For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men.



Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. 



The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys and girls start off nearly equal in math. But just four months into formal math instruction, a small gap appears - and it keeps growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nationwide-study-tracks-the-math-gap">Nationwide study tracks the math gap</h2>



The research draws on a French government testing program that was launched in 2018. This nationwide effort tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reminiscing-can-boost-language-development-in-preschoolers/">language</a> and math skills of young students from first through sixth grade. 



Over five years and across four student cohorts, the program gave researchers an unmatched view of early math development.



At school entry, French girls scored slightly better than boys in language. Math scores, though, were essentially the same. 



"The headline conclusion is that the gender gap emerges when systematic instruction in mathematics begins," Spelke explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-gender-differences">Looking for gender differences </h2>



Spelke had already spent decades studying how young children understand numbers and shapes. Back in 2005, she wrote a major review for American Psychologist. The piece challenged the notion that boys are biologically wired for better math performance than girls.



"My argument was, 'OK, if there really were biological differences, maybe we would see them in the infancy period,'" said Spelke. 



She and her team always tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/">gender</a> in their studies, but they never found infant boys outperforming girls in math, or vice versa. Still, Spelke admitted that something could be happening later in development.



"The fact that there are no differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a> could be because the abilities that show gender effects actually emerge during preschool," she proposed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-instruction-for-boys-and-girls">Math instruction for boys and girls</h2>



In recent years, Spelke has turned her attention to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">children learn counting</a> and numbers in real classrooms. 



Spelke partnered with Nobel Prize-winning MIT economist Esther Duflo to advise the Delhi office of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). The team is helping four Indian states create and test math lessons for children in preschool through first grade.



In France, she works alongside her longtime collaborator, neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene. Together, they serve on the French Ministry of Education's Scientific Council, which helped develop the EvalAide testing program. 



The idea was simple: measure where every child stands in math and language and use that data to guide better teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-gap-emerges-in-math">Gender gap emerges in math</h2>



For this study, the team analyzed data from four full cohorts of first-graders entering school between 2018 and 2021. 



What they found was consistent: no math gap at the time of school entry, a small but significant gap favoring boys after four months, and a steadily widening gap by second, fourth, and even sixth grade.



"It was even bigger in fourth grade," Spelke said. "And in sixth grade it was bigger still."



Interestingly, the gender gap in language shrank slightly after the first few months of school and stayed relatively stable in later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-old-explanations">Ruling out old explanations</h2>



So why does the math gap grow with time in school? The researchers ruled out several familiar theories.



"If there was really a pervasive social bias, and the parents were susceptible to it, we would expect boys to be more oriented toward spatial and numerical tasks when they first got to school," said Spelke.



But that didn’t happen. At school entry, there was no math gap. This points away from both biological and early social bias explanations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-experiment-during-the-pandemic">An experiment during the pandemic </h2>



The EvalAide dataset offered other insights. French first-graders can be nearly a year apart in age, depending on when their birthday falls. 



The team wondered if the older students were skewing results. They weren’t. The widening gender gap aligned more closely with time spent in school than with age.



Then came an unusual variable: COVID-19. The 2019 cohort missed the final 2.5 months of first grade due to lockdowns. That gap year created a natural experiment.



"With less time in school, the amount of the gender gap grew by less than it did in the other years where there wasn't a long school closure," said Spelke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-math-gender-gap">Confirming the math gender gap</h2>



The cohort also began school just after a national education crisis. In early 2019, French students had scored <a href="https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/braincamps/society/how-to-improve-the-relationship-between-education-and-employment/maths-an-essential-subject-whose-level-is-falling-in-a-majority-of-countries/#:~:text=In%202003%2C%2015%25%20of%20French,European%20average%20of%20527%20points.">lowest</a> among 23 European countries in math, according to international rankings. 



In response, the French Education Ministry - guided by its Scientific Council - called for more math teaching in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-pandemic-setbacks-reduced-kindergarten-readiness/">kindergarten</a>.



Sure enough, a tiny math gender gap appeared in fall 2019 among new first-graders. That gap hadn’t shown up in 2018 but was still present in 2020 and 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-in-early-math-instruction">Problems in early math instruction </h2>



The study doesn't pinpoint a single cause, but its message is clear: differences in math achievement between boys and girls seem to grow as a result of what happens in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schools-are-in-a-battle-with-cell-phones-to-keep-students-engaged/">school</a> instruction.



"We still don't know what that is exactly," Spelke said. "But now we have a chance to find out by randomized evaluations of changes to the curriculum."



The findings put pressure on education systems to ask hard questions about how math is taught in the early years - and what needs to change to make it fair for everyone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09126-4">Nature</a>.



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Early math instruction may unintentionally favor boys

For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men. Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from Harvard University and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys...

The food that we get on our table travels long distances and undergoes various modifications – from production to processing to distribution and, finally, consumption. Now, an international team of researchers have produced digital maps detailing the pressures that the global food system is exerting on the environment and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-whales-help-mitigate-climate-change/">climate</a>.



“The food system is the biggest threat to biological diversity and one of the worst drivers of the climate crisis,” said study co-author Daniel Moran, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a> (NTNU).



“There are lots of different foods on the planet and numerous ways to produce them. The environmental consequences are manifold and difficult to calculate. By gaining a better understanding of the negative impacts, we can achieve more environmentally efficient food production. Doing this will protect the environment and help ensure that we have enough food for the world's population.”



The scientists have gathered data on 99 percent of all food production in water and on land reported in 2017, while taking into account the main types of pressure that food production exerts on the environment, including CO2 emissions, water consumption, pollution, and habitat destruction. Moreover, they have also followed the entire “life cycle” of food – from the sowing of grain or birth of the piglet all the way to the bread and bacon on the consumers’ tables – in order to measure the total environmental impact.



The analysis revealed that five countries – China, India, the United States, Brazil, and Pakistan – account for nearly half of the global environmental impact from food production. In the current study, the countries with the smaller environmental footprint have not been “crowned,” since they are generally poor countries that live with severe food shortages and widespread hunger.&nbsp;



According to the scientists, 90 percent of all food production takes place on the ten percent of the Earth’s land area. Nevertheless, its environmental impact is highly variable according to the specific regions where processes related to food production occur. “In general, locally produced food is the most environmentally friendly option, but we were surprised at how much the production footprint of the same product varied in different countries,” Moran explained.



“A food product can be sustainable when it is produced in one country, but not in another. For example, it turned out that soy production in the USA is twice as environmentally efficient as in India.”



The researchers concluded that no particular diet can be considered best for protecting the environment, and can vary greatly from country to country. Moreover, they warned that, although local food is often sustainable, people should find a balance between their desire for self-sufficiency with all types of food and the most environmentally efficient production possible.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-00965-x">Nature Sustainability</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Food production is one of the biggest drivers of climate change

The food that we get on our table travels long...

For the last 3.7 billion years, Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-may-worsen-neurologic-conditions/">climate</a> has undergone drastic changes, and yet life has kept on beating. A new study from the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> has confirmed that the Earth has a “stabilizing feedback” mechanism that has pulled the climate back from the brink, keeping global temperatures within a steady, habitable range.



According to the experts, this phenomenon is likely caused by “silicate weathering” - the slow and steady weathering of silicate rocks involving chemical reactions that draw carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere and into ocean sediments. The Earth’s enduring habitability points to some inherent, geologic check on extreme temperature swings.



“You have a planet whose climate was subjected to so many dramatic external changes. Why did life survive all this time? One argument is that we need some sort of stabilizing mechanism to keep temperatures suitable for life,” said study co-author Constantin Arnscheidt. “But it's never been demonstrated from data that such a mechanism has consistently controlled Earth's climate.”



Arnscheidt and Professor Daniel Rothman sought to confirm whether a stabilizing feedback has been at work by looking at data of global temperature fluctuations through geologic history. They worked with a range of global temperature records, from the chemical composition of ancient marine fossils and shells, as well as preserved Antarctic ice cores.



The team analyzed the history of average global temperatures over the last 66 million years, considering the entire period over different timescales to see whether any patterns of stabilizing feedback emerged.



Without stabilizing feedbacks, fluctuations of global temperature should grow with timescale. The study revealed a regime in which fluctuations did not grow, implying that a stabilizing mechanism reigned in the climate before fluctuations grew too extreme.&nbsp;



The timescale for this stabilizing effect — hundreds of thousands of years — coincides with what scientists predict for silicate weathering.



On longer timescales, the data did not reveal any stabilizing feedbacks. Over these longer timescales, then, what has kept global temperatures in check?



“There’s an idea that chance may have played a major role in determining why, after more than 3 billion years, life still exists,” said Professor Rothman.



As the Earth’s temperatures change, these fluctuations may just happen to be within a range that a stabilizing feedback, such as silicate weathering, could periodically keep the climate in check - and within a habitable zone.



“There are two camps: Some say random chance is a good enough explanation, and others say there must be a stabilizing feedback,” said Arnscheidt. “We’re able to show, directly from data, that the answer is probably somewhere in between. In other words, there was some stabilization, but pure luck likely also played a role in keeping Earth continuously habitable.”



The results of the study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adc9241">Science Advances</a>, imply that today’s global warming could be eventually canceled out by the stabilizing feedback. However, this would take hundreds of thousands of years to happen, and can’t be relied on to solve the climate crisis.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Earth has a stabilizing mechanism that keeps it habitable

For the last 3.7 billion years, Earth’s climate has undergone...

The whitebark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-altitudes-no-longer-protect-pine-trees-from-disease/">pine</a> is one of the few trees that can survive in the cold, wind-swept heights of the Rocky Mountains and other western mountain ranges, clinging to steep slopes for centuries, even in the most extreme environments. However, on Wednesday, December 14, the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> announced that they will protect this iconic tree under the Endangered Species Act, warning that the whitebark is currently facing a variety of menaces, including a deadly fungus, a hungry beetle, massive wildfires, and a changing climate.



“As a keystone species of the West, extending ESA protections to the whitebark pine is critical to not only the tree itself, but also the numerous plants, animals, and watersheds that it supports,” said Matt Hogan, a regional director at the agency.



The whitebark pine plays a major role in high-altitude ecosystems, slowing runoff from melting snow, and providing food for a variety of animals, ranging from squirrels to grizzly bears. Now, an invasive fungus called the white pine blister rust is sweeping through the tree’s range of over 80 million acres in the United States and Canada, greatly endangering the pines. In addition, other threats include a native beetle that burrows into its bark, as well as fiercer wildfires fueled by a warming climate.



“The listing means that whitebark pine is the first widely distributed tree that the federal government has clearly pegged as a climate casualty — sadly, as climate change worsens, it will not be the last,” said Sylvia Fallon, a senior director of the <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/">Natural Resources Defense Council</a>, an advocacy group that already petitioned the agency to protect the tree over a decade ago.



With this new listing, officials and scientists hope to spark new research into how to save this species and take protective measures against those who chop down the tree on federal lands. Moreover, by growing and planting seedlings which are resistant to the fungus, the pine could be restored in many areas of its range.



“We do have the tools to restore whitebark pine,”&nbsp;concluded Diana Tomback, the policy and outreach coordinator at the <a href="https://whitebarkfound.org/">Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Iconic whitebark pine trees are endangered

The whitebark pine is one of the few trees that...

Across the animal kingdom, female genitalia are often overlooked by scientists in comparison to their male counterparts. In the case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-snakes-evolved-from-just-a-few-surviving-species/">snakes</a>, researchers have assumed for a long time that the clitoris (hemiclitores) is either absent or a non-functional anatomical part. However, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/">University of Adelaide</a> in Australia has recently provided the first anatomical description of the female snake clitoris, thus changing our understanding of these animals’ physiology and behavioral traits.



The experts examined female genitalia in adult snake specimens across nine species, and compared them to adult and juvenile male snake genitalia. “We found the heart-shaped snake hemiclitores is composed of nerves and red blood cells consistent with erectile tissue - which suggests it may swell and become stimulated during mating. This is important because snake mating is often thought to involve coercion of the female – not seduction,” reported study co-author Kate Sanders, an associated professor of Biological Sciences at Adelaide.



“Through our research we have developed proper anatomical descriptions and labels of the female snake genitalia. We can apply our findings to further understand systematics, reproductive evolution and ecology across snake-like reptiles, such as lizards.”



“We are proud to contribute this research, particularly as female genitalia across every species are unfortunately still taboo,” added study lead author Megan Folwell, a doctoral student in Biology at the same university.



According to the researchers, snake hemiclitores have functional significance in mating and clearly show that they are not just underdeveloped hemipenes or scent glands – as it was erroneously thought for a long time. Instead, they may have a crucial role in transducing sensation to the female snake during courtship and copulation, which might promote longer and more frequent mating leading to increased fertilization success.



“Further investigation into the sensory features of snake hemiclitores and hemipenes are needed to determine potential tactile sensitivity. Comparative morphological investigations of hemiclitores and hemipenes within and among taxa would also provide insight into the possible coevolution of male and female genitalia,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.1702">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Scientists found the snake clitoris

Across the animal kingdom, female genitalia are often overlooked by...

One of the features that sets <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-struggle-to-predict-aggression-in-dogs-and-other-humans/">humans</a> apart from all other apes is the way they move around on the ground. They walk upright, placing one foot after the other and holding the torso erect. Other apes may adopt an upright stance at times, and may walk on two back legs for a short distance, but none of them has committed fully to bipedal locomotion. Since this was the first major adaptive change from the apelike ancestors of modern humans, it would be helpful to know why bipedalism evolved.&nbsp;



The savanna-based theory is one that is commonly used to suggest why early hominids began to walk upright. It postulates that climate change led to a reduction in forests and a proliferation of more open, savanna habitats. In savannas, a bipedal posture and locomotion would have allowed hominins (human ancestors) to watch over tall grasses, carry things, hunt effectively and be more aware of predators. This theory has had a lot of support over the years, but has also had its detractors.&nbsp;



In a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>, the University of Kent, and Duke University, USA, the behaviors of wild chimpanzees living in the Issa Valley of western Tanzania, have been observed over a 15-month period. Chimpanzees are our closest living relatives, but are not on the same evolutionary line as modern humans. Instead, chimpanzees and humans share a common ancestor that lived somewhere around 7 million years ago.&nbsp;



The Issa Valley falls within the East African Rift Valley region and has a vegetation type known as “savanna-mosaic." This&nbsp;a mix of dry open land with few trees, interspersed with patches of dense forest, and is considered very similar to the habitat in which our earliest human ancestors lived. The researchers chose to study chimpanzees in this particular habitat to explore whether the&nbsp;openness of this type of landscape&nbsp;could have encouraged bipedalism in hominins.



The study is the first of its kind to explore if savanna-mosaic habitats would account for increased time spent on the ground by the Issa chimpanzees, and compares their behavior to other studies on forest-dwelling chimpanzees in other parts of Africa.



The researchers recorded more than 13,700 instantaneous observations of positional behavior from 13 chimpanzee adults (six females and seven males), including almost 2,850 observations of individual locomotor events (e.g., climbing, walking, hanging). In particular, they noted each time a chimpanzee stood upright on its back legs and recorded whether this was associated with being on the ground or in the trees.&nbsp;



The results of the study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add9752">Science Advances</a>, showed that the Issa chimpanzees did not spend more time on the ground, as the researchers had expected. In fact, they spent as much time in the trees as other chimpanzees that live in dense forests, despite the fact that open savanna habitat was available.&nbsp; Furthermore, although the researchers expected the Issa chimpanzees to walk upright more often in the open savanna vegetation, where they cannot easily travel via the tree canopy, more than 85 percent of instances of bipedalism took place in the trees, when chimpanzees reached up to pick food or balanced themselves against upright trunks.&nbsp;



The authors say that their findings contradict the widely accepted theory that it was an open, dry savanna environment that encouraged our prehistoric human relatives to walk upright. Instead, their results suggest that early hominins may actually have evolved to walk on two feet in order to move around in the trees.



“We naturally assumed that because Issa has fewer trees than typical tropical forests, where most chimpanzees live, we would see individuals more often on the ground than in the trees. Moreover, because so many of the traditional drivers of bipedalism (such as carrying objects or seeing over tall grass, for example) are associated with being on the ground, we thought we’d naturally see more bipedalism here as well. However, this is not what we found," said study co-author Dr. Alex Piel.



“Our study suggests that the retreat of forests in the late Miocene-Pliocene era around five million years ago, and the more open savanna habitats, were in fact not a catalyst for the evolution of bipedalism. Instead, trees probably remained essential to its evolution – with the search for food-producing trees a likely a driver of this trait,” he added.



“To date, the numerous hypotheses for the evolution of bipedalism share the idea that hominins came down from the trees and walked upright on the ground, especially in more arid, open habitats that lacked tree cover. Our data do not support that at all," said study co-author Dr. Fiona Stewart.



“Unfortunately, the traditional idea of fewer trees equals more terrestriality (land dwelling) just isn’t borne out with the Issa data. What we need to focus on now is how and why these chimpanzees spend so much time in the trees - and that is what we’ll focus on next on our way to piecing together this complex evolutionary puzzle.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Early humans may have begun to stand upright in trees

One of the features that sets humans apart from all...

A recent study has confirmed that the goal of reaching 10,000 steps a day is an ideal target for optimal health outcomes. The experts also found that it's not just how far you <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-some-walking-boosts-cognitive-function/">walk</a>, but also how fast, that makes a difference.



For the investigation, the researchers monitored 78,500 adults with activity trackers. To date, these are the largest studies to objectively track steps in relation to health outcomes.



Study senior author Emmanuel Stamatakis is a professor of Physical Activity, Lifestyle and Population Health at the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a>.



“Step count is easily understood and widely used by the public to track activity levels thanks to the growing popularity of fitness trackers and apps, but rarely do people think about the pace of their steps,” said Professor Stamatakis.



“Findings from these studies could inform the first formal step-based physical activity guidelines and help develop effective public health programs aimed at preventing chronic disease.”



The experts found that walking 10,000 steps per day is associated with a reduced risk of dementia, heart disease, cancer and premature death. Furthermore, participants who walked at a faster pace showed benefits above and beyond the number of steps achieved.



“The take-home message here is that for protective health benefits people could not only ideally aim for 10,000 steps a day but also aim to walk faster,” said co-lead author Dr. Matthew Ahmadi from the University of Sydney.



"For less active individuals, our study also demonstrates that as low as 3,800 steps a day can cut the risk of dementia by 25 percent,” noted co-lead author Professor Borja del Pozo Cruz from the University of Southern Denmark.



According to the researchers, every 2,000 steps lowered the risk of premature death incrementally by 8 to 11 percent - up to around 10,000 steps a day. The results were similar for cardiovascular disease and cancer incidence.



The analysis showed that a higher number of steps per day was associated with a lower risk of all-cause dementia. In addition, a faster pace was linked to a reduced risk of dementia, heart disease, cancer, and premature death.



“The size and scope of these studies using wrist-worn trackers makes it the most robust evidence to date suggesting that 10,000 steps a day is the sweet spot for health benefits and walking faster is associated with additional benefits,” said Dr. Ahmadi.



“Going forward more research with longer-term use of trackers will shed more light on the health benefits associated with certain levels and intensity of daily stepping.”



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;



<a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine">JAMA Internal Medicine</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Health benefits of 10,000 steps are enhanced with a faster pace

A recent study has confirmed that the goal of reaching...

Each year, about half a million people in sub-Saharan Africa suffer from snake bites, which lead to an estimated 7,000 to 20,000 deaths. Many snake species native to this region, such as the highly feared black mamba, are currently classified as species of the highest medical importance by the World Health Organization. Thus, using systematic approaches to better understand the composition and function of these creatures’ venom is a medical priority.



Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.bioengineering.dtu.dk/english/researchny/center-for-antibody-technologies">Center for Antibody Technologies</a> from the Technical University of Denmark has systematically analyzed and compared the protein compositions and functions of the venoms of the 26 medically most important snake species in sub-Saharan Africa. The snakes belong to two main categories – elapids, including the black and green mambas and the ring-necked spitting cobra, and vipers, such as the Puff adder and the Gabon viper.



The analysis revealed that the composition and function of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-protein-in-our-saliva-shares-an-origin-with-snake-venom/">snake venoms</a> is highly complex and varies significantly from species to species. Elapid venoms, for instance, contain large amounts of a type of proteins called “three finger toxins” that act by blocking neuronal transmission or by killing cells, as well as phospholipases A2&nbsp;(PLA2s), a class of enzymes which is found in many animal venoms.&nbsp;



On the other hand, the viper venoms seem to be dominated by a different mixture of protein, including PLA2s, but also substantial quantities of other enzymes like the Snake Venom Metalloproteinases and the Snake Venom Serine Proteinases.



While the venoms of most of these snake species have been described before, those of two species – the Anchieta’s cobra (Naja anchietae) and of the white-bellied carpet viper (Echis leucogaster)&nbsp;– have now been characterized for the first time.&nbsp;



Furthermore, while previous studies have typically focused on just a handfuls of species each – and often with little or even no data on functional aspects – the present study is an integrated approach that provides a solid foundation for further investigations of snake biology, and could be of crucial importance in the development of efficient antivenoms.



“Overall, this study provides a foundation for further studies on snake biology and evolution, for which we recommend an integrated approach combining genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics to provide information on gene expression and other molecular mechanisms linked to phenotypic diversity," said the researchers.



"Moreover, the toxicovenomic profiles elucidated in this study may aid in the development of effective antivenoms through better understanding of the behavior of snake venoms and their roles as drug targets."



The research results are published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/gigascience/giac121">GigaScience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Study provides a new understanding of snake venom

Each year, about half a million people in sub-Saharan Africa...

Intermittent fasting diets – when you can only eat during a specific window of time each day - have become increasingly popular over the past years as effective weight loss methods. Fasting for several hours per day or eating just one meal a couple of days a week can help the body burn fat and lower the risk of developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-eating-late-lead-to-obesity-and-diabetes/">diabetes</a> or cardiovascular disease.



Now, a study published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jcem">Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism</a> has found that, after an intermittent fasting intervention, patients can achieve complete diabetes remission - defined as an HbA1c (average blood sugar) level of less than 6.5 percent at least one year after stopping diabetes medication.



“Type 2 diabetes is not necessarily a permanent, lifelong disease. Diabetes remission is possible if patients lose weight by changing their diet and exercise habits,” said Dongbo Liu, a researcher at the <a href="https://en.hunau.edu.cn/">Hunan Agricultural University</a> in China. “Our research shows an intermittent fasting, Chinese Medical Nutrition Therapy (CMNT), can lead to diabetes remission in people with type 2 diabetes, and these findings could have a major impact on the over 537 million adults worldwide who suffer from the disease.”



The scientists conducted a three-month intermittent fasting diet intervention among 36 participants with diabetes and discovered that nearly 90 percent of them – including those taking blood sugar-lowering medication and insulin – reduced their diabetes medication after intermittent fasting. Moreover, 55 percent of the participants experienced diabetes remission and discontinued for at least one year their diabetes medication.



These findings challenge the conventional view that diabetes remission is only possible in patients with a shorter diabetes duration (zero to six years). In fact, 65 percent of the participants who achieved diabetes remission had a diabetes duration of six to 11 years.



“Diabetes medications are costly and a barrier for many patients who are trying to effectively manage their diabetes. Our study saw medication costs decrease by 77 percent in people with diabetes after intermittent fasting,” Liu concluded.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Intermittent fasting can reverse type 2 diabetes

Intermittent fasting diets – when you can only eat during...

Race,Horses,With,Jockeys,On,The,Home,Straight.,Shaving,Effect.

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-04206-x">Nature Communications: Biology</a> has identified a critical set of genes linked to successful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-engineering-race-horses/">racehorses</a>. By comparing the genomes of Thoroughbred, Arabian, and Mongolian racehorses to horses bred for other sports or leisure, the experts managed to pinpoint a set of genes which play a significant role in muscle, metabolism, and neurobiology. These genes were clearly different in racing horses, and were common to all racing breeds compared to horses from non-racing breeds.



“Since the discovery of the ‘Speed Gene’ in 2009, we have generated genetic data for thousands of Thoroughbreds and horses from other breeds,” said study senior author Emmeline Hill, a horse geneticist at the <a href="https://www.ucd.ie/">University College Dublin</a> (UCD). “This is the first time this set of genes has been linked to the success of racing breeds. Two of the genes were previously identified for performance in Thoroughbreds and Arabians, but the approach we took was to ask what genes were common to all racing breeds and different from non-racing breeds.”&nbsp;



The large variety of horse breeds developed over the last few hundreds of years all over the world have been carefully shaped by selective breeding for different traits, leading to tall horses, small horses, strong draft horses, useful riding horses, and fast racing horses.&nbsp;



“We have discovered a set of genes common to racing horses, but not all horses within a racing breed have the advantageous gene version, so these findings will be useful to identify the most suitable individuals within a breed for racing or for breeding,” Hill explained.



&nbsp;“Although racing is a multifactorial trait, with management and training having a considerable influence on the success of a racehorse, this study provides good evidence for major-effect genes shaping the racing trait in horse populations,” added study co-author David MacHugh, a professor of Functional Genomics at UCD.&nbsp;



The scientists compared the genomes of racing horses with those of 21 non-racing breeds - including breeds such as Clydesdale, Connemara pony, Hanoverian, Morgan, Norwegian Fjord, Paint, Shetland, and Shire - and identified seven essential genes for racing. Among the top genes was NTM, which has a major role in brain development and influences learning and memory. This gene was most likely selected during the horse domestication process, and in Thoroughbred racehorses, for instance, it even influences whether a horse ever races or not.&nbsp;



“This finding suggests that equine neurological systems perturbed by natural and artificial selection associated with domestication may overlap with adaptive traits that are required for racing,” said MacHugh.



“By integrating these two different data sets we fine-tuned the list of racing genes to those that were most biologically relevant to racing. One of these genes was MYLK2 which is required for muscle contraction. In humans, MYLK2 is associated with exercise-induced muscle damage,” Hill concluded.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Experts have identified the key genes of racehorses

A new study published in the journal Nature Communications: Biology...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-d-in-the-brain-linked-to-better-cognitive-function/">Vitamin D</a> is known to play a major role in the regulation of calcium and phosphorous absorption, while also keeping the brain and immune system working properly. Now, according to a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.ufscar.br/">Federal University of São Carlos</a> (UFSCar) in Brazil and <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL)&nbsp;in England, vitamin D supplementation reduces the risk of dynapenia – an age-associated loss of muscle strength – in older people by 78 percent.



Dynapenia is partly explained by muscle atrophy and is a major risk factor for physical incapacity in the elderly. People with this condition are more likely to fall, need to be hospitalized or prematurely institutionalized, and die.



“Vitamin D is known to participate in various functions of the organism. Actually, it’s a hormone and its many roles include helping to repair muscles and releasing calcium for muscle contraction kinetics. It was therefore expected to cause muscle alterations of some kind. That’s exactly what our study proved,” reported&nbsp;study senior author Tiago da Silva Alexandre, a professor of Gerontology at UFSCar. “Endocrine disorders such as vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency can lead to loss of bone mineral density as well as a reduction in muscle mass, strength and function.”



The scientists analyzed data for 3,205 non-dynapenic participants aged 50 or older who were followed for four years by the <a href="https://www.elsa-project.ac.uk/">English Longitudinal Study of Ageing</a> (ELSA), a long-term multi-cohort study that began in 2002. The analysis revealed that individuals with vitamin D deficiency (defined as less than 30 nanomoles per liter of blood) had a 70 percent higher risk of developing dynapenia by the end of the four-year study than those with normal vitamin D levels (above 50 nmol/L).



“This is itself an important finding as it shows that vitamin D deficiency heightens the risk of muscle weakness by 70 percent. However, because we knew there are many worldwide cases of people with osteoporosis who take vitamin supplements, we needed to try to measure the effectiveness of vitamin D supplementation,” said study lead author&nbsp;Maicon Luís Bicigo Delinocente, an expert in Collective Health and Gerontology at UFSCar.



When participants with osteoporosis and those taking vitamin D were excluded from the analysis, the researchers found that the risk of developing muscle weakness after four years was 78 percent higher for individuals with vitamin D deficiency at the beginning of the study, and 77 percent higher for those with vitamin D insufficiency (30-50 nmol/L).



These findings offer evidence that the risk of muscle weakness is heightened by both vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency. “It’s necessary to explain to people that they risk losing muscle strength if they don’t get enough vitamin D. They need to expose themselves to the sun, eat food rich in vitamin D or take a supplement, and do resistance training exercises to maintain muscle strength,”&nbsp;Alexandre concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00223-022-01021-8">Calcified Tissue International and Musculoskeletal Research</a>.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Vitamin D deficiency heightens the risk of muscle weakness

Vitamin D is known to play a major role in...

Wombats are iconic Australian marsupials that move ponderously, have very slow metabolic rates and dig extensive burrow systems. There are three living species in the family Vombatidae, all of which are herbivorous. The evolutionary history of wombats is not very well understood, but their lineage goes back millions of years to the early Miocene, and includes a number of species that were very large. A new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-fossil-found-to-be-an-early-relative-of-pterosaurs/">fossil</a> skull from one of the rarest of these giant wombats has now been described from a cave in Rockhampton, Queensland.&nbsp;



The complete skull is estimated to be around 80,000 years old and, although it was discovered in 2000, it has been described for the first time by a team of scientists led by&nbsp;<a href="https://experts.griffith.edu.au/8418-julien-louys">Professor Julien Louys</a>&nbsp;from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/australian-research-centre-human-evolution">Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution</a> at <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/">Griffith University</a>.



He explains that the skull was from Ramsayia magna, one of three species of giant wombats that scientists are aware of.



“They're closely related to the modern wombats but they're much larger than the current species,” Associate Professor Louys&nbsp;said. “[There are] about a dozen specimens across the entirety of the continent of Australia, so it’s incredibly rare.” The team's analysis of the ancient skull has been published in the scientific journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/spp2.1475">Papers in Palaeontology</a>.&nbsp;



Confusingly, there is another extinct large marsupial that is far more commonly found in fossil deposits in Australia, and that is known locally as the “giant wombat.” This huge marsupial, named Diprotodon, dates back to the Pleistocene Period in Australia, but is not a true wombat and is not a member of the Vombatidae family.&nbsp;



“Although one of the most charismatic of the giant mammals to go extinct, Diprotodon is commonly referred to as a ‘giant wombat.’ But this is incorrect as Diprotodon belongs to an entirely different family – equivalent to saying a hippo is just a giant pig,”&nbsp;explained Professor Louys.



“There were, however, true giant wombats. These have traditionally been poorly known, but the discovery of the most complete skull of one of these giants, Ramsayia, has provided us with an opportunity to reconstruct what this creature looked like, where and when it lived, and how the evolution of giant wombats took place in Australia.”&nbsp;



The cranium and mandible of the Ramsayia magna fossil was discovered from the rear of the front chamber of Lower Johansons Cave in Rockhampton, in the early 2000s, but it was only through subsequent excavations and analysis by Associate Professor Louys’s team that is was confirmed as belonging to this previously described but very poorly known species.&nbsp;



The paleontologist explained that previous fossil remains consisted mostly of fragments of jaws and teeth, from which very little about these “gentle giants” and their habits could be deduced. However, this new and almost complete specimen gives more information for the scientists to work with.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We’re able to determine not just what it looked like, but most likely what it ate, and we’ve made some inferences into some of its behavioral adaptations,” said Professor Louys.



The giant wombat was twice the size of modern wombats, approximately the same size as a sheep. It had a rounded skull with sinuses (air spaces) at the back, which is a feature not found in modern wombats. The researchers say that air pockets like this can indicate instances where the skull of a species grows large while the brain stays relatively small. The associated sinuses fill in the space without adding too much extra weight. Alternatively, a large skull with sinuses may increase the surface area for muscle attachment, indicating that the animal had to chew tough food.&nbsp;



The new skull also has an unusual vertical spine of bone protruding from the giant wombat’s nose. Called a “premaxillary spine,” it most likely developed to provide structural support for a large, fleshy nose; not quite a trunk, but certainly a sizeable nasal appendage.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Louys said the Ramsayia skull contrasts remarkably with the modern wombats, which have a much flatter skull. "We think that this giant wombat, with a more domed skull, perhaps wasn’t living in burrows like the modern wombat does.”



The researchers show in their paper that the true giant wombats evolved large body size first, then individually became quite specialized to eat different types of grasses.&nbsp;“Once these giant wombats became giant, then they became even more specialized, focusing on different aspects of the environment, of the grasses that were around in Australia at the time,”&nbsp;Louys said.



“We also dated this species as being about 80,000 years old. This is the first date for this species and is much earlier than human arrival in Australia, although we still don’t know exactly when or why this species became extinct."



Image Credit: Eleanor Pease



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Fossil of sheep-sized giant wombat found in Queensland cave

Wombats are iconic Australian marsupials that move ponderously, have very...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>, experts set out to investigate whether neighborhood dynamics - such as trust and social connectedness - may have an effect on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-are-urgently-needed-to-improve-health/">health</a> outcomes of people who live by themselves. According to Pew Research Center, about 27 percent of Americans aged 60 and older live alone.



"The adverse effect of living alone on health has been well-documented in community-dwelling older adults. A less understood topic in this research area is whether some neighborhood characteristics may mitigate the negative impact of living alone on health outcomes and mortality," wrote the researchers.



"This study aimed to extend the existing work on living arrangements and health by examining the potential interactive effect of living alone and perceived neighborhood cohesion on all-cause mortality among older Chinese Americans."



The researchers found that among this particular group of older adults, strong neighborhood connections greatly reduced the risk of premature death associated with living alone.



“Older Chinese Americans who lived by themselves in neighborhoods with low cohesion were much more likely to die earlier than those who lived by themselves in neighborhoods with strong cohesion,” said study co-author Yanping Jiang.



For the investigation, the experts analyzed data from the Population Study of Chinese Elderly in Chicago (PINE). The team examined whether the perception of trust and connection among neighbors had an impact on the risk of death.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that participants who lived alone and reported low interaction or connection with their neighbors had a 48.5 percent increased risk of death compared to people who did not live alone. However, this increased risk of mortality was not found among participants who lived alone and reported strong cohesion with their neighborhood.



“Our findings show the particular challenges faced by older adults who live alone in communities with little interaction or connection,” said Jiang. “Enhancing neighborhood cohesion may be a promising way to reduce early death for older adults who live alone.”



The researchers noted that the public can play a role in improving community health by reaching out and being kind to neighbors, particularly those who live alone.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115568">Social Science &amp; Medicine</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Neighbors can help reduce the health risks of living alone

In a new study from Rutgers University, experts set out...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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