Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

In a groundbreaking study, a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> has made a remarkable discovery about bird migrations and the fuel that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-songbirds-bright-colors-are-a-blessing-and-a-curse/">songbirds</a> use during long, non-stop journeys.&nbsp;



Contrary to the long-held belief that these birds only consume protein towards the end of their journey, the research team found that the birds actually burn a significant amount of protein, including muscle, early in their flights. This discovery has the potential to revolutionize our understanding of avian migration and open up new research avenues.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-have-new-strategy-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Migratory songbirds</a>, such as the blackpoll warbler, are known for their incredible twice-yearly flights. Their flights often cover more than 1,000 miles without stopping. 



“Birds are amazing animals,” said study lead author Cory Elowe. “They are extreme endurance athletes; a bird that weighs half an ounce can fly, non-stop, flapping for 100 hours at a time, from Canada to South America. How is this possible? How do they fuel their flight?”



<h2 id="h-the-energy-needed-for-bird-migration">The energy needed for bird migration</h2>



Until now, biologists had assumed that birds primarily relied on their fat reserves to fuel these incredible feats of endurance. While fat is still a crucial part of the birds' energy mix, this recent study has shed light on the surprising role of protein in their migratory flights.



“The birds in our tests burned fat at a consistent rate throughout their flights,” said Elowe. “But we also found that they burn protein at an extremely high rate very early in their flights, and that the rate at which they burn protein tapers off as the duration of the flight increases.”



“This is a new insight,” said study senior author Professor Alexander Gerson. “No one has been able to measure protein burn to this extent in birds before.”



“We knew that birds burned protein, but not at this rate, and not so early in their flights. What’s more, these small songbirds can burn 20% of their muscle mass and then build it all back in a matter of days.”



The research was conducted with the assistance of bird banding operators at the <a href="https://www.birdscanada.org/bird-science/long-point-bird-observatory" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Long Point Bird Observatory</a> in Ontario. During the fall, millions of birds gather near the observatory as they journey to their wintering grounds. 



<h2 id="h-how-the-bird-migration-study-was-done">How the bird migration study was done</h2>



After capturing 20 blackpoll warblers and 44 yellow-rumped warblers, another migratory songbird, the researchers transported the birds to the Advanced Facility for Avian Research at Western University.



This state-of-the-art facility houses a specialized wind tunnel designed specifically for observing birds in flight. The researchers measured the birds' fat and lean body mass before letting them fly in the wind tunnel. This was done at night to mimic their natural migration patterns. 



The team would then observe the birds. At times, they would stay awake for up to 28 hours until the bird chose to rest. The researchers would then collect the bird and measure its fat and lean body mass again. They then compared the results to the pre-flight measurements.



"One of the biggest surprises was that every bird still had plenty of fat left when it chose to end its flight," said Elowe. "But their muscles were emaciated. Protein, not fat, seems to be a limiting factor in determining how far birds can fly."



<h2 id="h-some-bird-migration-questions-left-unanswered">Some bird migration questions left unanswered</h2>



The precise reasons behind the birds' consumption of such vast stores of protein early in their journey remain unclear. However, the findings have opened up a range of possibilities for future research. 



“How exactly is it possible to burn up your muscles and internal organs, and then rebuild them as quickly as these birds do,” wonders Gerson. “What insights into the evolution of metabolism might these birds yield?”



Elowe is curious about shivering - nonmigratory birds that overwinter in cold areas keep themselves warm by shivering. “This is also a feat of endurance,” said Elowe. “Do birds fuel their winter shivering spells the same way? And as the world warms, which method of coping with the cold - shivering or migrating - might be the better option for survival?”



This groundbreaking study, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2216016120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, challenges conventional wisdom and paves the way for a deeper understanding of the fascinating world of avian migration.



<h2 id="h-what-else-we-know-about-bird-migration">What else we know about bird migration</h2>



Bird migration is a fascinating and complex phenomenon that occurs across various bird species. It involves regular, seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds, often covering long distances.&nbsp;



While our understanding of bird migration continues to grow, there are several well-established facts about this remarkable behavior:



<h3 id="h-reasons-for-bird-migration">Reasons for bird migration</h3>



Birds migrate primarily to take advantage of favorable environmental conditions and abundant food resources. Migration allows them to breed in areas with optimal conditions for raising offspring and spend the non-breeding season in locations with sufficient food supply and milder climates.



<h3 id="h-timing-and-routes">Timing and routes</h3>



Bird migration typically follows predictable seasonal patterns, with birds flying to their breeding grounds in the spring and returning to their wintering grounds in the fall. Migratory routes vary among species and can cover vast distances. Some birds, like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprising-insights-into-the-migrations-of-arctic-terns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic tern</a>, travel over 12,000 miles during their migration, while others migrate shorter distances.



<h3 id="h-navigation-and-orientation">Navigation and orientation</h3>



Birds use a combination of factors to navigate during migration, including the position of the sun, stars, and the Earth's magnetic field. They also rely on landmarks such as mountain ranges, coastlines, and rivers. Some birds are known to use their sense of smell to find their way back to their breeding or wintering sites.



<h3 id="h-flight-behavior">Flight behavior</h3>



Migratory birds have evolved various flight behaviors to optimize their energy expenditure during migration. Soaring birds, like raptors and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/storks-are-attracted-to-the-smell-of-freshly-mowed-grass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storks</a>, take advantage of thermal updrafts to gain altitude without flapping their wings. Other birds, like ducks and geese, fly in a V-formation, which reduces air resistance and saves energy.



<h3 id="h-stopovers">Stopovers</h3>



Birds often make stopovers during migration to rest, refuel, and sometimes even molt. These stopover sites are crucial for the survival of migrating birds, providing them with food, water, and shelter. Many birds exhibit site fidelity, returning to the same stopover sites year after year.



<h3 id="h-impact-of-climate-change-and-habitat-loss">Impact of climate change and habitat loss</h3>



Climate change and habitat loss have significant effects on bird migration patterns. Changes in temperature and precipitation can lead to shifts in the timing of migration, breeding, and food availability. Habitat loss along migratory routes and at breeding and wintering sites can have detrimental consequences for bird populations.



<h3 id="h-bird-migration-monitoring">Bird migration monitoring</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alternative-habitats-bird-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ornithologists and birdwatchers</a> monitor bird migration through various methods, including bird banding, satellite tracking, radar, and citizen science programs. These efforts help collect valuable data on migratory species, which can inform conservation measures and increase our understanding of bird migration patterns.



<h3 id="h-nocturnal-migration">Nocturnal migration</h3>



Many bird species, especially smaller birds like songbirds, migrate during the night. Nocturnal migration is thought to have several advantages, including reduced predation risk, cooler temperatures that minimize water loss, and better use of celestial cues for navigation.



<h3 id="h-adaptations-for-migration">Adaptations for migration</h3>



Birds have evolved various physiological and morphological adaptations to enable long-distance migration. These adaptations include increased fat storage for energy, efficient muscle and wing structures for sustained flight, and the ability to enter a state of torpor to conserve energy during stopovers.



<h3 id="h-conservation-efforts">Conservation efforts</h3>



Bird migration faces numerous threats, including habitat loss, climate change, and human-made structures such as wind turbines and communication towers that can cause collisions. Conservation efforts aimed at protecting migratory birds and their habitats are crucial for the long-term survival of these species. This includes the preservation of stopover sites, the implementation of bird-friendly building designs, and international collaboration to protect migratory routes.



Our understanding of bird migration continues to expand as researchers uncover new information about the factors influencing migratory behavior, the physiological adaptations that enable long-distance flight, and the impacts of human activity on these extraordinary journeys.



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Surprising discovery behind long-distance bird migration

In a groundbreaking study, a team of scientists from the...

Tullimonstrum,,Tully,Monster,Swimming,In,The,Ocean,,The,State,Fossil

For over half a century, the Tully monster (Tullimonstrum gregarium) has puzzled paleontologists due to its bizarre anatomy, making it incredibly difficult to classify. This peculiar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-diversity-can-be-monitored-through-dna-in-the-air/">animal</a> lived approximately 300 million years ago. Francis Tully discovered it in the 1950s while fossil hunting at the Mazon Creek Lagerstätte in Illinois.



The Tully monster's average length was around 15 centimeters. Its unique soft-bodied nature made it an enigma among fossils, sparking decades-long debates among researchers about its proper taxonomic classification.



Recently, a hypothesis emerged suggesting that the Tully monster was a vertebrate. Tully was possibly related to cyclostomes, a group of jawless fish like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-lampreys-brain-treatments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lampreys</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/5-strangest-deep-sea-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hagfish</a>. If this were true, it could fill a crucial gap in the evolutionary history of early vertebrates. However, supporters and opponents have met this hypothesis with both support and opposition over the years. This has left the scientific community divided.



<h2 id="h-research-team-has-a-breakthrough-on-tully-nonster-study">Research team has a breakthrough on Tully nonster study</h2>



Now, a research team from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/index.html">University of Tokyo</a> and Nagoya University in Japan has made a groundbreaking discovery using 3D imaging technology.&nbsp;



“We believe that the mystery of it being an invertebrate or vertebrate has been solved,” said Tomoyuki Mikami. Tomoyuki is a doctoral student in the Graduate School of Science at the University of Tokyo at the time of the study and currently a researcher at the National Museum of Nature and Science.&nbsp;



“Based on multiple lines of evidence, the vertebrate hypothesis of the Tully monster is untenable. The most important point is that the Tully monster had segmentation in its head region that extended from its body. This characteristic is not known in any vertebrate lineage, suggesting a nonvertebrate affinity.”



The team studied more than 150 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tully-monster-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tully monster fossils</a> and over 70 other diverse animal fossils from Mazon Creek. Next, they created a detailed color-coded 3D maps using a laser scanner to highlight the fossils' surface irregularities. Additionally, researchers employed X-ray micro-computed tomography to examine the creature's proboscis. A proboscis is an elongated organ in its head.



<h2 id="h-what-the-study-revealed-about-tully-monsters">What the study revealed about Tully monsters</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pala.12646">Paleontology</a>, revealed that the features previously used to argue that the Tully monster was a vertebrate were not consistent with those found in vertebrates. This finding strongly suggests that the Tully monster was not a vertebrate. This revelation added a new layer of complexity to the ongoing debate.



While the exact classification of the Tully monster remains uncertain, the next stage of the investigation will focus on determining its true taxonomic position. The creature could potentially belong to a group of nonvertebrate chordates. These possibilities include the lancelet, or a protostome group. A protostome is a diverse collection of animals that include insects, roundworms, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthworms-invade-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthworms</a>, and snails – with radically modified morphology.



The perplexing case of the Tully monster highlights the challenges scientists face in unraveling the dynamic history of Earth. The vast array of organisms that have inhabited it over time make this task difficult. As researchers develop new technologies and research methods, they may emerge with more definitive answers.



Details regarding the Tully monster's place in the evolutionary tree are still missing. For now, though, this enigmatic creature continues to captivate the scientific community and remind us of the complexities of life on our planet.



“There were many interesting animals that were never preserved as fossils,” Mikami said. “In this sense, research on the fossils from Mazon Creek is important because it provides paleontological evidence that cannot be obtained from other sites. More and more research is needed to extract important clues from Mazon Creek fossils to understand the evolutionary history of life.”



<h2 id="h-what-earth-was-like-300-million-years-ago">What Earth was like 300 million years ago</h2>



Around 300 million years ago, Earth was in the late Carboniferous to early Permian period. Several unique features characterized this time in Earth's history:



<h3>Pangaea</h3>



During this period, Earth's continents were coming together to form a single supercontinent called <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangaea</a>. This massive landmass included almost all of the present-day continents. A vast ocean called Panthalassa surrounded it.



<h3>Climate</h3>



The late Carboniferous and early Permian periods experienced a generally warm and humid climate due to high levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide. However, the climate began to transition towards a more seasonal and arid environment towards the end of the Carboniferous period. This shift was partly because of the formation of Pangaea, which altered global ocean circulation and wind patterns.



<h3>Flora</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-change-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carboniferous period</a> is famous for its extensive coal deposits, which formed from the remains of vast swampy forests that dominated the landscape. The plant life was predominantly made up of ferns, horsetails, club mosses, and seed-producing plants called gymnosperms. As the climate became more arid in the early Permian, these swampy forests gradually gave way to more drought-resistant plants, such as conifers and other gymnosperms.



<h3>Fauna</h3>



A diverse range of animal life inhabited Earth 300 million years ago. In the oceans, there were various marine invertebrates, such as trilobites, brachiopods, and mollusks, as well as early fish, including sharks and bony fish. On land, the first reptiles were evolving from their amphibian ancestors, and insects were becoming more diverse and abundant. The Carboniferous period also saw the rise of large, dragonfly-like insects called Meganeura, which had wingspans of up to 2.5 feet (75 cm).



<h3>Atmosphere</h3>



The atmosphere during the late Carboniferous period had much higher oxygen levels than today, reaching up to 35%. This high oxygen concentration enabled insects and other invertebrates to grow much larger than their modern counterparts. The elevated oxygen levels also supported the growth of vast forests that ultimately contributed to the formation of extensive coal deposits.



In summary, the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea characterized Earth 300 million years ago. Earth had a warm and humid climate that transitioned to a more arid environment. It was also home to diverse plant and animal life, and a unique atmospheric composition with high oxygen levels.



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What is a Tully monster and why should we care?

For over half a century, the Tully monster (Tullimonstrum gregarium)...

In a recent study, researchers have discovered that female monarch butterflies, also known as African queens, are remarkably adept at finding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-zebra-finches-choose-mates-based-on-their-dialects/">mates</a>, even in populations where a male-killing parasite has significantly reduced the number of males.&nbsp;



The study, led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, University of Edinburgh, and the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, sheds light on the mating behavior of these butterflies and the implications for their survival.



Spiroplasma, a parasite that some female butterflies carry, kills all their male offspring, leading to highly infected populations with very few males. Despite this, the researchers found that females mated about 1.5 times on average, irrespective of the number of males present. 



In some cases, the male proportion dropped below 10 percent. However, the remaining males appeared to successfully breed with most of the available females. Only 10-20 percent of female butterflies remained unmated. This figure is only slightly higher than the expected average in a population with plenty of males (5-10 percent).



Vincent Rutagarama, a student at the University of Rwanda and the study's first author, described the experience of working with an international team of experts as "inspiring and powerful." He believes the knowledge gained from this research will shape his future career path towards research-based conservation.



<h2 id="h-female-butterflies-breeding-success">Female butterflies breeding success</h2>



Professor Richard ffrench-Constant is from the Centre for Ecology and Conservation at Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall. He noted the consistency of female butterflies' breeding success throughout the year. This occurs despite fluctuations in the proportion of males in butterfly populations. 



Dr. Ian Gordon from the University of Rwanda suggested that this breeding success might explain how the male-killing parasite could transmit successfully in populations where males are rare.



Dr. Gordon highlighted the irony of the situation: if the entire population were infected, monarch butterflies would produce no more princes, and both the parasite and the butterflies would die out. Further research is needed to understand why some monarch female butterflies remain uninfected and can produce healthy male offspring. 



Additional studies may also investigate why the male-killing parasite is currently confined to a sub-section of the East African 'contact zone.' This is where prevailing winds converge and bring flying <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-insects-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> together.



<h2>Female butterflies evolving resistance to parasites</h2>



According to Professor ffrench-Constant, other butterfly species have evolved resistance to parasites like Spiroplasma. Monarchs, which are numerous and widespread, are unlikely to be at risk. 



However, the researchers expressed concern about the severe drought in East Africa. This has caused a food crisis for humans and damaged biodiversity and ecosystems. They hope that the monarch butterfly can become a symbol of conservation across Africa. The future of monarchs is tied to the future of the continent. Addressing the climate and environment crisis is crucial for its survival.



Researchers conducted the study at sites in Rwanda and Kenya. It involved counting male-female ratios regularly. Scientists also dissected 10 randomly selected female butterflies each month to count spermatophores, which are detectable after breeding. 



The research was funded by the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic Society</a>, <a href="https://www.clevelandmetroparks.com/zoo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cleveland Metroparks Zoo</a>, and the <a href="https://gorillafund.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund</a>. The findings have been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.9956">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-monarch-butterflies">More about Monarch butterflies</h2>



Monarch butterflies, scientifically known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-are-officially-listed-as-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Danaus plexippus</a>, are among the most recognizable and iconic butterfly species. This is due to their striking orange, black, and white wing patterns. They are native to North and South America. Their range also extends to other parts of the world, including Australia, New Zealand, and some Pacific islands. Monarchs are known for their incredible long-distance migration. This is unique among butterflies.



<h3>Migration</h3>



Monarch butterflies are famous for their annual migration, which can cover thousands of miles. In North America, they travel from their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-forecast-the-future-of-monarch-butterflies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding grounds</a> in the United States and southern Canada to their wintering sites in central Mexico. This journey can span over 3,000 miles and takes several generations of monarchs to complete. The butterflies that migrate to Mexico are the fourth generation of the year. They are the ones that make the return journey to the United States and Canada in the spring.



<h3>Life Cycle</h3>



The monarch butterfly's life cycle consists of four stages: egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa (chrysalis), and adult. The entire life cycle takes about a month to complete, with the adult stage lasting for 2-6 weeks. Female monarchs lay their eggs on milkweed plants, which serve as the primary food source for monarch caterpillars. The caterpillar stage lasts about 10-14 days. After this, the caterpillar forms a chrysalis, where it undergoes metamorphosis into an adult butterfly over the next 10-14 days.



<h3>Diet</h3>



As caterpillars, monarchs feed exclusively on milkweed plants (genus Asclepias). Milkweed contains toxic compounds called cardenolides, which the caterpillars store in their bodies, making them unpalatable to predators. This defense mechanism carries over to the adult stage, where the bright orange and black colors of the monarch butterfly serve as a warning to predators that they are toxic. Adult monarchs feed on nectar from a variety of flowers, providing them with the energy necessary for flight, reproduction, and migration.



<h3>Conservation</h3>



Monarch butterflies face several threats, including habitat loss, climate change, and the widespread use of pesticides. Experts have linked the decline in monarch populations to the loss of milkweed plants, in particular. They are vital to the butterflies' life cycle. Researchers have initiated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-milkweed-could-save-the-eastern-monarch-butterfly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation efforts</a> to protect and restore monarch habitats. These efforts also encourage the planting of milkweed and reducing pesticide use. These efforts aim to ensure the long-term survival of this iconic species and the important role they play in pollination and as indicators of ecosystem health.



<h2 id="h-climate-change-and-the-global-butterfly-population">Climate change and the global butterfly population</h2>



Climate change is impacting the global butterfly population in several ways. Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and the frequency of extreme weather events drive the most significant effects.



These changes can lead to alterations in the distribution, abundance, and behavior of butterfly species, with potential consequences for ecosystem health and biodiversity. Some of the key ways climate change is affecting butterflies include:



<h3>Range shifts</h3>



As temperatures rise, many butterfly species are moving to higher elevations or latitudes in search of more suitable habitats. This can lead to changes in the distribution of species and the potential for local extinctions in areas where they can no longer survive. In some cases, species may expand their ranges into new areas, increasing the potential for competition with native species and disruptions to local ecosystems.



<h3>Phenology changes</h3>



Phenology refers to the timing of biological events, such as the emergence of adult butterflies or the flowering of plants. Climate change can alter the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unep-report-identifies-the-biggest-emerging-environmental-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phenology</a> of butterflies, leading to mismatches between their life cycles and the availability of resources, such as food plants for caterpillars or nectar sources for adults. Such mismatches can negatively impact butterfly populations, as they may struggle to find enough food to support their growth and reproduction.



<h3>Population declines</h3>



Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can lead to declines in butterfly populations, particularly for species that are sensitive to environmental changes or have specialized habitat requirements. Additionally, extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, or heatwaves, can cause direct mortality or disrupt the availability of resources that butterflies depend on, further contributing to population declines.



<h3>Loss of genetic diversity</h3>



As butterfly populations decline and become more fragmented, they may lose genetic diversity, making them more vulnerable to extinction. Smaller populations are more susceptible to inbreeding, which can reduce their ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions.



<h3>Changes in community composition</h3>



Climate change can lead to shifts in the composition of butterfly communities, as some species are more able to adapt to new conditions than others. This can result in a loss of biodiversity and alter the ecological roles that butterflies play, such as their contributions to pollination and their function as prey for other species.



Overall, climate change presents significant challenges for the conservation of global butterfly populations. Efforts to mitigate climate change and protect butterfly habitats are essential for ensuring the long-term survival of these important and diverse organisms.



—-



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Female butterflies have no trouble breeding despite shortage of males

In a recent study, researchers have discovered that female monarch...

According to a recent study by <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/">Dartmouth College</a>, baseball games may soon be affected by climate change. The researchers found that more than 500 home runs hit since 2010 can be attributed to higher-than-average temperatures resulting from climate change. The experts also predict that there will be several hundred more home runs per season as global warming continues.



While the study only attributes one percent of recent home runs to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shocking-un-report-the-worst-of-climate-change-is-yet-to-come/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, the researchers estimate that rising temperatures could account for 10 percent or more of home runs by 2100 if greenhouse gas emissions and climate change continue unabated.



"There's a very clear physical mechanism at play in which warmer temperatures reduce the density of air. Baseball is a game of ballistics. A batted ball is going to fly farther on a warm day," said study senior author Professor Justin Mankin.



<h2>How the study was done</h2>



The researchers analyzed more than 100,000 major league games and 220,000 individual hits. They used these numbers to correlate the number of home runs with the occurrence of unseasonably warm temperatures. They estimated the extent to which the reduced air density that results from higher temperatures was the driving force in the number of home runs on a given day compared to other games.



Study lead author Christopher Callahan, a doctoral candidate in Geography at Dartmouth, said that the researchers accounted for many factors. Some of those included the use of performance-enhancing drugs, the construction of bats and balls, and the adoption of cameras. Also factored in were launch analytics, and other technology intended to optimize a batter's power and distance.



"We don't think temperature is the dominant factor in the increase in home runs - batters are now primed to hit balls at optimal speeds and angles," Callahan said. "That said, temperature matters and we've identified its effect. While climate change has been a minor influence so far, this influence will substantially increase by the end of the century if we continue to emit greenhouse gases and temperatures rise."



<h2>Ballpark location also a factor</h2>



The research team also examined each major league ballpark in the United States. The goal was to gauge how the average number of home runs per year could rise with each one-degree Celsius increase in the global average temperature. They found that the Chicago Cubs' open-air Wrigley Field would experience the largest spike with more than 15 home runs per season. The Tampa Bay Rays' domed Tropicana Field would remain level at one home run or less no matter how hot it gets outside. The Boston Red Sox's iconic Fenway Park and the home of their archrivals the New York Yankees fall in the middle and would experience nearly the same effect as temperatures rise.



Night games would lessen the influence that temperature and air density have on the distance a ball travels. Covered stadiums such as Tropicana Field would nearly eliminate it, the researchers report.



While this phenomenon might seem innocuous, there are additional factors to consider as global temperatures rise, particularly the exposure of players and fans to heat. 



"A key question for the organization at large is what's an acceptable level of heat exposure for everybody and what's the acceptable cost for maximizing home runs," said Professor Mankin. "Home runs are one pathway by which temperature is affecting game play, but there are other pathways that are more concerning because they have human risk attached to them."



<h2>Wealth of MLB data available to researchers</h2>



Professor Mankin pointed out that the wealth of data available for major league baseball games. This provided a unique opportunity to identify the repercussions of climate change on a cultural institution. Climate scientists typically focus on the increased likelihood and severity of natural disasters such as hurricanes, floods, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-waves-brain-performance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat waves</a> because of the far-reaching devastation these events wreak — and because there are records to study them.



"Major League Baseball is a multibillion-dollar industry that is very data-rich, and that privilege allowed us to identify the effect of climate. This critical cultural touchstone for what it means to be American also happens to have a very salient relationship with physics in that temperature actually affects game play," Mankin said.



"It is really difficult to document how climate change is affecting cultural institutions and forms of recreation generally. For most cultural institutions, we simply don't have the data. In fact, we struggle to track climate impacts around the world because of data poverty. A project like this makes me worry that warming is affecting so many other things we just can't document."



<h2>The impact of climate change on cultural institutions</h2>



Study co-author Professor Jeremy DeSilva emphasized the importance of the study. Exploring the impact of climate change on cultural institutions can have a powerful impact on people's daily lives. 



"Baseball is one of these ways that American society holds a mirror up to itself and global climate change is just another example - baseball is not immune to it," DeSilva said. He also noted that baseball has been a catalyst for social change in the past. He referred to desegregation to growing corporatization and the outsized influence of money.



Study co-author Professor Nathaniel Dominy discussed how baseball reflects American cultural values that are often in opposition to each other. 



"Think about the expression of American cultural values in baseball and how many of them exist in opposition to the other: winning and losing, tradition and change, teamwork and individualism, logic and luck," he said. "These same tensions are frustrating our collective response to carbon emissions, so it is extremely fitting to explore the effects of climate change on baseball. It is a potent metaphor for the American experience."



<h2>Conclusion</h2>



The experts analyzed data from the past century of baseball and found a correlation between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-conditioning-is-not-a-sustainable-solution-to-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising temperatures</a> and an increase in the number of home runs. As temperatures rise, baseballs become less dense, making them more bouncy and easier to hit farther. The study's authors had a shocking prediction. The number of home runs hit each season could increase by up to 50 percent by the end of the century if current trends in global warming continue.



The researchers hope that this study can serve as an entry point to opening discussion. It can help people understand the impact of climate change on various aspects of their lives. This includes cultural institutions like baseball. 



"Maybe people who otherwise wouldn't have will think about, and have a bigger conversation about, the more impactful and dangerous aspects of climate change once they know how it's affecting this quintessential game in the history of our country," DeSilva said.



The research is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-22-0235.1">Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</a>.



<h2 id="h-history-of-homeruns-in-mlb">History of homeruns in MLB</h2>



Throughout the history of Major League Baseball (MLB), fans have witnessed some incredible displays of power. Players are hitting balls out of the park at a record-breaking pace.



But what is the historical average of yearly home runs in MLB? Looking back over the past century, the answer is a little more complicated than you might think.



In the early years of baseball, home runs were a rarity. In fact, it wasn't until Babe Ruth burst onto the scene in the 1920s that the home run began to take on its current importance. Ruth's incredible power and penchant for hitting home runs revolutionized the game. In the decades that followed, other sluggers followed in his footsteps.



From the 1920s through the 1960s, home runs continued to rise in frequency. During this time period, the average number of home runs hit per season fluctuated quite a bit. In some years seeing more than 5,000 home runs hit across the league, while other years saw fewer than 3,000. However, by the end of the 1960s, it was clear that home runs had become a staple of the game.



<h3>Homerun totals began to surge</h3>



In the 1970s and 1980s, the average number of home runs per season continued to rise. The introduction of new stadiums and the use of lighter, more powerful bats helped contribute to this increase. By the mid-1990s, the average number of home runs hit per season had reached an all-time high. More than 5,500 homers were hit across the league in 1999.



However, this surge in home runs was not without controversy. Many suspected that players were using performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) to boost their power and hit more home runs. In the years that followed, several high-profile players were caught using PEDs. The league cracked down on drug use with more frequent testing and harsher penalties.



As a result of these efforts, the average number of home runs hit per season has declined in recent years. In 2021, for example, there were just over 5,000 home runs hit across the league. This was down from the peak of nearly 6,000 in 2000.



In summary, the historical average of yearly home runs in MLB has fluctuated over the years. The frequency of home runs rising and falling depending on a variety of factors. However, despite these fluctuations, the home run remains one of the most exciting and memorable moments in baseball. Fans will undoubtedly continue to thrill at the sight of a ball soaring over the outfield wall.



—-



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Spike in Major League Baseball homeruns attributed to climate change

According to a recent study by Dartmouth College, baseball games...

Medical,Laboratory,Assistant,Holding,Test,Tube,With,Positive,Omicron,Covid-19

New research presented at the <a href="https://www.eccmid.org/">European Congress of Clinical Microbiology &amp; Infectious Diseases</a> (ECCMID) suggests that adults hospitalized with the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant have a higher death rate than those hospitalized with seasonal influenza. This is despite the fact that Omicron is considered less virulent with lower case fatality rates than the delta and alpha strains.



The study, conducted by Dr Alaa Atamna and colleagues from the Rabin Medical Center at Belinison Hospital in Israel, compared the clinical outcomes of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 (Omicron variant) and those hospitalized with influenza at a large academic hospital in Israel.&nbsp;



The experts found that adults (18 years or older) hospitalized with influenza were 55 percent less likely to die within 30 days than those hospitalized with Omicron during the 2021-2022 influenza season.



The research included 167 patients hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 and 221 patients hospitalized with influenza infection during December 2021 and January 2022. Overall, 63 patients died within 30 days - 19 (9%) admitted with influenza and 44 (26%) hospitalized with Omicron.



Patients with Omicron tended to have higher overall comorbidity scores, needed more assistance performing activities of daily living, and were more likely to have high blood pressure and diabetes, whereas asthma was more common in those hospitalized with influenza. Respiratory complications and the need for oxygen support and mechanical ventilation were also more common in Omicron cases than in seasonal influenza.



According to Dr. Atamna, one possible reason for the higher Omicron death rate is that patients admitted with Omicron were older with additional major underlying illnesses such as diabetes and chronic kidney disease. “The difference might also be due to an exaggerated immune response in COVID-19, and that vaccination against COVID-19 was far lower among patients with Omicron."



Dr. Atamna warns that the double whammy of overlapping influenza and COVID-19 epidemics will increase the complexity of disease and the burden on health systems. He urges people to take a basic step that may alter the trajectory of either epidemic, which is to get vaccinated for both flu and COVID-19, especially if they are older and have underlying illnesses.



The study was observational and cannot prove causation. It was conducted in one hospital in Israel, so the results may not apply to other countries and populations.&nbsp;



The authors also note that the excess mortality observed for Omicron could be the result of an influenza season that was less severe than usual. Finally, the study included only hospitalized patients, so it could not estimate the proportion of hospitalized patients in the total number of infected patients.



In conclusion, this research highlights the importance of vaccination against both flu and COVID-19, especially for older individuals and those with underlying health conditions. While the study was conducted in one hospital in Israel and the results may not apply to other countries and populations, it provides valuable insight into the clinical outcomes of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 and influenza.&nbsp;



As the world continues to grapple with these overlapping epidemics, it is crucial to take steps to protect ourselves and others.



What is Omicron



The Omicron virus is a strain of the coronavirus that was first identified in South Africa in November 2021. It is a variant of the SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19. The Omicron variant has been classified as a "variant of concern" by the World Health Organization (WHO) due to its high number of mutations and the potential for increased transmissibility and reduced effectiveness of current vaccines and treatments.



One of the main differences between the Omicron virus and COVID-19 is the number of mutations in their genetic codes. The Omicron virus has a large number of mutations in the spike protein that the virus uses to enter human cells, making it more transmissible than earlier strains of the virus. The mutations in the Omicron virus also appear to have the potential to reduce the effectiveness of vaccines and treatments developed for earlier variants.



Another difference is that the symptoms of COVID-19 and the Omicron virus may be slightly different. Preliminary reports suggest that people infected with the Omicron variant may experience milder symptoms than those infected with earlier variants. However, more research is needed to fully understand the impact of the Omicron virus on the severity of illness.



It is important to note that while the Omicron variant is a new and concerning development in the COVID-19 pandemic, the best way to protect yourself and others is to follow public health guidelines, such as wearing a mask, washing your hands frequently, and getting vaccinated.



—-



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Omicron is much more deadly than the seasonal flu

New research presented at the European Congress of Clinical Microbiology...

Tropical,Palm,Trees,On,The,Miami,Beach,Near,The,Ocean,

Wind is an essential factor in forecasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/">weather</a> patterns, as it influences cloud formation by bringing water vapor together. Now, atmospheric scientists have discovered a groundbreaking method of measuring wind using an algorithm that interprets data from water vapor movements.&nbsp;



This innovative approach could prove invaluable in predicting extreme weather events such as hurricanes and storms.



For the first time, a study recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2022GL101830">Geophysical Research Letters</a> provides insights into the vertical distribution of horizontal winds over tropical and midlatitude regions. The research was conducted by researchers at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a>.



The scientists obtained water vapor movement data by utilizing two operational satellites belonging to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the federal agency responsible for weather forecasting.



Wind plays a crucial role in bringing together various atmospheric elements, including clouds, aerosols, water vapor, precipitation, and radiation, explained Xubin Zeng, co-author of the study and the director of the Climate Dynamics and Hydrometeorology Collaborative at the University of Arizona. However, he noted that wind has remained somewhat elusive.



"We never knew the wind very well. I mean, that's the last frontier. That's why I'm excited," Zeng said.



According to Zeng, the researchers' ability to estimate horizontal winds at different altitudes in the same location is due to more advanced algorithms. "This was not possible a decade ago," he added.



<h2 id="h-how-wind-is-normally-measured">How wind is normally measured</h2>



Zeng went on to explain that <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/measuring-earths-winds-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind measurement</a> is typically performed using three distinct methods. The first involves the use of radiosondes, which are instrumental packages suspended below a 6-foot-wide balloon. Sensors on the radiosonde measure wind speed and direction, as well as atmospheric pressure, temperature, and relative humidity.



However, Zeng highlighted several downsides of using radiosonde balloons. The cost of each launch can range from $400 to $500, and radiosonde stations are limited in certain regions, such as Africa and the Amazon rainforest. Additionally, he pointed out that radiosondes are not available for use over oceans.



This new method, combining data from geostationary satellites and lidar technology, could potentially revolutionize the way scientists study wind patterns and phenomena that are directly influenced by wind, such as air quality and volcanic ash dispersion.



Traditionally, meteorologists have used cloud top movement to measure wind at one height. However, according to researcher Xubin Zeng, cloud tops usually exist either below 2 miles or above 4 1/2 miles above Earth's surface, leaving a gap in wind information between these two elevations.&nbsp;



Lidar (light detection and ranging) technology can provide precise measurements of wind movements at various heights, but its capabilities are limited to measuring wind in a single vertical "curtain," primarily in the east-west direction.



To tackle air quality and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/volcanic-ash-over-kodiak-island-alaska/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic ash</a> dispersion issues, experts have had to rely on weather forecasting models that incorporate measurements from different sources instead of direct wind measurements. 



New method measures movement of water vapor



Unfortunately, these models are not accurate enough when rainfall is present. In an attempt to bypass these limitations, Zeng and his team used data from the movement of water vapor recorded by two NOAA satellites.



These satellites, moving in the same direction and separated by a 50-minute interval, detected water vapor movement through infrared radiation. While the human eye cannot discern the subtle movements of water vapor in the atmosphere, lead study author Amir Ouyed and Zeng's research group employed machine-learning algorithms to better process images and track the water vapor.&nbsp;



Zeng explained, "For decades, people were saying, 'You have to move the cloud top or water vapors enough so that you can see the difference of the pattern.' But now, we don't need to do that."



The current resolution of the data is coarse, with a pixel size of 100 kilometers. However, Zeng sees this as a promising start for a future satellite mission, stating, "It's a demonstration of the feasibility for our future satellite mission we are pursuing where we hope to provide the 10-kilometer resolution."&nbsp;



The ultimate goal is to combine water vapor movement data and measurements from wind lidar to deliver more accurate and comprehensive wind measurements overall.



Zeng and his collaborators at other institutions are currently working on the development of a new satellite wind mission to further enhance our understanding of wind patterns and to provide more accurate data to study phenomena influenced by wind.&nbsp;



This groundbreaking research holds the potential to significantly improve our ability to predict and respond to weather-related events, natural disasters, and air quality concerns. As extreme weather events become more frequent and severe, the importance of accurate predictions cannot be overstated.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-is-wind">What is wind?</h2>



Wind is the movement of air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure across the Earth's surface. It is created due to the uneven heating of the Earth by the Sun, which results in variations in temperature and pressure across different regions.



The Sun's energy heats the Earth's surface, causing the air above it to warm up and expand. As warm air rises, it creates areas of low pressure near the surface.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, in cooler regions, the air is denser, and it sinks, creating areas of high pressure. Wind is the horizontal movement of air as it flows from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas, attempting to equalize these pressure differences.



The Earth's rotation, known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/twin-cyclones-spinning-in-the-indian-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coriolis effect</a>, also plays a role in the direction and speed of wind. In the Northern Hemisphere, the Coriolis effect causes winds to turn to the right, while in the Southern Hemisphere, winds turn to the left. This deflection is more pronounced at higher latitudes and less noticeable near the equator.



Other factors, such as the presence of large bodies of water, topography, and local weather conditions, can also influence wind patterns. Understanding wind is crucial for studying weather and climate, as well as for predicting and mitigating the impacts of natural disasters, air pollution, and other environmental issues.



—-



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New method developed to measure the wind

Wind is an essential factor in forecasting weather patterns, as...

The vast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/">oceans</a> are home to some of the most intriguing and mysterious creatures. Among these are octopuses and squids, known as cephalopods, which have developed unique sensing capabilities to navigate their underwater worlds.&nbsp;



Octopuses explore the seafloor with their eight arms, using highly sensitive suckers in a "taste by touch" approach, while squids employ a starkly different tactic, patiently hiding until they ambush their prey in swift bursts.&nbsp;



A recent pair of research studies led by scientists from the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a> and Harvard University delves into the evolutionary adaptations of these sensing abilities, revealing connections to human brain receptors.



These groundbreaking studies, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05808-z">Nature</a>, were conducted by researchers from Ryan Hibbs' newly established laboratory at UC San Diego (formerly based at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center) and Nicholas Bellono's lab at Harvard.&nbsp;



The research teams adopted a comprehensive approach, examining cephalopods from atomic-level protein structures to the entire functional organisms. They focused on sensory receptors as a key site for evolutionary innovation, intersecting ecology, neural processing, and behavior.



The investigation of how octopuses and squids sense their marine environments led to the discovery of new sensory receptor families, and the experts determined how these receptors drive distinct behaviors in the environment.&nbsp;



They employed cryo-electron microscopy technology, which uses cryogenic temperatures to capture biological processes and structures in unique ways, demonstrating that adaptations can help propel new behaviors.



“Cephalopods are well known for their intricate sensory organs, elaborate nervous systems and sophisticated behaviors that are comparable to complex vertebrates, but with radically different organization,” said Hibbs, a professor in the Department of Neurobiology. Hibbs brings expertise on the structure of a family of proteins in humans that mediate communication between brain neurons and other areas such as between neurons and muscle cells. “Cephalopods provide striking examples of convergent and divergent evolution that can be leveraged to understand the molecular basis of novelty across levels of biological organization.”



<h2 id="h-first-study-findings">First study findings</h2>



In one of the Nature studies, the scientists described for the first time the structure of an octopus chemotactile receptor, which octopus arms use for taste-by-touch exploration. These chemotactile receptors are similar to human brain and muscle neurotransmitter receptors, but have evolved to help evaluate potential food sources in the marine environment.



“In octopus, we found that these chemotactile receptors physically contact surfaces to determine whether the animal should eat a potential food source or reject it,” said Hibbs. “Through its structure, we found that these receptors are activated by greasy molecules, including steroids similar to cholesterol. With evolutionary, biophysical and behavioral analyses, we showed how strikingly novel structural adaptations facilitate the receptor’s transition from an ancestral role in neurotransmission to a new function in contact-dependent chemosensation of greasy environmental chemicals.”



<h2 id="h-second-study-findings">Second study findings</h2>



The second Nature study focused on squids and their distinct ambush strategy for capturing food. The researchers combined genetics, physiology, and behavioral experiments to discover a new class of ancient chemotactile receptors and determined one structure within the class.&nbsp;



They also conducted an evolutionary analysis to link adaptations in squid receptors to more elaborate expansions in octopus receptors. By placing chemotactile and ancestral neurotransmitter receptors on an evolutionary timeline, the researchers were able to describe how evolutionary adaptations drove the development of new behaviors.



“We discovered a new family of cell surface receptors that offer a rare lens into the evolution of sensation because they represent the most recent and only functionally tractable transition from neurotransmitter to environmental receptors across the entire animal kingdom,” said Hibbs. “Our structures of these unique cephalopod receptors lay a foundation for the mechanistic understanding of major functional transitions in deep evolutionary time and the origin of biological novelty.”



Hibbs says the pair of new studies offers an excellent example of how curiosity in interesting creatures can lead to insights important for all of biology, namely how proteins - life's building blocks - adapt to mediate new functions and behaviors.&nbsp;



“These studies are a great example of what being a scientist is all about - wonder, exploration and understanding how things work,” he said.



The findings not only shed light on the fascinating underwater lives of cephalopods, but also reveal a deeper understanding of the complex web of evolutionary connections that tie together the living world, including our own brains.



<h2 id="h-more-about-octopuses">More about octopuses</h2>



Octopuses are fascinating marine creatures that belong to the class Cephalopoda, which also includes squids, cuttlefish, and nautiluses. They are widely known for their remarkable intelligence, problem-solving abilities, and exceptional camouflage skills. Here are some more interesting facts about octopuses:



<ol>
<li>Anatomy: Octopuses have a soft, flexible body with no internal or external skeleton, which allows them to squeeze through tight spaces. They have eight arms lined with suckers, a bulbous head, and a mantle that houses their internal organs. The mouth, located at the center of their arms, has a beak-like structure and a radula, a tongue-like organ with rows of teeth, to break down food.</li>



<li>Intelligence: Octopuses are considered the most intelligent invertebrates. They display complex problem-solving abilities, can solve puzzles, unscrew jars to obtain food, and even use tools. They are also known for their escape artistry, sometimes escaping from their tanks in captivity.</li>



<li>Camouflage: Octopuses are masters of disguise, thanks to their ability to change their color, pattern, and texture to blend in with their surroundings. They achieve this with specialized cells called chromatophores, which contain pigments, and iridophores and leucophores, which reflect and scatter light. This camouflage helps them avoid predators and sneak up on prey.</li>



<li>Locomotion: Octopuses primarily move by crawling along the seafloor using their arms. However, they can also swim by expelling water from their mantle cavity through a funnel-like structure called the siphon, propelling them backward in a form of jet propulsion.</li>



<li>Reproduction: Octopuses have a unique reproductive process. The male octopus transfers a sperm packet to the female using a specialized arm called the hectocotylus. After fertilization, the female lays thousands of eggs and guards them until they hatch, often not eating during this time. Most octopus species have a short lifespan, with some living only a few months to a couple of years. The female usually dies soon after the eggs hatch.</li>



<li>Venom: Most octopuses produce venom to subdue and immobilize their prey. The venom of some species, like the blue-ringed octopus, can be extremely potent and dangerous to humans.</li>



<li>Regeneration: Octopuses have the ability to regenerate lost arms. A new arm can grow back within a few weeks, complete with functional suckers and nerve connections.</li>



<li>Size and habitat: Octopus species vary greatly in size, from the tiny Octopus wolfi, which measures only about an inch in length, to the giant Pacific octopus, with an arm span of up to 30 feet. They inhabit various marine environments, from shallow tide pools to deep ocean trenches, and are found in all the world's oceans.</li>
</ol>



These captivating creatures continue to be a subject of fascination for scientists and the public alike, as researchers uncover more about their unique biology, behaviors, and adaptations to life in the ocean.



<h2 id="h-more-about-squids">More about squids</h2>



Squids are intriguing marine animals belonging to the class Cephalopoda, which also includes octopuses, cuttlefish, and nautiluses. They are known for their streamlined bodies, impressive swimming abilities, and bioluminescence. Here are some more interesting facts about squids:



<ol>
<li>Anatomy: Squids have a distinctive body structure with a torpedo-shaped mantle, eight arms, and two longer tentacles. Their arms and tentacles are equipped with suckers or hooks for capturing prey. Squids have a sharp, parrot-like beak used to tear and consume food. Inside the mantle, they possess a pen or gladius, a remnant of an internal shell, which provides support and aids in streamlining their body.</li>



<li>Locomotion: Squids are fast and agile swimmers. They use jet propulsion to move through the water by forcefully expelling water through a funnel-like structure called the siphon. This technique allows squids to move quickly, making them efficient predators and enabling them to escape from threats.</li>



<li>Vision: Squids have large, well-developed eyes that allow them to see clearly in low-light conditions. Their eyes are adapted for detecting motion and can perceive the polarization of light, which helps them locate transparent prey and navigate their environment.</li>



<li>Camouflage and bioluminescence: Like octopuses, squids can change their color and pattern using specialized cells called chromatophores. Some squid species also have bioluminescent organs called photophores, which emit light, allowing them to communicate, attract prey, or deter predators.</li>



<li>Predation: Squids are carnivorous and primarily feed on fish, crustaceans, and other cephalopods. They use their tentacles to catch prey and then pull it towards their beak to consume it.</li>



<li>Reproduction: Squid reproduction involves the male transferring sperm packets, called spermatophores, to the female using a modified arm called the hectocotylus. The female then lays eggs in clusters, which are often attached to the seafloor or other underwater structures. Depending on the species, the female may guard the eggs or abandon them to develop on their own. After hatching, the young squids, called paralarvae, are usually planktonic and undergo several developmental stages before reaching adulthood.</li>



<li>Size and habitat: Squid species range in size from the tiny Idiosepius, measuring only about an inch in length, to the colossal squid, which can grow up to 46 feet in length, including the tentacles. Squids inhabit various ocean environments, from shallow coastal waters to the deep sea, and are found in all the world's oceans.</li>



<li>Importance to humans: Squids are not only ecologically important as a part of the marine food web, but they also hold cultural and economic significance. They are a popular food source in many cuisines and are commercially fished worldwide. Squids also play a role in scientific research, particularly in the fields of neuroscience and biomechanics.</li>
</ol>



The fascinating biology, behaviors, and adaptations of squids continue to captivate scientists and the public alike, as researchers uncover more about their complex lives in the ocean's depths.



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Octopus and squid senses linked to human brain evolution

The vast oceans are home to some of the most...

A recent study led by <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> has provided new insights into the feeding habits of killer whales (or orcas) in the North Atlantic, revealing a diverse and varied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-reduces-the-risk-of-dementia/">diet</a> that differs considerably from one region to another. The researchers utilized a novel technique for the first time to analyze the fatty acid patterns in the blubber of these majestic marine predators, shedding light on their prey preferences and the potential impact of climate change on sensitive Arctic ecosystems.



While scientists have long known that killer whales in the Pacific Northwest exhibit diverse feeding habits, the diet of their counterparts in the North Atlantic has remained largely a mystery.&nbsp;



The McGill study is the most extensive of its kind. The researchers investigated the diets of these killer whales across a vast geographical range stretching from the eastern and northern coasts of Canada to northern Norway.



This innovative approach relied on the analysis of fatty acid patterns in the blubber of killer whales, allowing them to quantify the proportion of different prey types in the diet of these apex predators. This method has produced the most detailed overview of North Atlantic killer whales' diets to date.



As climate change continues to drive the northward redistribution of killer whales, understanding their feeding habits becomes increasingly vital, not only for the health and survival of these animals but also for the potential impacts on vulnerable species within Arctic ecosystems.



<h2 id="h-a-new-tech-tool-monitors-changing-diets">A new tech tool monitors changing diets</h2>



“In a context of climate change, it becomes increasingly urgent to understand and be able to quantify killer whale diets and how they are changing so that we can foresee the potential impacts on local food webs,” said Anaïs Remili, a PhD candidate in the Department of Natural Resource Sciences at McGill University and the first author on a paper published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13920">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“By measuring the composition of the fatty acids of approximately 200 killer whales and of 900 of their prey of different species, we were able estimate the specific proportions of each prey species in the whales’ diets. This means that scientists can potentially keep track of any shifts in these diets in the future.”



<h2 id="h-orca-diets-vary-by-region-and-individual-tastes">Orca diets vary by region and individual tastes</h2>



The study found that killer whales in the North Atlantic have highly varied diets depending on their location. In certain regions, they predominantly feed on other whales, such as belugas and narwhals in the Eastern Canadian Arctic and baleen whales and porpoises in Eastern Canada.&nbsp;



In contrast, killer whales in the Eastern North Atlantic (Norway, Faroe Islands, Iceland) mainly consume fish, particularly herring, while in the Central North Atlantic (Greenland), their primary prey are seals.



Interestingly, the researchers also discovered that not all whales in a given location feed on the same prey. In the Eastern Canadian Arctic, for instance, half of the whales primarily consume belugas and narwhals, while the other half prefer to eat ringed seals. In Greenland, killer whales are found to consume a mixture of all available prey types.



Furthermore, in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and Norway, while most whales are herring eaters, a small number of whales in Norway and Iceland also consume a significant proportion of marine mammals such as porpoises and seals. This study marks the first time that researchers have been able to discern individual diet preferences in killer whales with such a high level of detail.



“Quantifying the diets of killer whales and other top predators is crucial in a context of changing environments, because it can provide insights into how these animals adapt to shifts in their prey populations and habitat conditions,” adds Melissa McKinney, the senior author on the paper, an Assistant Professor in the Department of Natural Resource Sciences at McGill and the Canada Research Chair in Ecological Change and Environmental Stressors. “Our results also point to the need for further research on the ecology of the individuals since we found such large differences among individuals of the same populations.”



The findings of this comprehensive study provide invaluable information on the feeding habits of North Atlantic killer whales, expanding our understanding of their complex ecological roles and the potential consequences of their shifting distribution on fragile Arctic ecosystems in the face of climate change.



<h2 id="h-what-more-we-know-about-killer-whales">What more we know about killer whales</h2>



Killer whales, or orcas (Orcinus orca), are the largest members of the dolphin family and are known for their striking black and white coloration, intelligence, and complex social structures. They are found in oceans across the world, from the Arctic and Antarctic regions to tropical seas. Here is an overview of some key aspects of killer whales:



<ol>
<li>Size and appearance: Adult male killer whales can reach lengths of up to 26 feet (8 meters) and weigh as much as 12,000 pounds (5,443 kilograms), while adult females are smaller, reaching lengths of up to 23 feet (7 meters) and weighing around 8,000 pounds (3,629 kilograms). Their distinctive black and white coloration serves as camouflage in the ocean, helping them blend in with their surroundings.</li>



<li>Social structure: Killer whales live in complex social groups called pods, which typically consist of 5-30 individuals, although some pods can be much larger. They are known for their strong family bonds and matriarchal societies, with older females often leading the group.</li>



<li>Communication and echolocation: Orcas have a sophisticated system of communication, using a variety of vocalizations such as clicks, whistles, and calls to coordinate their activities, maintain social bonds, and navigate their environment. They also use echolocation, emitting a series of clicks and listening for the returning echoes to determine the location and distance of objects in their surroundings.</li>



<li>Diet and feeding habits: Killer whales are apex predators, meaning they are at the top of the food chain. Their diet varies depending on their geographical location and the availability of prey. Some populations primarily consume fish, like salmon or herring, while others feed on marine mammals such as seals, sea lions, and even other whales. Their diverse feeding habits are reflected in distinct ecotypes, or forms, that have evolved in response to their preferred prey.</li>



<li>Reproduction and lifespan: Female killer whales reach sexual maturity around the age of 15 and have a gestation period of about 17 months. They give birth to a single calf, which they nurse for up to two years. The average lifespan of a killer whale is around 50 years for males and up to 80-90 years for females, although some females have been known to live more than 100 years.</li>



<li>Conservation status: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) currently lists the killer whale as "Data Deficient" due to the lack of sufficient data on the global population. However, some local populations, such as the Southern Resident killer whales in the Pacific Northwest, are considered endangered and face threats from pollution, habitat loss, reduced prey availability, and human disturbance.</li>



<li>Cultural significance: Killer whales have long been revered in various indigenous cultures, featuring in myths, legends, and art. They are also popular attractions at marine parks, although the ethics of keeping these intelligent animals in captivity have been increasingly debated in recent years.</li>
</ol>



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Study reveals what killer whales like to eat

A recent study led by McGill University has provided new...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a> has found that reduction in a key protein can prevent the formation of dangerous blood clots – known as “deep vein thrombosis” - in hibernating bears, paralyzed humans, pigs kept in small enclosures and other animal species that are immobile for days, weeks, months, or even years at a time.



Although people forced to sit still for many hours during long haul flights are often warned about the risks of blood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-triggers-clotting-to-control-bleeding-in-a-wound/">clotting</a> and advised to occasionally get up and walk around or wear compression socks, most of them will not experience blood clots, if they are not genetically predisposed to such a condition. Now, the experts found that a protein known as “heat shock protein 47” (Hsp47) is dramatically reduced - by as much as 55 times - when someone is immobilized for extended periods of time.



“It seems counterintuitive that people who have severe paralysis don’t appear to be at higher risk of blood clots. This tells us that something interesting is happening. And it turns out that reducing levels of Hsp47 plays a key role in preventing clots, not just in humans, but in other mammals, including bears and pigs. When we see something like this in multiple species, that reinforces its importance. Having Hsp47 must have been an evolutionary advantage,” explained co-author Jon Gibbins, a professor of Cell Biology at Reading.



This protein is released by platelets – the sticky blood cells triggering clotting – in response to an injury, to help protect against blood loss. However, if released into the blood of healthy bears, mice, or humans, Hsp47 seems to promote conditions which may give rise to thrombosis.



By comparing blood samples from hibernating and non-hibernating bears, pigs kept in small enclosures and pigs free to move around in barns, and immobilized people and individuals who can move and walk, the researchers discovered that the absence of movement in all of these species was associated with having much less Hsp47.



“We aren’t totally sure how, but it appears that there is something about movement that keeps Hsp47 at an appropriate level. It could be that the mechanical forces involved in moving around actually have an impact on gene expression, dramatically increasing the amount of Hsp47 that circulates in the blood,” Gibbins said.



“Now that we know that Hsp47 is so important, we can begin to look for new or existing medicines that might be able to inhibit the function of this protein in blood clotting and protect mobile people who are prone to clots,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abo5044">Science</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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What prevents blood clots in hibernating bears?

A new study led by the University of Reading has...

In a groundbreaking discovery, paleontologists have unearthed mysterious ancient teeth in three English counties, believed to belong to dinosaurs that roamed Britain 168 million years ago.&nbsp;The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-highlight-dinosaur-diversity-in-prehistoric-patagonia/">fossils</a>, found in Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, and Dorset, are the first-ever examples of therizinosaur and troodontid dinosaurs discovered on UK soil. 



Furthermore, these remains are the oldest-known evidence of these species worldwide and could potentially represent some of the earliest relatives of birds ever discovered.



Therizinosaurus, a large herbivore dinosaur from the late Cretaceous period, was known for its distinctive long scissor-like claw bones. The dinosaur featured in the most recent Jurassic World film and, along with the troodontid and the well-known Velociraptor, belonged to a group of ancient creatures called the maniraptorans.&nbsp;



Recently reported by the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20562802">Papers in Paleontology</a> and by the Daily Mail, these dinosaurs, which evolved into numerous species during the Middle Jurassic period, are considered some of the closest relatives to modern birds. However, due to the scarcity of fossils from this time, knowledge of their origins remains limited.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> and Birkbeck College identified these mysterious teeth - some discovered as far back as the 1970s and others more recently - using pioneering machine learning techniques.&nbsp;



"Previous research had suggested that the maniraptorans were around in the Middle Jurassic, but the actual fossil evidence was patchy and disputed," said lead researcher Simon Wills, a PhD student at the Natural History Museum.&nbsp;



"Along with fossils found elsewhere, this research suggests the group had already achieved a global distribution by this time. The teeth we analyzed include what are currently the only troodontid and therizinosaur fossils ever recorded from the UK and are the oldest evidence of these dinosaurs anywhere in the world."



Although earlier studies attempted to classify isolated teeth using various statistical methods, their success rate was not particularly high. This led the experts behind the new research to work on improving machine learning tools like the one they used in their study.&nbsp;



"The use of machine learning in vertebrate paleontology is still in its infancy, although its usage is growing," Wills said. "The main drawback is the need to have a comprehensive training dataset for the models to learn from. In our study, we are fortunate that there is already a relatively large dataset of dinosaur tooth measurements available that we could use to train the models."



To employ the machine learning technique, researchers first produced a 3D model of each tooth using CT scanning, enabling the AI to interpret the fossil information. This step was necessary because the teeth were so small that taking measurements by hand was impractical. The team used the measurements of thousands of teeth from known dinosaur species to train three different machine learning models, and the results of each model were combined to identify the most likely origin of each tooth.



As technological innovations continue, researchers anticipate that machine learning will become more commonly used to solve additional paleontological mysteries, unlocking more secrets of Earth's ancient past.



<h2 id="h-more-about-therizinosaurus">More about Therizinosaurus</h2>



Therizinosaurus, an enigmatic dinosaur that lived during the late Cretaceous period around 70 million years ago, was first discovered in Mongolia. The name Therizinosaurus, meaning "scythe lizard," comes from its distinctive and massive scythe-like claws, which could reach up to 3.3 feet (1 meter) in length. These remarkable claws are among the longest known for any dinosaur.



Therizinosaurus belonged to the Therizinosauridae family, a group of unusual, large-bodied theropod dinosaurs. Although most theropods were carnivorous, Therizinosaurus and other therizinosaurs were herbivores, making them a unique group within the theropod lineage. It is believed that the long claws were used for various purposes, including foraging for plants, stripping leaves from branches, and self-defense against predators.



Reaching up to 33 feet (10 meters) in length and weighing up to 5 tons, Therizinosaurus had a bulky body, a small head, a long neck, and a wide torso. Its hind limbs were sturdy, while its front limbs were elongated with three large, curved claws on each hand. Its feet had four toes each, with the first toe possibly not touching the ground. Therizinosaurus likely had a coat of feathers, which is a trait shared by its close relatives, as evidenced by fossil findings.



Despite being a herbivore, Therizinosaurus shared several characteristics with its carnivorous theropod cousins, including the structure of its pelvis and the overall shape of its skull. The combination of traits from different dinosaur groups led to some confusion about its classification until further research and fossil discoveries provided a clearer picture of its evolutionary relationships.



Therizinosaurus is considered a member of the Maniraptora group, which includes dinosaurs closely related to modern birds. This group also comprises well-known dinosaurs such as Velociraptor and Troodontidae. The peculiar anatomy of Therizinosaurus and its relatives provides important insights into the diversity and adaptability of theropod dinosaurs, as well as the evolution of herbivory within the group.



<h2 id="h-how-birds-evolved-from-dinosaurs">How birds evolved from dinosaurs</h2>



Birds evolved from a group of small, meat-eating dinosaurs known as theropods, which are members of the larger dinosaur group called Saurischia. The same group of theropods also includes famous carnivorous dinosaurs such as Tyrannosaurus rex and Velociraptor. Among theropods, a subgroup called Maniraptora is considered the most closely related to modern birds.



The transition from dinosaurs to birds occurred gradually over millions of years, with numerous intermediate species displaying a mix of dinosaur and bird-like characteristics.&nbsp;



The first known bird, Archaeopteryx, lived around 150 million years ago during the late Jurassic period. Archaeopteryx shared many features with its theropod relatives, such as teeth, a long bony tail, and a body structure resembling that of small predatory dinosaurs. However, it also had feathers and wings, indicating its ability to glide or fly.



Over time, various bird-like traits evolved in these theropod dinosaurs, such as a reduction in body size, the development of a beak, the loss of teeth, and changes in limb structure. Feathers, initially evolved for insulation or display purposes, eventually played a role in the development of powered flight.



Fossil evidence and genetic studies confirm the close relationship between birds and dinosaurs. In fact, birds are the only surviving lineage of theropod dinosaurs, making them true living dinosaurs.&nbsp;



This realization has deepened our understanding of the evolutionary processes that shaped the diverse array of bird species we see today, as well as the ancient connections between birds and their dinosaur ancestors.



—-



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Therizinosaur with scissor-like claws discovered in the UK

In a groundbreaking discovery, paleontologists have unearthed mysterious ancient teeth...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-create-mental-maps-to-find-their-way-home/">Honeybees</a> communicate to their conspecifics the location of resources by performing a “waggle dance” – a complex repetition of movements consisting of a waggle and a return “run” which is unique to each particular resource location. This behavior is known to be correlated with the levels of dopamine in the bees’ heads, a “feel good” neurotransmitter that is involved in arousal, cognition, sensitivity to stimuli, and seeking and wanting behavior in many animal species.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Now, a study led by the <a href="http://m.extbg.cas.cn/">Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden</a> (XTBG) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California, San Diego</a> has found that receiving an inhibitory signal (stop signal) associated with negative food conditions decreased the dopamine levels in honeybees.



Although previous studies provided evidence that foragers often use the stop signal – an inhibitory signal targeted at waggle dancers – to warn other bees of a dangerous or declining food source, it was unclear how the presence of predators affected the honeybee food-wanting signal.&nbsp;



“We were wondering whether a signal about danger at a food source could, by itself, decrease foraging motivation and thus reduce brain dopamine levels,” said Dong Shihao, a chemical ecologist at XTBG and one of the study’s authors.



The researchers observed that, while foragers produced no stop signals when they were not attacked, when threatened by hornets, the stop signaling sharply increased, leading waggle dancers to cease their activity, abandon the dangerous feeder, and return to their hives. Moreover, the waggle dancers receiving the stop signal had significantly lower brain dopamine levels, even in cases when the dancers have not experienced peril themselves.



When the scientists increased bees’ dopamine levels by feeding them with a dopamine sucrose solution, they spent substantially more time on a feeder after being attacked by a hornet, produced fewer stop signals when returning to the hive, and performed more waggle dances than bees which were also attacked but fed pure sucrose solution.



“Attacks by hornet predators can reduce brain dopamine levels and cause foragers to pass on such stressful information via stop signals that also reduce brain dopamine levels in recipients. Artificially increasing dopamine levels by feeding bees dopamine would reduce the aversive effects of hornet attacks,” concluded corresponding author Tan Ken, an ecologist at XTBG.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Stop signals decrease dopamine levels in honeybees

Honeybees communicate to their conspecifics the location of resources by...

A recent <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-22-0194.1">study</a> examining the upcoming National Climate Assessment has revealed alarming conclusions about the future of heavy precipitation days in the United States. Researchers from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego and the DOE <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> (Berkeley Lab) predict that the extreme rain or snow days that once occurred only once in a century could become multiple occurrences in an individual's lifetime.



By analyzing a comprehensive 30-terabyte data set, called Localized Constructed Analogs Version 2 (LOCA2), researchers were able to examine temperature and precipitation patterns on a scale of approximately six kilometers (3.9 miles). In contrast, most advanced climate models have a much broader focus, looking at regions ranging from 50 to 250 kilometers (30 to 400 miles). This new data set offers a far more granular view of weather patterns in the United States, providing valuable insights for local planners.



Dan Feldman, staff scientist at the Berkeley Lab and the project’s principal investigator, explains the significance of this new approach:&nbsp;



“With this data set, we’re able to look at the impacts of actual weather pattern changes across the United States at an extremely granular level. We see that there is a lot more extreme weather that is likely to happen in the future – and by looking at actual weather patterns, we show that changes in extreme precipitation will actually be more extreme than previously estimated. Land use managers and planners should expect more extremes, but location matters.”



The LOCA2 data set is an update to a similar analysis conducted in 2016, which informed the Fourth National Climate Assessment (NCA) in 2018. The NCA serves as a guide for the U.S. government to plan for, mitigate, and adapt to climate changes impacting the country. The Fifth NCA is anticipated to be released later this year.



Covering the lower 48 states of the United States, southern Canada, and northern Mexico, LOCA2 incorporates 27 updated climate models from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) and more than 70 years of weather data.&nbsp;



David Pierce, a scientist at Scripps Oceanography and the developer of LOCA and LOCA2, emphasizes the importance of these improvements: “We've spent a lot of effort improving the representation of extreme wet days, which is important for understanding both the likelihood of flooding and the availability of water for agricultural, commercial, and residential use.”



LOCA2 climate projections offer daily information through the end of the century for three different greenhouse gas emissions scenarios, known as Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs). The data set is freely available for planners and decision-makers to utilize.



The study supports what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dangerous-climate-feedback-loops-have-been-underestimated/">climate</a> scientists have long predicted: as the world continues to warm, weather events will become increasingly extreme. LOCA2 findings suggest that the heaviest days of rain and snowfall across much of North America will release 20 to 30 percent more moisture than they currently do. This increased precipitation will likely occur in winter, potentially exacerbating flooding in areas such as the upper Midwest and the west coast.



Feldman emphasizes the practical applications of the research: “The big picture is clear: it’s getting warmer and wetter. This research translates that bigger picture into more practical data for infrastructure and operations planning. With this more detailed look at local impacts, we can help local officials make better-informed decisions, such as how long to make an airport runway, how much resilience to include for constructing buildings or bridges, or where to put crops or culverts.”



The improved LOCA2 data set was generated by better identifying and preserving extreme weather events in the past, allowing models to more accurately reflect extremes in future simulations.



“We undertook a Herculean effort of personnel and computer time not just to produce a bunch of numbers, but to produce local projections that are relevant and useful,” Feldman said. “We do so by recognizing how heat waves and storms have occurred and will occur at the local level, and projecting those forward.”



<h2 id="h-seasonal-and-regional-weather-predictions">Seasonal and regional weather predictions</h2>



The researchers participating in this study have discovered significant trends in precipitation patterns across North America, according to a new study utilizing the Localized Constructed Analogs Version 2 (LOCA2) data set. While the data varies at the local level, substantial trends were identified across the region by the end of the century.



Most notably, a significant portion of North America will experience roughly the same or fewer number of days with precipitation, the same or fewer number of days with light and medium amounts of precipitation, and a large increase in the number of days with the most extreme precipitation (the top 1 percent and 0.1 percent of storms).&nbsp;



David Pierce, the lead author of the paper on extreme precipitation published in the Journal of Hydrometeorology, explains the implications: “People will be more affected by the really rare and most extreme events, because those are showing the biggest increase. The wettest day you would expect to see in five years, or 50 years, or 500 years – those extreme events are going to be substantially wetter, and that’s a really big issue, because it has implications for flooding and run-off.”



The research findings reveal that southern Canada and most of the United States will see increases in extreme precipitation days that occur primarily in winter. The wettest days of precipitation will increase by 20-30 percent, depending on the emissions scenario and the severity of the storm.



Meanwhile, Arizona, New Mexico, and northern Mexico can expect increases in extreme precipitation days that occur primarily in autumn. The wettest days of precipitation will increase by 10-30 percent, depending on the emissions scenario and storm intensity.&nbsp;



Although the region becomes drier overall, the number of days with extreme precipitation events still goes up, indicating that the precipitation will often occur in larger storms.



Pierce finds the consistency of the pattern intriguing: “It’s quite interesting that you see the same kind of pattern of fewer low- and medium- precipitation days and more extreme precipitation days across pretty much the entire country.”&nbsp;



He points out that understanding the changing nature of precipitation and the frequency of extreme events is valuable in two ways: “One is for building new infrastructure in the future, and one is for understanding impacts upon existing facilities already there.”



<h2 id="h-how-climate-change-impacts-global-weather-patterns">How climate change impacts global weather patterns</h2>



Climate change has far-reaching impacts on global weather patterns, both now and in the future. As greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere increase, the planet's average temperature rises, leading to significant alterations in weather patterns worldwide. Some of the most notable impacts include:



<ol>
<li>Temperature changes: As global temperatures rise, heatwaves and extremely hot days become more frequent and intense. These events can lead to heat stress, droughts, and an increased risk of wildfires. Moreover, warmer temperatures also contribute to more intense cold spells in some regions due to disruptions in atmospheric circulation patterns.</li>



<li>Precipitation patterns: Climate change affects precipitation patterns, causing some regions to experience more intense and frequent rainfall, while others face extended periods of drought. Heavy precipitation events are expected to increase, leading to a higher risk of flash floods, landslides, and soil erosion. Meanwhile, drought-prone areas may see more prolonged and severe dry spells, with negative consequences for agriculture, water supplies, and ecosystems.</li>



<li>Storm intensity: Warmer ocean temperatures contribute to the increased intensity of tropical storms and hurricanes. As sea surface temperatures rise, more energy is available to fuel these storms, resulting in stronger winds, heavier rainfall, and more devastating storm surges.</li>



<li>Polar amplification: Climate change has a greater impact on the polar regions, where temperatures are rising faster than the global average. This phenomenon, known as polar amplification, leads to the accelerated melting of ice sheets and glaciers, contributing to sea-level rise and potentially disrupting ocean and atmospheric circulation patterns.</li>



<li>Changes in jet streams: Jet streams are fast-moving air currents that significantly influence weather patterns. Climate change is believed to be affecting the behavior of jet streams, making them more wavy and sluggish, which can lead to more persistent and extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, cold spells, and flooding.</li>



<li>El Niño and La Niña events: Climate change may influence the frequency and intensity of El Niño and La Niña events, which are naturally occurring climate phenomena that significantly impact global weather patterns. These events can lead to severe droughts, floods, and other extreme weather conditions in various parts of the world.</li>
</ol>



In the future, if greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise unabated, these climate change-induced shifts in global weather patterns are expected to become more pronounced, posing significant challenges to ecosystems, human societies, and economies. However, by taking action to mitigate climate change and adapting to its consequences, we can reduce the severity of these impacts and build a more resilient world.



This research was funded by the Department of Defense and Department of Energy through the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP). The NASA High-End Computing Capability (HECC) Program provided resources supporting this work through the NASA Earth Exchange (NEX), Earth Science Division, and the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Division at Ames Research Center.



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Future forecast: More extreme precipitation ahead

A recent study examining the upcoming National Climate Assessment has...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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