Jargon and Gestures (6-12 months)</h3>



Babies at this stage may appear to be talking in a language of their own as they start using different tones and sounds. They might also start using gestures to communicate, like waving for "bye-bye" or pointing at something they want.



<h3 id="h-first-words-around-12-months">First Words (around 12 months)</h3>



At around their first birthday, language skills begin to develop more rapidly, with many babies say their first recognizable word. Common first words often refer to parents ("mama", "dada") or everyday objects.



<h3 id="h-vocabulary-expansion-12-24-months">Vocabulary Expansion (12-24 months)</h3>



Children start rapidly learning new words. At 18 months, they may know between 20-50 words, and by 2 years, they often have a vocabulary of around 200 words. They also start to combine words into two-word phrases, such as "more milk".



<h3 id="h-sentence-formation-2-3-years">Sentence Formation (2-3 years)</h3>



Toddlers begin stringing words together to form short sentences, initially typically 2-3 words long. They begin using pronouns like "I", "me", and "you".



<h3 id="h-complex-sentences-3-5-years">Complex Sentences (3-5 years)</h3>



Children start forming complex sentences and significantly improve their ability to narrate events in a logical sequence. Their vocabulary expands rapidly during this time, and they become better at communicating complex thoughts and ideas.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Children who hear more words during infancy develop better language skills

By using MRI and audio recordings, a team of scientists...

In the chilly waters of the Baltic Sea region and Skagerak, researchers have made a discovery about sea lettuce that will forever alter our understanding of marine biodiversity.&nbsp;



The team from the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en">University of Gothenburg</a> has revealed that the number of species of the green alga, commonly known as sea lettuce, is significantly larger than previously recognized. Their comprehensive survey covered a staggering 10,000 kilometers of coast, unearthing a remarkable twenty species of this seemingly common algae.



Sea lettuce, a member of the green macroalgae family under the genus Ulva, thrives in this region. The algae extend from the Atlantic waters and reach as far as the Bay of Bothnia in the Baltic Sea, marking their nearly ubiquitous presence.



<h2 id="h-sea-lettuce-could-be-a-valuable-food-source">Sea lettuce could be a valuable food source</h2>



Due to its capacity to reproduce easily and grow rapidly, sea lettuce piques the interest of the burgeoning aquaculture industry. Currently, extensive research is underway in Sweden and around the globe to harness this alga's potential. The industry is exploring opportunities for utilizing sea lettuce in food and various biochemical applications.



While the existence of multiple species of sea lettuce was acknowledged, the exact count remained elusive. Prior to this research, scientists could only identify a few species.&nbsp;



"We have studied the biological diversity of the Baltic Sea, Kattegatt and Skagerak by taking a large number of samples from sea lettuce that we have then conducted DNA analysis of," said Sophie Steinhagen, a researcher at Tjärnö Marine Laboratory. "We found 20 unique species and subspecies. Three of these are invasive species that have found their way here in various ways."



What's more surprising is that some of the newly found species have never been scientifically described before. Certain species seem to be exclusive to the Baltic Sea, enhancing its uniqueness.



<h2 id="h-importance-of-this-sea-lettuce-discovery">Importance of this sea lettuce discovery</h2>



The implications of this research are profound, especially for the rapidly growing sea lettuce farming industry. Ignorance can lead to the inadvertent introduction of foreign species, posing a risk to the local ecosystems. It is imperative to understand the diversity of species present along the coasts to safeguard these valuable habitats from invasive species.



“Our study shows that today’s method of identifying species, which is often done by looking at the appearance of green algae, is insufficient for identifying the distribution of the various species," said Steinhagen. “We have not been able to see the real extent of the biological diversity.”



The discovery of new species offers valuable insights for the cultivation of sea lettuces, particularly in new locations along the coast. To maintain ecological balance, it's crucial to grow the right species at the right place.



Armed with this new knowledge, scientists can formulate effective strategies to preserve unique sea lettuce species specific to a coast. “Our survey can also help when writing regulations related to invasive species that should not be used in aquaculture if it is to be sustainable," said Steinhagen.



With this groundbreaking research, the University of Gothenburg team has opened new avenues in our understanding and preservation of marine biodiversity.



<h2 id="h-more-about-sea-lettuce">More about sea lettuce</h2>



Sea lettuce, which is primarily from the Ulva genus, is a type of green algae commonly found in the shallow, coastal waters of the world's oceans. They belong to the family Ulvaceae, a group of macroalgae or seaweeds that also include other green algae.



Here are some key points about sea lettuce:



<h3 id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



Sea lettuce typically appears bright green and forms thin, flat, leaf-like sheets up to about 30 centimeters across. The sheets are usually ruffled and often split into lobes, giving them a lettuce-like appearance, hence their name.



<h3 id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution&nbsp;</h3>



Sea lettuce is nearly ubiquitous in both temperate and tropical waters across the globe. It thrives in a variety of environments, including brackish waters, and can be found in the intertidal zone (the area of the shore exposed to air at low tide and covered with seawater at high tide) attached to rocks or other hard substrates. It can also grow free-floating in the water column.



<h3 id="h-reproduction-and-growth">Reproduction and growth</h3>



Sea lettuce reproduces both sexually and asexually. In sexual reproduction, it releases gametes into the water, which combine to create a new organism. In asexual reproduction, fragments of the algae, known as thalli, can continue to grow and develop into new sea lettuce. This algae is known for its rapid growth and ability to colonize new areas quickly, especially in areas with high nutrients.



<h3 id="h-ecological-role">Ecological role&nbsp;</h3>



Sea lettuce plays a significant role in its ecosystem. It provides food and habitat for a variety of marine creatures, including mollusks, crustaceans, and small fish. However, in areas with excessive nutrient pollution (eutrophication), sea lettuce can grow out of control, forming large "blooms" that can suffocate other marine life by depleting oxygen levels in the water.



<h3 id="h-uses">Uses&nbsp;</h3>



Sea lettuce is edible and has been used in various cuisines, particularly in Asian countries. It's rich in protein, soluble dietary fiber, and a variety of vitamins and minerals, including Vitamin A, iron, and iodine. It's also being studied for its potential in biofuel production and other industrial applications due to its fast growth and high bio-mass production.



<h3 id="h-recent-discoveries">Recent discoveries</h3>



Recent research, as you've noted earlier, has found greater diversity within the sea lettuce species than previously understood. The study uncovered that there are potentially 20 unique species and subspecies in the Baltic Sea region alone. This underlines the importance of conserving and understanding these organisms, as they can be crucial to their local ecosystems and have important implications for aquaculture.



Image Credit: Sophie Steinhagen



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Biologists discover 20 new species of sea lettuce, a potential new food source

In the chilly waters of the Baltic Sea region and...

Robot,With,Artificial,Intelligence,Observing,Human,Skull,In,Evolved,Cybernetic

Artificial intelligence (AI) and automated systems have become the backbone of modern society. We encounter them in our daily routines and rely on them in more ways than we realize.&nbsp;



From smartphones and home appliances to industrial processes and decision-making in various sectors, these advanced technologies are here to stay. However, their pervasive use also brings forth a two-fold ethical conundrum: how can we build AI systems that reflect our values and prevent them from deviating from desired behavior?



A refreshing perspective on this issue comes from Dr. Eve Poole, a writer and academic who suggests that perhaps we've been missing a crucial element in our approach to AI: humanity itself.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-instilling-humanity-into-robots">Instilling humanity into robots</h2>



Dr. Poole explores this idea in her upcoming book "Robot Souls," set to be published in August by the <a href="https://taylorandfrancis.com/">Taylor and Francis Group</a>. In the book, she proposes that the key to creating ethical AI may well lie within the essence of human nature.



Dr. Poole contends that in our pursuit of perfection, we've effectively eliminated the "junk code" from our AI models. This so-called "junk" comprises emotions, free will, and a sense of purpose - all elements that form the core of what it means to be human.



“This ‘junk’ is at the heart of humanity," said Dr. Poole. "Our junk code consists of human emotions, our propensity for mistakes, our inclination to tell stories, our uncanny sixth sense, our capacity to cope with uncertainty, an unshakeable sense of our own free will, and our ability to see meaning in the world around us."



<h2 id="h-robot-souls">Robot souls</h2>



What seems like unnecessary and flawed components from a machine point of view, Dr. Poole argues, are in reality vital to human flourishing. These human traits are instrumental in ensuring our safety and communal survival.&nbsp;



As AI continues to assume a more decisive role in our lives, coupled with growing concerns over biases and discriminatory practices, she suggests that the answer might be in these very elements we initially deemed unnecessary for autonomous machines.



“If we can decipher that code, the part that makes us all want to survive and thrive together as a species, we can share it with the machines. Giving them to all intents and purposes a ‘soul’,” said Dr. Poole.



Her book also presents a practical roadmap to making this concept a reality. Poole proposes robust regulation, an outright ban on autonomous weapons, and a licensing regime ensuring any ultimate decision about a human life remains in human hands.



<h2 id="h-overlooking-human-imperfections">Overlooking human imperfections</h2>



Additionally, she asserts the need to define the criteria for legal personhood for AI and lay down a progressive pathway towards it. She explains that humanity's imperfections led us to dismiss many vital traits when building AI. It was believed that robots possessing emotions, intuition, making mistakes, and seeking purpose would perform less efficiently.



“However, upon closer inspection of these so-called irrational properties, it becomes clear that they originate from the source-code of the soul. It's this ‘junk’ code that makes us human and fosters the reciprocal altruism that keeps humanity thriving,” said Dr. Poole.



"Robot Souls" critically examines the recent developments in AI and reviews the evolving concepts of consciousness and soul. It positions our ‘junk code’ within this context and calls for a renewed focus on these often overlooked aspects. According to Dr. Poole, it's high time we revisit how we're programming AI, for it's in our intrinsic human nature that we might find the key to creating ethical, reliable, and effective AI.



<h2 id="h-more-about-robots-and-consciousness">More about robots and consciousness</h2>



The intersection of robotics and consciousness is an exciting and complex frontier, and the concept is a subject of intense research and speculation.



The consciousness we experience is a product of our biological brains and involves self-awareness, understanding, and the ability to experience feelings. Giving robots consciousness would involve not only granting them awareness of their own state and surroundings, but also the capability to make subjective judgments and potentially to experience emotions and self-perception.



Various models of artificial consciousness have been proposed. One of them is the Integrated Information Theory, which suggests that consciousness arises when a system has a large amount of integrated information. Others propose that consciousness emerges from complex computation among brain neurons, suggesting similar computations in a robotic system could create a form of consciousness.



However, we're still a long way from understanding human consciousness itself, let alone replicating it in robots. Building a conscious robot would not only involve technical challenges but also raises ethical and philosophical questions. If a robot were conscious, it would potentially have rights, and we'd have a moral obligation to treat it differently.



Moreover, consciousness in robots brings the potential for suffering. If a robot can feel, then it might experience pain, fear, loss, or other negative emotions. These considerations make it imperative that we approach the subject with caution.



Finally, it should be stressed that while some AI systems might exhibit behavior that seems "conscious" or "emotional," this doesn't mean that they truly feel or understand their experiences in the way humans do. AI operates based on programmed algorithms and learned patterns, without consciousness, emotions, or subjective experience.



With that said, the field of AI and robotics is rapidly evolving, so the coming years will undoubtedly bring new discoveries, advancements, and challenges that could reshape our understanding of robot consciousness.



—--



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Should robots be programmed to have human consciousness?

Artificial intelligence (AI) and automated systems have become the backbone...

On October 9, 2022, astronomers detected what is considered to be the brightest and most energetic gamma-ray burst ever observed. 



As most gamma-ray bursts, the so-called GRB 221009A occurred when the core of a massive star collapsed, becoming a black hole – a type of event which regularly releases as much energy in just a few minutes as our Sun will release during its entire lifetime.&nbsp;



However, analyses revealed that GRB 221009A was 70 times brighter than the previous record holder, for reasons not yet clearly understood. Now, observations from NASA’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/nuclear-spectroscopic-telescope-array-nustar">NuSTAR</a>&nbsp;(Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array) observatory have shed new light on this mystery.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="NOWtvVLz9p-2792442-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 id="h-unique-characteristics-of-grb-221009a">Unique characteristics of GRB 221009A</h2>



By using NuSTAR observations, an international team of scientists has shown how the collapsing star ejected a jet of material not previously seen among gamma-ray bursts, along with other unique characteristics. Researchers believe that the origin of these differences may be related to the progenitor star, whose physical properties could influence the features of the jet.



“This event was so much brighter and more energetic than any gamma-ray burst we’ve seen before, it’s not even close,” said lead author Brendan O’Connor, an astronomer at <a href="https://www.gwu.edu/">George Washington University</a>. “Then, when we analyzed the NuSTAR data, we realized that it also has this unique jet structure. And that was really exciting, because we have no way of studying the star that produced this event; it’s gone now. But we now have some data giving us clues about how it exploded.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Gamma rays are the most energetic form of light in the universe, yet they are invisible to the human eye. Although all known gamma-ray bursts were detected outside our galaxy, they are bright enough to be spotted from distances of billions of light-years.&nbsp;



While some of these cosmic explosions are very brief, lasting less than two seconds, so-called long gamma-ray bursts usually radiate gamma rays for a minute or more, and other wavelengths even for weeks.



<h2 id="h-more-exceptional-properties-of-the-gamma-ray-burst">More exceptional properties of the gamma-ray burst</h2>



GRB 221009A was a long, extremely bright burst that has blinded most gamma-ray instruments in space. To determine its actual brightness, scientists reconstructed the event with data from NASA’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/fermi-gamma-ray-space-telescope">Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope</a>. As other previously detected gamma-ray bursts, GRB 221009A had a jet which erupted from the collapsing star as if shot into space by a fire hose, with gamma rays violently radiating from the hot gas and particles at the jet’s core.&nbsp;



However, while in other bursts, the jet remained remarkably compact and there was very little stray light or other materials outside its narrow beam, in GRB 221009A the jet had a narrow core with wider, sloping sides.&nbsp;



Although some of the most energetic gamma-ray jets have exhibited similar properties, in this case, the energy of the material also varied. Thus, instead of all the material in the jet having the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-recover-energy-from-discarded-batteries/">energy</a>, like a single bullet from a shot, the energy of the material appeared to change with distance from the jet’s core – a phenomenon never observed before in a long gamma-ray burst jet.



“The only way to produce a different jet structure and vary the energy is to vary some property of the star that exploded, like its size, mass, density, or magnetic field,” said co-author Eleonora Troja, a professor of Physics at the University of Rome, who led NuSTAR’s observations of the event. “That’s because the jet has to basically force its way out of the star. So, for example, the amount of resistance it meets would potentially influence the features of the jet.”



<h2 id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



By observing this burst with a variety of X-ray telescopes - including&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/nasa-s-swift-fermi-missions-detect-exceptional-cosmic-blast">NASA’s Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/nicer">Neutron star Interior Composition Explorer</a>&nbsp;(NICER), and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.esa.int/">ESA</a>’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/XMM-Newton_overview">XMM-Newton telescope</a> – the scientists have also found that, as the jet traveled into space, it collided with the interstellar medium (the sparse collection of atoms and particles that fills the space between stars), creating X-rays, or particles of slightly less energetic potential than gamma rays.



However, further research is needed to clarify the differences between this gamma-ray burst and previous ones and better understand the complex factors behind such extraordinary astronomical occurrences. Fortunately, the necessary technology for observing and interpreting such events is already well developed.&nbsp;



“There are multiple X-ray telescopes operating in space, each with different strengths that can help astronomers understand these cosmic objects better,” concluded Daniel Stern, a NuSTAR project scientist.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adi1405">Science Advances</a>.



Image credit: NASA / Swift / Cruz deWilde



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Recent gamma-ray burst was 70 times brighter than any cosmic explosion

On October 9, 2022, astronomers detected what is considered to...

Researchers in England have made a breakthrough in understanding the emotional lives of horses. In a recent study, they have pinpointed distinct facial expressions that differentiate between frustration and disappointment in horses.



The research team is composed of Claire Ricci-Bonot and Daniel Simon Mills from the <a href="https://www.lincoln.ac.uk/">University of Lincoln</a>. The study involved a series of tests that centered on the availability of food as a reward, which they conducted on a diverse group of 31 horses, aged 2 to 23.



“There is good reason to suppose that horses live in an emotionally complex world,” the researchers wrote in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/applied-animal-behaviour-science">Applied Animal Behaviour Science</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-horses-have-an-intricate-communication-system">Horses have an intricate communication system</h2>



According to the researchers, horses are not just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-animals-suppress-their-personalities-for-safety/">social animals</a>. They also possess an intricate system of communication that involves subtle visual signals like eye direction, ear position, and, importantly, facial expressions.



However, the experts noted a prevalent issue: the common misunderstanding of horses' negative emotions. Most of the time, the emotions horses express are misread or overlooked altogether. This problem is partly because much of our understanding of horse expressions comes from anecdotes, lacking in scientific evidence.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



Ricci-Bonot and Mills set out to bring science into this arena. They trained the horses to anticipate a food reward in a controlled environment. The food, in the form of pellets, was placed inside a clear acrylic screen. After a wait of 10 seconds, the screen was moved back, making the food accessible.



Once the horses had familiarized themselves with this process and the 10-second wait, the researchers conducted tests under three different conditions.&nbsp;



The first scenario created anticipation of the reward, considered a positive emotional state. The second was a frustration phase, where the horses had to wait for a minute before they could reach the food. The third stage was a disappointment phase, where the horses found no food after the wait. The second and third situations were considered negative emotional states.



To accurately gauge the horses' reactions, all interactions were videotaped for later examination. These videos were analyzed using the Horse Facial Action Coding System (EquiFACS), which objectively records facial movements based on muscle contractions.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



While the researchers couldn't pin down facial markers for anticipation, they found a set of nine distinct actions that occurred under the scenarios of frustration and disappointment. When frustrated, horses often revealed more of the whites of their eyes, rotated their ears more, and tended to turn their heads to the left more frequently than when disappointed.



On the other hand, disappointment was characterized by increased blinking, nostril-lifting, showing the tongue more often, and more frequent chewing behaviors. These horses also exhibited a tendency to lick the feeder. Frustration, rather than disappointment, prompted horses to bite the feeder.



<h2 id="h-gender-also-plays-a-role-in-how-horses-emote-their-feelings">Gender also plays a role in how horses emote their feelings</h2>



In addition, the researchers found a gender difference in the disappointment phase, with female horses blinking more than their male counterparts.



According to Ricci-Bonot and Mills, these findings show that specific facial expressions can potentially help discern a horse's emotional state. “The results highlight how there may be different qualities of a given emotional valence (frustration and disappointment) which can be distinguished from the facial expressions shown at the time," they wrote.



However, the researchers added a note of caution, stating that these results might only be applicable in feeding situations, underlining the need for further research. Another question raised by their study is whether the anticipation of food is truly a positive event for horses, as they were unable to identify facial markers for this state.



The study marks a significant stride in understanding horse emotions, and their research could open the door to improving our interactions and overall relationship with these remarkable animals.



<h2 id="h-more-about-horses">More about horses&nbsp;</h2>



Horses, or Equus ferus caballus, are large mammals within the family Equidae. Domesticated over 5,000 years ago, they have been used by humans in a wide variety of roles, including transportation, work, sport, companionship, and therapy.



<h3 id="h-anatomy-and-physiology">Anatomy and physiology</h3>



Horses are known for their size and strength. They typically stand around 4.5-6 feet at the shoulder and can weigh anywhere from 900 to 2,200 pounds, although size can vary greatly among different breeds. Horses have a well-muscled body, a long neck, and a head with large, expressive eyes.



A horse's teeth can tell you a lot about its age because they continue to grow throughout most of a horse's life. Horses have a digestive system designed for grazing, with a small stomach but a very large cecum where fiber from grasses and hay is broken down.



Horses have hooves made of keratin, the same substance that forms human hair and nails. These hooves require regular care from a farrier to prevent foot problems. Their legs are strong and designed for speed, with most of the power coming from large muscles in the hindquarters.



<h3 id="h-behavior">Behavior</h3>



Horses are social herd animals and establish a hierarchy known as a "pecking order." They communicate with each other through vocalizations, body language, and facial expressions. Horses are crepuscular, which means they are most active during dawn and dusk.



Horses are prey animals and have a strong flight or fight response. Their large eyes, set on the side of their head, give them a wide field of vision to spot predators. They also have excellent hearing and a good sense of balance.



<h3 id="h-breeds-and-uses">Breeds and uses&nbsp;</h3>



There are over 300 different breeds of horses, which can be categorized into three types: hot-bloods, cold-bloods, and warm-bloods. Hot-bloods, like Arabians and Thoroughbreds, are known for their speed and endurance.&nbsp;



Cold-bloods, like Clydesdales and Shires, are heavier and known for their strength and calm demeanor. Warm-bloods, a mix of the two, are often used in riding competitions, such as show jumping and dressage.



Horses have been used by humans for various purposes, including agriculture, warfare, transportation, and companionship. Today, they're commonly seen in equestrian sports, police work, and therapeutic riding programs. They're also often kept as pets or used for leisure activities.



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



Horses are seasonal breeders, most often in the spring and summer. The gestation period lasts about 11 months, and the mare usually gives birth to a single foal. Twins are rare. Within a few hours of birth, the foal is able to stand and run.



<h3 id="h-health-and-lifespan">Health and lifespan</h3>



Horses have a lifespan of around 25 to 30 years, although many live into their 30s and a few into their 40s. They require regular veterinary care, including vaccinations and deworming. Common health problems include colic, lameness, and respiratory diseases.



Horses also need a balanced diet and plenty of exercise to stay healthy. They are grazing animals and will naturally spend many hours a day eating grass or hay. They need access to clean water, mineral salt licks, and possibly supplemental feeds, depending on their work level and health status.



<h3 id="h-cognition">Cognition</h3>



Horses are intelligent animals capable of problem-solving and learning through conditioning. They also show emotional responses and have good memories. Research, like the study mentioned earlier, is continuously deepening our understanding of horse cognition and emotional life.



Horses are fascinating, complex creatures with a rich history alongside humans. Their significant contributions to various aspects of human civilization, from transportation and agriculture to sports and warfare, have made them an integral part of our history and culture. Moreover, their unique combination of strength, grace, and intelligence has endeared them to people worldwide.



<h3 id="h-emotional-intelligence">Emotional intelligence</h3>



Horses display a remarkable level of emotional intelligence. They can read and respond to human emotions, making them effective in therapeutic settings. This sensitivity to emotions is also apparent in their herd dynamics, where they communicate through a sophisticated system of body language and vocal cues.



<h3 id="h-riding-and-training">Riding and training&nbsp;</h3>



The ability to ride horses has been a valuable skill throughout history. Riding styles vary greatly, including Western (often used for ranch work and rodeo events) and English (used in sport disciplines like show jumping, dressage, and eventing).



Training a horse requires understanding its mentality as a prey animal. Positive reinforcement and gentle methods tend to be the most effective and are part of a philosophy known as "natural horsemanship."



<h3 id="h-impact-on-culture-and-history">Impact on culture and history&nbsp;</h3>



Horses have deeply impacted human culture and history. Horse-drawn chariots and cavalry units were key components of many ancient armies. Horsepower played a crucial role in agricultural societies for plowing fields and transportation.



In the modern age, while their role has decreased with mechanization, horses remain symbolically potent. They appear in numerous mythologies, artworks, literature, and are often associated with qualities like power, grace, nobility, and freedom.



<h3 id="h-preservation-and-conservation">Preservation and conservation&nbsp;</h3>



Many breeds of horses have come under threat due to changes in agricultural practices and mechanization. Efforts are being made to conserve these breeds and maintain genetic diversity within the species. Organizations worldwide are dedicated to the welfare and protection of horses, aiming to prevent cruelty and neglect.



<h3 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion&nbsp;</h3>



Understanding horses, their behavior, physiology, and history helps us appreciate these magnificent creatures more fully. It can also enhance the ways we train, work with, and care for horses. From Ricci-Bonot and Mills' study of horse emotions to ongoing conservation efforts, our relationship with horses continues to evolve, striving towards more informed, respectful, and empathetic interactions.&nbsp;



Despite the vast knowledge we've already acquired, horses remain fascinating subjects of study, continuing to captivate us with their strength, grace, and complexity.



—-



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Horses have complex emotions, but interpreting them has proven difficult

Researchers in England have made a breakthrough in understanding the...

A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> has recently found a significant connection between social organization and cognitive skills in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkey-stone-tools-look-like-early-human-artifacts/">monkeys</a>, with the most socially tolerant species of macaques having greater self-control than their more authoritarian and violent counterparts. These findings could also shed new light on how humans evolved to become more cooperative and cognitively sophisticated.



Through a series of cognitive touchscreen tasks, the experts evaluated the performance of 66 macaques from the&nbsp;<a href="https://cfm.har.mrc.ac.uk/">Medical Research Council Center for Macaques</a>&nbsp;in the UK and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.euprim-net.eu/management/consortium_UdS-CdP_photo_banner.htm">Center of Primatology of the University of Strasbourg</a>&nbsp;in France to identify interspecies differences in impulsive behaviors.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The experiments revealed that Tonkean macaques, which get along with each other the most and tend to form diverse, complex relationships, exhibited better overall control of distractions, emotions, and actions compared to the less socially-tolerant long-tailed and rhesus macaques.



“This relationship between social tolerance and cognitive abilities could explain why Tonkean macaques are better at managing complex relationships with others,” said study lead author Louise Loyant, a doctoral student in Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology at Portsmouth.



“This is important, as it improves our understanding of our own social evolution. Macaques live in complex communities, not too dissimilar from our own, and we can learn a lot from them. Existing research on human inhibitory control, or self-control, suggests the better a person is at managing their emotions and reactions, the more successful they’re likely to be in life; whether that be in relationships, work, or just generally. Our results support this hypothesis.”



<h2 id="h-environmental-pressures-play-a-role">Environmental pressures play a role</h2>



Moreover, the investigation highlighted the important role ecological factors play on self-control skills. According to the researchers, the different risks and environmental pressures faced by each species have likely shaped their behaviors, emotions, and impulsivity levels.&nbsp;



For instance, long-tailed and rhesus macaques living in areas with a greater number of predators usually display more reactive and cautious behaviors, while Tonkean macaques that face lower risks of predation exhibit quieter and less reactive behaviors. Thus, both social and ecological factors are likely to influence self-control skills in primates.



“A macaque living in a more competitive environment would benefit from learning how to contain inappropriate behaviors, like feeding or mating, if they’re around others higher up in the social pyramid. But there’s also the hypothesis that our closest primate species have evolved over time to have increased brain size and higher cognitive performances, including better self-control,” said senior author Marine Joly, an expert in the evolution of human and non-human primates at Portsmouth.



“Our findings support both of these potential explanations, as well as suggest that species living in more complex societies might have better socio-cognitive skills too, including perception, attention, memory, and action planning.”



However, since the study has some limitations – such as the small sample size and some prior cognitive testing experience among the species - further research is needed involving a larger cohort and a closer evaluation of monkeys’ complex behaviors. The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10071-023-01789-8">Animal Cognition</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-self-control">More about self control</h2>



Self-control, often referred to as self-regulation, is the ability to manage one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts that often leads to long-term benefits. It is considered a crucial skill in achieving personal and professional success.



This trait enables individuals to resist immediate desires and impulses in favor of actions that align with their long-term goals. Self-control is also closely related to the concept of willpower, the capacity to resist short-term temptations to meet long-term goals.



Self-control has been extensively studied in various disciplines such as psychology, neuroscience, and behavioral economics. In psychology, for instance, the concept of self-control is a key element of many theories of personality and development. Some psychological research, such as the famous "marshmallow test", has demonstrated that early self-control abilities can predict important outcomes later in life, such as academic success and physical health.



In the context of social interactions and group living, self-control can also refer to the ability to regulate one's behavior in ways that are socially acceptable or beneficial for group cohesion.



However, self-control is not always beneficial. There can be circumstances where excessive self-control can lead to over-regulation, denying oneself the experience of pleasure or joy, or to mental health issues such as anxiety and depression. Thus, a balance is necessary.



Self-control is not a fixed trait; it can be improved with practice and training. Techniques like mindfulness meditation, cognitive behavioral therapies, and certain types of physical exercise are often suggested to improve self-control.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Monkeys with greater social tolerance have more self-control

A team of scientists led by the University of Portsmouth...

This week, a colossal asteroid, nearly the size of a skyscraper and labeled "potentially hazardous," is set to zoom past our planet. However, scientists assure us that there's no reason for alarm. This celestial event will even be available for live viewing.



The Virtual Telescope Project reveals that Asteroid 1994 XD, the aforementioned asteroid, will reach its nearest proximity to Earth on the evening of Monday, June 12, right before 9 p.m. EDT. You can watch a livestream of the <a href="https://www.virtualtelescope.eu/2023/05/30/potentially-hazardous-asteroid-488453-1994-xd-close-encounter-a-image-29-may-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flyby at this website</a>.



Various groups, including the Virtual Telescope Project, are vigilantly tracking this asteroid as it approaches our planet in its orbit. Furthermore, plans are underway to provide a live feed of the asteroid's fly-by.



<h2 id="h-don-t-let-the-potentially-hazardous-label-scare-you">Don’t let the "potentially hazardous" label scare you</h2>



Despite its potentially hazardous tag, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> confirms that there's no cause for concern about this asteroid striking Earth. It's termed "potentially hazardous" because its orbit crosses the minimal distance between Earth and the Sun, thus fulfilling the requisite criteria.



The NASA Center for Near Earth Object Studies (NEOS) uses complex computer models to ascertain the orbits of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-telescope-near-earth-objects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">near earth asteroids and comets</a>, and calculate their likelihood of colliding with Earth. In the month of June alone, NEOS is monitoring more than a dozen such close approaches.



Even as the asteroid nears, there will be ample distance separating us from it, ensuring we can observe it in the night sky without apprehension.



The Virtual Telescope Project emphasizes that while Asteroid 1994 XD will have a close encounter with Earth on June 12, the term "close" is relative in the vast expanse of space. At its closest, the asteroid will be about eight times the Earth-moon distance away, or over 1.9 million miles away.



Making its journey around the sun approximately every 3.6 years, Asteroid 1994 XD is scheduled to make another fly-by of Earth in 2041.



<h2>Details about "potentially hazardous" Asteroid 1994 XD</h2>



The naming of this asteroid harks back to the year of its discovery. The Spacewatch group at the Kitt Peak Observatory in Arizona first spotted it in December 1994.



Despite being relatively small for an asteroid, with an estimated diameter of about 370 to 830 meters (or 1,214 to 2,723 feet), Asteroid 1994 XD would still overshadow most skyscrapers in New York City.



Intriguingly, using the Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico in 2005, astronomers discovered that 1994 XD is a binary asteroid. This means it's a larger asteroid with a moonlet in orbit around it.



Thankfully, despite being labeled potentially hazardous, Asteroid 1994 XD poses no direct threat to life on Earth. However, if a large asteroid were to ever pose a direct threat to the Earth, NASA believes they have a plan to save us.



In 2022, NASA successfully executed its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-will-crash-a-spacecraft-into-an-asteroid-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Double Asteroid Redirection Test mission (DART)</a>. The mission intentionally propelled a rocket into an asteroid to manipulate the space rock's orbital speed.



Rather than obliterating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-building-blocks-of-life-may-come-from-asteroids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> completely, the mission demonstrated that direct rocket attacks can indeed effect significant changes in a space rock's orbital parameters. According to NASA, this proves the viability of missions like these as a method of planetary defense.



<h2>NASA's Asteroid Watch program</h2>



NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory is at the helm of an initiative that's keeping a vigilant eye on the skies: the Center for Near Earth Object Studies (CNEOS). The Center's mandate is to precisely characterize the trajectories of all known near-Earth objects, forecast their close encounters with our home planet, and conduct in-depth assessments of any potentially hazardous impact possibilities.



What exactly are these near-Earth objects? They're a motley crew of asteroids and <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/what-comets-can-tell-us-about-the-formation-of-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comets</a> whose orbits bring them tantalizingly close—within a mere 120 million miles—to the Sun. That means they frequently take a spin through our neighborhood, the Earth’s orbit. These space wanderers vary in size, from as small as 10 feet to gargantuan objects nearly 25 miles across.



<h2>How NASA tracks NEOs</h2>



The process of determining the orbit of these celestial bodies is akin to fitting puzzle pieces together. Scientists find the elliptical path through the cosmos that aligns best with all existing observations. These observations can span multiple orbits and stretch across years, even decades.



As scientists gather more data, they can refine their predictions. With increasing accuracy, they can forecast where a given object will be in the distant future, and crucially, if it might veer too close to Earth.



Now, don't get too alarmed. The vast majority of these objects' orbits won't ever bring them into uncomfortably close quarters with Earth. However, a minuscule percentage dubbed as potentially hazardous asteroids warrants a closer look.



These celestial bodies exceed about 460 feet in size and their orbits can bring them as near as 4.6 million miles of Earth’s solar orbit. It's the CNEOS' responsibility to incessantly monitor these objects, evaluating any potential risks they may pose.



<h2>Where does CNEOS source this data?</h2>



The primary reference point is the databases of the <a href="https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Minor Planet Center</a>, the global authority for measurements of small-body positions. Observatories scattered across the globe, including amateur observers, contribute to this data pool.



However, the lion's share of asteroid-tracking data comes from prominent NASA-funded observatories like Pan-STARRS, the Catalina Sky Survey, and NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/neowise" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NEOWISE mission</a>. And we're anticipating significant future contributions from NEO Surveyor. Let's not forget the invaluable planetary radar projects, such as JPL’s Goldstone Solar System Radar Group, which form an integral part of NASA’s NEO Observations Program.



<h2>Other CNEOS programs are equally important</h2>



CNEOS is also the birthplace of the Sentry impact-monitoring system. This innovative system tirelessly conducts long-term analyses of future orbits of potentially dangerous asteroids. The good news? As of now, there are no known significant threats for the next century or more.



Adding another feather to its cap, CNEOS maintains the Scout system, which keeps an eye on potential near-Earth object detections even before their official recognition. Its role? To ascertain if any of these usually tiny asteroids might pose a short-term (possibly imminent) impact risk.



In a bid to support NASA's planetary defense initiatives, CNEOS leads mock impact exercises. These simulations provide vital insights to national and international space and disaster response agencies on how to navigate a potential asteroid impact scenario. They educate scientists and key decision-makers about the alert systems and impact mitigation strategies that could come into play if a threatening object were to be identified.



For more comprehensive details about near-Earth objects and to access close approach and impact-risk data for all known near-Earth objects, head over to <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNEOS' website</a>. To learn more about the Planetary Defense Coordination Office and NASA’s planetary defense strategy, visit <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/planetarydefense/overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA's Planetary Defense page</a>.

"Potentially hazardous" asteroid will zoom by Earth this week, and you can watch it

This week, a colossal asteroid, nearly the size of a...

A recent exploration into the prehistoric past by a research team from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has unveiled fascinating aspects about the Rhynchosaur, an ancient reptile that roamed our planet between 250 and 225 million years ago, predating the era of dinosaurs.



Rhynchosaurs are often clouded in mystery. Imagine ancient creatures, roughly the size of modern-day sheep, prevailing during the Triassic Period, an era characterized by its warm climate and hardy vegetation (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/ancient-reptile_rhynchosaur-Bentonyx_Credit-Mark-Witton.jpg">here</a>).



<h2 id="h-how-researchers-studied-the-rhynchosaur">How researchers studied the Rhynchosaur&nbsp;</h2>



To pierce this veil of obscurity, the Bristol team embarked on an investigative journey, scrutinizing specimens unearthed in Devon. They utilized cutting-edge CT scanning to examine the wear and tear on the rhynchosaur's teeth as they munched through their meals, and to observe how new teeth were continually added at the back of the dental rows as the creatures grew.



The results, published in the latest edition of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pala.12654">Palaeontology</a>, reveal an intriguing yet grim aspect of these early plant-eaters' lives. They would most likely starve to death in their old age as a result of the relentless wear on their teeth caused by tough vegetation.



“I was amazed to find that in many cases they dominated their ecosystems. If you found one fossil, you found hundreds. They were the sheep or antelopes of their day, and yet they had specialized dental systems that were apparently adapted for dealing with masses of tough plant food," said Professor Mike Benton, the team leader from Bristol’s School of Earth Sciences.



<h2 id="h-rhynchosaur-fossils-are-a-rare-find">Rhynchosaur fossils are a rare find</h2>



It was Dr. Rob Coram who discovered the fossils in Devon. “The fossils are rare, but occasionally individuals were entombed during river floods. This has made it possible to put together a series of jaw bones of rhynchosaurs that ranged in age from quite young, maybe even babies, through adults, and including one particularly old animal, a Triassic old-timer whose teeth had worn right down and probably struggled to get enough nutrition each day," said Dr. Coram.



Thitiwoot Sethapanichsakul, who examined the jaws for his MSc in Palaeobiology, explained the wear patterns in more detail: “As the animals aged, the area of the jaws under wear at any time moved backwards relative to the front of the skull, bringing new teeth and new bone into wear. They were clearly eating really tough food such as ferns, that wore the teeth down to the bone of the jaw, meaning that they were basically chopping their meals by a mix of teeth and bone.”



However, there was a limit to this system. “Eventually, after a certain age – we’re not sure quite how many years – their growth slowed down and the area of wear was fixed and just got deeper and deeper," said Dr. Coram.



"It’s like elephants today – they have a fixed number of teeth that come into use from the back, and after the age of seventy or so they’re on their last tooth, and then that’s that. We don’t think the rhynchosaurs lived that long, but their plant food was so testing that their jaws simply wore out and presumably they eventually starved to death.”



<h2 id="h-played-a-crucial-role-in-triassic-ecosystems">Played a crucial role in Triassic ecosystems</h2>



Rhynchosaurs served as a significant cog in the Triassic ecosystems as life reemerged from the world’s largest mass extinction that marked the end of the Permian Period. These creatures played a crucial role in this resurrection, setting the stage for new types of ecologies where dinosaurs, and later mammals, would reign supreme, thereby laying the groundwork for the modern world.



Upon comparing earlier rhynchosaurs, like those from Devon, with later ones from Scotland and Argentina, the researchers also unearthed how their dentitions evolved over time, facilitating two spurts of diversification in the Middle and then the Late Triassic. But these evolutionary triumphs ultimately found their terminus as changes in climate and available vegetation paved the way for dinosaurs to replace rhynchosaurs as the dominant species.



<h2 id="h-incredibly-interesting-narrative-emerged-from-the-research-results">Incredibly interesting narrative emerged from the research results</h2>



The findings from this study take us on a deep dive into the life of a creature that has long since vanished from our planet, but whose story remains embedded in the rocks beneath us. It's a narrative of success, adaptation, struggle, and ultimately, extinction - a sobering reminder of nature's impermanence and the constant flux of life on Earth.



Yet, the importance of the rhynchosaurs goes beyond their own species. By studying them, we gain a broader understanding of the Earth's history and the forces that have shaped it.&nbsp;



From the debris of their downfall, a new world rose - a world of dinosaurs, and much later, a world dominated by mammals. The teeth of these ancient herbivores reveal not only the story of their lives and deaths but also the dawn of the world as we know it today.



Professor Benton’s fascination and admiration for these ancient creatures are clear. "I first studied the rhynchosaurs years ago, and I was amazed to find that in many cases they dominated their ecosystems." That domination may be long past, but the legacy of the rhynchosaurs continues to be felt in the ongoing saga of life on Earth.



This research also reminds us that the world is not static. Species rise and fall, climates change, and life adapts. The extinction of the rhynchosaurs paved the way for the rise of the dinosaurs, who themselves would later give way to mammals. It's a cycle that continues today, and by understanding it, we can better prepare for the changes still to come.



So, let us remember the rhynchosaurs - not just as the "sheep of their day," but as crucial players in the grand tapestry of Earth's history, serving a vital role in the ever-evolving narrative of life on our planet.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-triassic-period">More about the Triassic period</h2>



The Triassic Period, occurring between approximately 252 million and 201 million years ago, marks the beginning of the Mesozoic Era, often referred to as the "Age of Dinosaurs". However, the Triassic itself was a time of transition and recovery, following the end-Permian mass extinction event, the most devastating extinction event in Earth's history.



<h3 id="h-here-s-an-overview-of-what-we-know-about-the-triassic-period">Here's an overview of what we know about the Triassic Period:</h3>



<h4 id="h-life-after-the-mass-extinction">Life After the Mass Extinction</h4>



The Permian-Triassic extinction event killed off an estimated 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. Life in the Triassic period, therefore, began with relatively few species. However, this allowed for a great deal of diversification and adaptive radiation, as species evolved to fill the ecological niches left vacant by the extinction event.



<h4 id="h-flora">Flora</h4>



The Triassic saw the continued dominance of gymnosperms, a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers. The first true mammals also appeared during this period. Ferns, horsetails, and ginkgo trees were prevalent, and it was during the Triassic that the first types of modern conifer trees emerged.



<h4 id="h-fauna">Fauna</h4>



This period saw the emergence and evolution of many significant groups of organisms. The first true mammals appeared during this period, as did the first dinosaurs. However, dinosaurs weren't the dominant terrestrial vertebrates in the Triassic; this role was instead filled by other reptiles such as the aforementioned rhynchosaurs and various archosaurs. In the seas, fish continued to diversify, and marine reptiles like ichthyosaurs and nothosaurs became prevalent. The first flying vertebrates, the pterosaurs, appeared in the late Triassic.



<h4 id="h-climate">Climate</h4>



The Triassic Period began in the aftermath of the greatest ice age known. The period was mostly hot and dry, and it had no ice caps at the poles. The interior of the supercontinent Pangaea was likely arid, with great seasonal fluctuations between hot and cold, given the vast distance from the interior of the supercontinent to the ocean.



<h4 id="h-geology">Geology</h4>



The Triassic was a time of significant tectonic activity. The supercontinent Pangaea was still assembled, but the first signs of stress that would eventually lead to its breakup in the Jurassic started to appear. This included the rifting of the supercontinent along what is now the eastern coast of North America and the western coast of Europe and Africa.



<h4 id="h-extinction">Extinction</h4>



The Triassic period ended with another mass extinction event, the causes of which are still a matter of scientific debate. Climate change, asteroid impact, and volcanic activity have all been suggested as potential culprits. This extinction led to the dominance of dinosaurs in the ensuing Jurassic Period.



This is a brief overview and, as with all areas of paleontology, our understanding of the Triassic period continues to evolve as new discoveries are made and existing data is reinterpreted. By examining the fossil record, scientists can piece together a picture of what life might have been like during this important period in Earth's history.



—-



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Ancient reptile Rhynchosaur died off before the dinosaurs due to weak teeth

A recent exploration into the prehistoric past by a research...

Many scientists and nutritionists have argued that the tedious process of tracking everything one eats and drinks in a day is a vital component of successful weight loss. However, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/oby.23795">Obesity</a>, perfect diet tracking is not necessary to achieve significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-health-benefits-of-weight-loss-persist-for-years/">weight loss</a>.



To assess what the optimal thresholds were for diet tracking to predict three percent, five percent, and ten percent weight loss after six months, the experts enrolled 153 weight loss program participants, who had to self-report their food intake using a commercial digital program.&nbsp;



“We partnered with <a href="https://www.weightwatchers.com/us/">WeightWatchers</a>, who was planning on releasing a new Personal Points program, and they wanted to get empirical data via our clinical trial,” said study senior author Sherry Pagoto, a professor of Health Sciences at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a> (UConn).



This program is based on a personalized approach of assigning points – including a list of “zero-point foods” – in order to eliminate the need for calculating calories for everything. By using a data science method called “receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve analysis,” the researchers estimated how many days people needed to track their food consumption to reach clinically significant weight loss.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



“It turns out, you don’t need to track 100 percent each day to be successful,” said lead author Ran Xu, an applied statistician at UConn. “Specifically in this trial, we find that people only need to track around 30 percent of the days to lose more than three percent weight and 40 percent of the days to lose more than five percent weight, or almost 70 percent of days to lose more than 10 percent weight. The key point here is that you don’t need to track every day to lose a clinically significant amount of weight.”



Since the goal for a six-month weight loss program is typically between five and ten percent – a range where health benefits have been observed in clinical trials – these findings are highly promising.&nbsp;



“A lot of times people feel like they need to lose 50 pounds to get healthier, but actually we start to see changes in things like blood pressure, lipids, cardiovascular disease risk, and diabetes risk when people lose about five-to-ten percent of their weight,” Pagoto explained. “That can be accomplished if participants lose about one to two pounds a week, which is considered a healthy pace of weight loss.”



<h2 id="h-different-tracking-patterns-yield-positive-results">Different tracking patterns yield positive results</h2>



The scientists found three distinct trajectories of diet tracking over the six months of the program. In the first one, “high trackers” or “super users” tracked food on most days of the week, and managed to lose around 10 percent of their weight.&nbsp;



However, many participants belonged to a second category, which started to track regularly, but then their tracking gradually declined, with only one day per week tracked after four months. Nevertheless, these participants still managed to lose about five percent of their weight. Finally, the “low trackers” started tracking only three days a week, and dropped to zero by three months, reaching about two percent of weight loss after six months.



<h2 id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Clarifying such patterns could help inform future weight loss programs that could be tailored to improve user tracking based on which group they belong to. However, future research is needed to better understand why these patterns arise and develop efficient interventions to improve outcomes.



“For me, what’s exciting about these digital programs is that we have a digital footprint of participant behavior. We can drill down to the nitty-gritty of what people do during these programs. The data can inform precision medicine approaches, where we can take this data science perspective, identify patterns of behavior, and design a targeted approach,” Xu explained.



“Before, it felt like we were flying in the dark or just going by anecdotes or self-reported measures, but it’s different now that we have so much user data. We need data science to make sense of all these data. This is where team science is so important because clinical and data scientists think about the problem from very different perspectives, but together, we can produce insights that neither of us could do on our own. This must be the future of this work,” Pagoto concluded.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Diet tracking does not have to be perfect to promote weight loss

Many scientists and nutritionists have argued that the tedious process...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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