Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A groundbreaking study by a team of psychology and education researchers has discovered that students who exhibit "brain-to-brain synchrony" with their classmates and teachers are more likely to learn effectively.&nbsp;



This research, recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/09567976231163872">Psychological Science</a>, presents novel insights into the learning process and its underlying neurological factors.



Ido Davidesco, the study's lead author and an assistant professor at the University of Connecticut's Neag School of Education, emphasized the novelty of the findings. “This is the first study to show that the extent to which students’ and teachers’ brainwaves are in sync during real-world learning can predict how well students retain information from class.” The study was conducted while Davidesco was a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a> (NYU).



“Much of human learning happens when we interact with others, but very little is known about how this process is reflected in the brain activity of students and teachers. This work reveals that students whose brainwaves are more in sync with their peers and teacher are likely to learn better," said study senior author Professor Suzanne Dikker.



Traditionally, understanding how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-may-have-long-term-effects-on-the-brain/">brain</a> supports learning in a social context has been limited due to the controlled laboratory settings in which individual participants are studied. However, this study aimed to explore brain function in a real-world, group context.



To accomplish this, the research team employed electroencephalography (EEG), a method involving a cap with electrodes placed on the head to track electrical brain activity. Using this technique, the researchers monitored the brain activity of small groups of undergraduate students and an instructor - none of whom knew each other prior to the study. 



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/low-res-2.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1916773"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The researchers used portable electroencephalogram (EEG) technology (pictured above) to measure the brainwaves of students and instructors. Image courtesy of Diane Quinn, © 2015 Trevor Day School.</figcaption></figure>



The instructors delivered short lectures on various scientific topics, and both the students' and instructors' brainwaves were monitored throughout.



Following the lectures, students took multiple-choice tests to evaluate their learning. The research team observed that as students listened to the lecture, their brainwaves synchronized with one another. They also noted this "brain-to-brain synchrony" - similar brain-activity patterns over time - when comparing students' brainwaves to the teacher's brainwaves.



Crucially, students whose brain activity was more in sync with their peers and with the teacher displayed better learning outcomes, as evidenced by higher post-lecture test scores. The researchers were even able to predict which test questions students would answer correctly based on the synchrony of their brainwaves during the corresponding moments of the lecture.



The study authors stress that the connection among students and between students and their instructor is key to understanding the learning process. In fact, they could not determine how well students retained information by examining individual students' brainwaves alone - only synchrony in brainwaves between students and teachers predicted learning success.



“Brain data collected simultaneously from groups of students can be more informative than data collected from individual students," said Davidesco.



This pioneering research involved collaboration among experts from various institutions, including Emma Laurent, a doctoral student at Harvard University, Henry Valk, a data scientist at Pison Technology, Inc., Tessa West, a professor in NYU's Department of Psychology, Catherine Milne, a professor in NYU's Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, and David Poeppel, a professor in NYU's Department of Psychology and managing director of the Ernst Strüngmann Institute for Neuroscience in Frankfurt, Germany.



<h2 id="h-more-about-brain-synchrony">More about brain synchrony</h2>



Brain synchrony, or brain-to-brain synchrony, refers to the phenomenon where the neural activity of two or more individuals becomes synchronized, exhibiting similar patterns over time. While research on this topic is still in its early stages, several studies have explored the potential implications and underlying mechanisms of brain synchrony in various contexts.



<ol>
<li>Social interactions: Research has shown that brain synchrony can occur during social interactions, such as conversations or shared experiences. This synchronization may play a role in empathy, understanding, and cooperation among individuals. For instance, studies have found increased neural synchrony between individuals during eye contact, storytelling, and joint attention.</li>



<li>Emotional connection: Brain synchrony has been observed in romantic partners, close friends, and family members, suggesting that it may be associated with emotional bonding and connectedness. When individuals have a strong emotional connection, their brain activity may become more similar, facilitating shared experiences and mutual understanding.</li>



<li>Learning and education: As demonstrated in the study mentioned in the previous answer, brain synchrony between students and teachers can predict learning outcomes. This finding suggests that the degree of synchrony between individuals may be an important factor in the learning process, possibly promoting better understanding and retention of information.</li>



<li>Group dynamics and teamwork: Brain synchrony has also been explored in the context of group dynamics and teamwork. Research has shown that synchronized brain activity among team members can lead to improved group performance, better problem-solving, and enhanced cooperation.</li>



<li>Neural mirroring: One possible mechanism for brain synchrony is neural mirroring, which occurs when the brain activity of one individual mirrors that of another. This is thought to be facilitated by mirror neurons—specialized cells in the brain that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action. Neural mirroring may contribute to empathy, imitation, and understanding of others' intentions and emotions.</li>
</ol>



Despite these insights, the precise mechanisms underlying brain synchrony and its implications in various contexts remain an active area of research. Further studies are needed to fully understand the significance of brain-to-brain synchrony and its potential applications in education, therapy, and interpersonal communication.



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Students learn better when their brain waves are in sync

A groundbreaking study by a team of psychology and education...

Decadal variations in sea surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific have major impacts on the global climate, such as variations in precipitation and severe weather. Thus, accurate predictions are needed to provide community leaders, farmers, and water managers with critical climate information that would allow them to plan years in advance. Unfortunately, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> (NCAR), the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-aspect-of-volcanic-eruptions-observed-for-the-first-time/">volcanic eruptions</a> are represented in climate models may be masking their ability to accurately predict variations in sea surface temperatures unfolding over multiple years.



“Near-term climate prediction on annual to decadal timescales is a rapidly growing and important field in the climate community because it bridges the gap between existing seasonal forecasts and centennial climate projections,” said lead author Xian Wu, a postdoctoral researcher at NCAR. “When we rely on models to make these predictions, it’s important to carefully consider the model’s fidelity. In this case, we found that model errors in simulating the response to volcanic eruptions degraded our prediction skill.”



The experts used two parallel collections of climate simulations from the <a href="https://www.cesm.ucar.edu/community-projects/dple#:~:text=The%20CESM%20Decadal%20Prediction%20Large,.%2C%202014%2C%202015).">Decadal Prediction Large Ensemble</a> - a dataset produced using the NCAR-based Community Earth System Model – which were run as hindcasts, covering the period 1954-2015 and thus allowing researchers to compare the simulations with what really occurred and evaluate their ability to forecast future climate variations. While one collection included the three largest volcanic eruptions which occurred during the period - Agung (1963), El Chichón (1982), and Pinatubo (1991) – the other did not.



Since large volcanic eruptions can have long-term cooling effects on the climate, the scientists expected that the collection including the eruptions would produce more accurate predictions. To their surprise though, the inclusion of the eruptions in fact degraded the model’s predictive capacities, particularly in the tropical Pacific region, where the model predicted a cooling of the sea surface temperatures while, in reality, the regions warmed after the eruptions.



These findings emphasize the difficulty of accurately representing the complex climate impacts following volcanic eruptions. Although scientists are aware that volcanoes can lift sulfur gases into the stratosphere where they often transform into sunlight-reflecting aerosols, how the resulting cooling ultimately affects our entire planet, including sea surface temperatures, is still poorly understood.



“We just don’t have enough observations. And our methods to observe what is happening in the stratosphere have only been available since the satellite era, which means we only have Chichón and Pinatubo,” Wu said.



Nonetheless, the researchers hope that representations of volcanic eruptions and their impacts in models will improve over time, along with our ability to forecast major climate events years in advance. “Decadal variability in the tropical Pacific is an important source of predictability worldwide. It affects climate over the surrounding continents, as well as marine ecosystems. Better predictions will provide important information for stakeholders,” Wu concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add9364">Science Advances</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Volcanic eruptions impede the predictive power of climate models

Decadal variations in sea surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific...

Factors such as population growth, climate change, natural resource depletion, soil erosion, and fossil fuel use in farming lead to increased concerns about food security and a need to fundamentally rethink traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/developing-climate-smart-agricultural-practices/">agricultural practices</a>. By using groundbreaking computational tools, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.usc.edu/">University of Southern California</a> (USC) has recently investigated new ways to help farmers design, develop, and manage sustainable farming methods.



This new area of research, called “computational agroecology,” aims to combine technology and farming expertise to develop a variety of agricultural landscapes based on natural ecosystems in order to allow farmers explore thousands of potential designs of optimizing food production without fossil fuel-derived pesticides.



“How can we design an ecosystem that is as productive and sustainable as a natural forest, but instead of producing food for wildlife, it’s producing food for people?” said senior author Barath Raghavan, an associate professor of Computer Science at USC.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It’s an incredibly hard problem because designing an ecosystem is a super complex, dynamic, natural system. We’re trying to build computing tools that can figure out how ecosystems work, so we can grow food plentifully and sustainably.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Raghavan and his colleagues reconceptualize agriculture as a search through a “state space” representing all possible configurations of agricultural systems. This state space consists of all the possible variables an agricultural system can take, including crop or soil type, irrigation methods, weather conditions, fertilization, or pest control, which allows agricultural researchers and farmers to explore a variety of farming paths and strategies in order to increase crop yield, improve sustainability, and find new combinations of crops which grow well together.



“Once we can conceive of a farm this way, we can then reframe many research questions and farming planning questions as a search through the space of all possible states the farm could possibly end up in, with certain states being more desirable than others,” Raghavan explained.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This allows us to compare and contrast different approaches to farming, explore and combine techniques, and then search the state space in simulation for new farming techniques that have never been tried before and where trial and error in the real world would be far too expensive and time-consuming.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



With this conceptual and eventually software framework, farmers could spell out objectives, such as diversified harvest with high yield and profit for a specific piece of agricultural land, and have the system explore the state space and provide advice about possible plant mixtures, placement, and management techniques that would meet the farmer’s criteria.



“You’re making moves on the chessboard, which is your land, and nature is making moves too. Pests are going to eat one crop; a flood is going to damage another. What we are building is a computational framework that allows you to explore all the different ways that you might ‘play’ this game of chess with nature so that we can come up with the best one for your land,” Raghavan concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad084">PNAS Nexus</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Computational tools may improve the future of farming

Factors such as population growth, climate change, natural resource depletion,...

After lightning struck a tree in New Port Richey, Florida, a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.usf.edu/">University of South Florida</a> (USF) discovered that this strike led to the formation of a new phosphorous material in a rock. This is the first time such a material has been found in solid form on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-extraterrestrial-origins/">Earth</a> and could represent a member of a new mineral group.



“We have never seen this material occur naturally on Earth – minerals similar to it can be found in meteorites and space, but we’ve never seen this exact material anywhere,” said study lead author Matthew Pasek, a geoscientist at USF.



According to the researchers, high-energy events such as lightning can sometimes cause unique chemical reactions which, in this particular case, have led to the formation of a new material that seems to be transitional between space minerals and minerals found on Earth.



“When lightning strikes a tree, the ground typically explodes out and the surrounding grass dies, forming a scar and sending electric discharge through nearby rock, soil and sand, forming fulgurites, also known as ‘fossilized lightning,’” Pasek explained.



<h2 id="h-how-lightning-created-this-phosphorous-material">How lightning created this phosphorous material</h2>



In wet environments such as Florida, iron frequently accumulates and encrusts tree roots, and lightning strikes can combust both this iron and the naturally occurring carbon in the tree. In New Port Richey, the combustion of these two elements created a fulgurite resembling a metal ‘glob’ and containing a colorful, crystal-like matter. 



The scientists failed in their attempts to recreate this material in the laboratory, suggesting that it likely forms quickly under precise conditions and, if heated too long, transforms into a mineral usually found in meteorites.



Previous studies have argued that lightning reduction of phosphate had been a widespread phenomenon on early Earth and could have played a significant role in the development of life on our planet. However, further research is needed to understand the frequency of such events and the role they played in Earth’s evolution.



The experts concluded that it is unlikely for this material to be mined for uses similar to those of other phosphates (such as fertilizer), considering the rarity of it occurring naturally. 



<h2>Lightning - nature's electrifying spectacle</h2>



Lightning, one of nature's most powerful and captivating phenomena, has enthralled humanity for centuries. These brilliant displays of raw energy punctuate stormy skies, simultaneously inspiring awe and fear. This short-form article delves into the science behind lightning, its formation, and the importance of understanding and respecting this natural wonder.



<h3>The Science of Lightning</h3>



Lightning is the result of a complex process involving electrical discharges in the atmosphere. It occurs when there is a build-up of electrical energy within a storm cloud, usually a cumulonimbus cloud. This energy accumulates due to the separation of charges within the cloud, where ice crystals in the upper region become positively charged, and heavier, negatively charged particles sink to the lower region.



When the charge separation grows large enough, the electrical potential between the cloud and the ground, or between two different regions within the cloud, reaches a critical threshold. The atmosphere can no longer act as an insulator, and an electrical discharge occurs in the form of a lightning bolt.



<h3>Lightning Varieties</h3>



<h4>There are several types of lightning, including:</h4>



<ol>
<li>Intracloud Lightning (IC): Occurs within a single cloud, between regions of differing electrical charges. This is the most common type of lightning.</li>



<li>Cloud-to-Ground Lightning (CG): Strikes between the cloud and the ground, with negatively charged leaders connecting to positively charged streamers from the ground.</li>



<li>Cloud-to-Cloud Lightning (CC): Flashes between two separate clouds.</li>



<li>Ground-to-Cloud Lightning (GC): A less common, upward-moving discharge that originates from the ground.</li>
</ol>



<h3>Safety and Precautions</h3>



Lightning is both beautiful and dangerous, causing numerous fatalities and injuries worldwide each year. It is crucial to take precautions and practice lightning safety during thunderstorms. Some general guidelines include:



<ol>
<li>Seek shelter: Find a sturdy, enclosed building or vehicle.</li>



<li>Avoid tall structures and open spaces: Lightning tends to strike the tallest object in the area.</li>



<li>Stay away from water: Water is a conductor of electricity, increasing the risk of injury.</li>



<li>Unplug electronics: Power surges from lightning can damage electronic devices.</li>
</ol>



<h3>Conclusion</h3>



Lightning is a fascinating natural phenomenon that showcases the immense power of atmospheric electricity. By understanding its formation and taking necessary precautions, we can appreciate and respect this awe-inspiring spectacle from a safe distance.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-023-00736-2#Sec3">Nature Communications: Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Lightning strike creates a material seen for the first time on Earth

After lightning struck a tree in New Port Richey, Florida,...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-brain-unnecessary-fear/">Dopamine</a> is an important brain chemical typically associated with pleasure, motivation, and reward-seeking. Now, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> has found that dopamine also plays a major role in why exercise and other types of physical efforts feel easy to some and exhaustive to others. 



The findings could lead to more effective ways to help people establish and stick with exercise regimens, new treatments for fatigue associated with several conditions, such as depression, and a better understanding of Parkinson’s disease, which is marked by a loss of dopamine-producing cells in the brain over time.



“Researchers have long been trying to understand why some people find physical effort easier than others,” said senior author&nbsp;Vikram Chib, an associate professor of Biomedical Engineering at Johns Hopkins. “This study’s results suggest that the amount of dopamine availability in the brain is a key factor.”



While previous research has found that people with higher dopamine levels are more willing to exert physical effort for rewards, the current study focuses on this chemical’s role in people’s self-assessment of effort required for physical tasks, without the promise of rewards. To examine this correlation, the experts enrolled 19 adults diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease with an average age of 67 and asked them to perform three experiments.



In the first experiment, the participants were asked to squeeze a hand grip equipped with a sensor on two different days within two months from each other, and report the level of effort they put forth. While on one of the days they took their standard dopamine medication as they normally would, on the other, they were asked not to take it. When the participants took the dopamine medicine, their self-assessments of units of effort expended were more accurate than when did not take the medicine, meaning they perceived the task to be physically harder without dopamine.



In another experiment, they were given a choice between squeezing with a relatively low amount of effort on the grip sensor, or flipping a coin and taking the chance to have to perform a task with either no effort or a high level of effort. When they took their dopamine medicine, they were more willing to take a chance on having to perform a higher amount of effort than when they didn’t.



Finally, a third experiment offered them the choice between getting a small amount of money or flipping a coin that would either bring them a higher amount of money or no money at all. Since the results showed no difference in their choice whether they took dopamine or not, this chemical’s influence on risk-taking preferences seems to be specific to physical effort-based decision-making.



These findings suggest that dopamine is a critical factor in helping people accurately assess how much effort physical tasks require, which can affect how much effort and motivation they are willing to invest in such tasks. Better understanding the chemistry and biology of motivation may contribute to the development of methods to motivate exercise and physical therapy regimens, as well as help explain the pervasive fatigue present in conditions such as depression or long Covid.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41531-023-00490-4">NPG Parkinson’s Disease</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Dopamine influences our motivation to exercise

Dopamine is an important brain chemical typically associated with pleasure,...

In a recently published paper in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msad055">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a> by <a href="https://global.oup.com/">Oxford University Press</a>, researchers shed light on the ongoing debate surrounding the evolution of North American wolves. In particular, Eastern wolves and grey wolves. 



This is a subject that has long puzzled scientists, conservationists, and taxonomists alike. The study focuses on the mysterious origins and genetic relationships of wolves and coyotes found in southeastern Canada, particularly the enigmatic eastern wolves.



Eastern wolves, also known as the eastern timber wolf or the Algonquin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolf-packs-are-less-likely-to-stick-together-after-human-impacts/">wolf</a>, have been at the center of controversy. Scientists have been unable to conclusively determine whether these canids represent a distinct species or are the result of recent hybridization between coyotes and grey wolves. The Canidae family, which includes coyotes, foxes, jackals, wolves, and domestic dogs, is known for its complex and interrelated species.



Some researchers have recognized eastern wolves as a separate species based on genetic and behavioral studies. Consequently, these wolves are listed as "Special Concern" in Canada under the federal Species at Risk Act and "Threatened" in Ontario under the provincial Endangered Species Act.&nbsp;



However, the provincial government currently manages eastern wolves, coyotes, and grey wolves as a single species across their primary range in central Ontario.



<h2>Goal behind the management strategy</h2>



This management strategy is deemed necessary due to the difficulty humans face in visually distinguishing between wild canids and their hybrids in the region. This issue has led to frustration among hunters, trappers, and farmers, as well as challenges in enforcing hunting and trapping regulations.



To unravel the truth behind these competing findings, researchers sequenced the whole genomes of 25 animals of known origin and levels of contemporary hybridization, representing all Canadian wolf-like canid types.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that eastern wolves inhabiting the Great Lakes region in southeastern Canada are genetically distinct from other canids in the area. The findings suggest that eastern wolves evolved separately from grey wolves around 67,000 years ago.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the scientists believe that eastern wolves bred with coyotes approximately 37,000 years ago and continue to mix with both coyotes and grey wolves.



Lead author of the paper, Christopher Kyle, explained the significance of the study: “This manuscript addresses key evolutionary questions among North American wolf-like canids, but also provides data of direct and applied relevance.”&nbsp;



He also highlighted the strong international collaboration involved in the research, which included experts from the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, the University of Ferrara in Italy, and Trent University in Ontario, Canada. All of these institutions have a long-standing interest in North American Canis ancestry and genetics.



<h2 id="h-more-about-eastern-wolves">More about eastern wolves</h2>



Eastern wolves (Canis lupus lycaon), also known as eastern timber wolves or Algonquin wolves, are medium-sized canids native to southeastern Canada and the northeastern United States. They have been the subject of much debate among scientists due to their ambiguous genetic and taxonomic status.



<h3>Physical Characteristics</h3>



Eastern wolves are smaller than grey wolves but larger than coyotes. Their fur is generally tawny or reddish-brown, with some black and white markings. They have a body length of about 3 to 4.5 feet, and an adult typically weighs between 50 and 80 pounds. Eastern wolves have a bushy tail, a narrow chest, and long legs, which enable them to move efficiently through their forested habitat.



<h3>Habitat and Range</h3>



Eastern wolves primarily inhabit the Great Lakes region in southeastern Canada, including Algonquin Provincial Park in Ontario. Their range also extends into parts of the northeastern United States, such as Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. They prefer deciduous and mixed forests, where they can find ample cover and prey.



<h3>Diet and Prey</h3>



Eastern wolves are carnivorous and primarily hunt white-tailed deer, their main prey. They also consume smaller mammals such as beavers, rabbits, and rodents. Eastern wolves are known to be opportunistic feeders, and their diet may include carrion and occasionally livestock, which can lead to conflicts with humans.



<h3>Social Structure</h3>



Eastern wolves have a social structure similar to that of other wolf species. They live in packs consisting of a dominant breeding pair (the alpha male and female) and their offspring from multiple years. Pack sizes can range from 3 to 12 individuals, depending on the availability of food and territory. Eastern wolves are highly territorial and communicate through a combination of vocalizations, body language, and scent marking.



<h3>Reproduction and Lifespan</h3>



Eastern wolves generally mate in February, with the alpha pair being the primary breeding pair in the pack. After a gestation period of about 63 days, the female gives birth to a litter of 4 to 6 pups. The entire pack helps care for the young, with older siblings playing a crucial role in their upbringing. Eastern wolves reach sexual maturity at around two years of age and have an average lifespan of 6 to 8 years in the wild.



<h3>Conservation Status</h3>



The eastern wolf is currently listed as a "Special Concern" under Canada's federal Species at Risk Act and "Threatened" under Ontario's provincial Endangered Species Act. Their populations face threats from habitat loss, human encroachment, vehicle collisions, and persecution due to livestock predation. Additionally, hybridization with grey wolves and coyotes poses a significant challenge to the genetic integrity and conservation of eastern wolves.



Ongoing research and conservation efforts aim to better understand the eastern wolf's taxonomy, genetic makeup, and ecological role to inform effective management strategies and ensure their long-term survival.



<h2 id="h-more-about-grey-wolves">More about grey wolves</h2>



Grey wolves (Canis lupus) are the largest wild members of the Canidae family, which includes coyotes, foxes, jackals, and domestic dogs. They are highly adaptable and once had the most extensive range of any land mammal, excluding humans. Grey wolves can be found throughout North America, Europe, and Asia, though their populations have declined significantly due to human activities.



<h3>Physical Characteristics</h3>



Grey wolves are known for their impressive size and iconic appearance. Adult grey wolves weigh between 70 and 110 pounds, with males being larger than females. Their body length ranges from 4 to 6.5 feet, including the tail. Grey wolves have a thick double coat, which is typically a mix of grey, white, black, and brown, providing effective insulation and camouflage. Their powerful jaws, large paws, and strong legs enable them to be efficient predators.



<h3>Habitat and Range</h3>



Grey wolves have a diverse range of habitats, including forests, grasslands, tundra, and deserts. They once roamed much of the Northern Hemisphere but have experienced significant declines in distribution and population size. Currently, their primary populations are found in North America, Europe, and Asia, with the largest populations in Russia, Canada, and the United States (mainly Alaska and the Great Lakes region).



<h3>Diet and Prey</h3>



Grey wolves are carnivorous predators, hunting in packs to bring down large ungulates such as deer, elk, moose, and caribou. They are also known to prey on smaller mammals like beavers, rabbits, and rodents. Grey wolves are opportunistic feeders and may scavenge carrion or consume other available food sources when necessary.



<h3>Social Structure</h3>



Grey wolves are highly social animals and live in packs, which are typically composed of a dominant breeding pair (the alpha male and female) and their offspring from multiple years. Pack sizes can vary from 5 to 12 individuals, depending on factors like prey availability and territory size. Wolves communicate through a complex system of vocalizations, body language, and scent marking, which helps maintain pack cohesion and social hierarchy.



<h3>Reproduction and Lifespan</h3>



Mating in grey wolves usually occurs between January and March, with the alpha pair being the primary breeding pair. After a gestation period of approximately 63 days, the female gives birth to a litter of 4 to 6 pups. The entire pack participates in raising and protecting the young. Grey wolves reach sexual maturity at about two years of age and have an average lifespan of 6 to 8 years in the wild, although they can live longer in captivity.



<h3>Conservation Status</h3>



Grey wolves are classified as "Least Concern" on the IUCN Red List, but their populations face various threats depending on the region. In some areas, they are threatened by habitat loss, hunting, and persecution due to livestock predation. Conservation efforts focus on habitat preservation, reducing human-wolf conflicts, and reintroduction programs in areas where populations have declined or been extirpated.



Grey wolves play a vital role in maintaining ecosystem balance, as they help control the populations of their prey species and influence the behavior of other animals. This, in turn, impacts the vegetation and overall health of the ecosystems they inhabit.



—-&nbsp;



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Eastern wolves and grey wolves evolved separately

In a recently published paper in Molecular Biology and Evolution...

A recent breakthrough in coral reef research has revealed that corallivorous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-confirms-that-fish-can-recognize-themselves-in-a-mirror/">fish</a>, those that consume coral, may not be as harmful to coral reefs as previously believed. Contrary to popular belief, these fish might even play a crucial role in maintaining coral health by distributing beneficial microbes through their feces.



Traditionally, corallivorous fish have been considered harmful to coral reefs due to the physical damage caused by their bites. Conversely, grazing fish that feed on algae and detritus were thought to contribute to a reef's overall health. However, a new study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1110346">Frontiers in Marine Science</a> and led by Dr. Carsten Grupstra of Rice University is challenging this notion.



“Corallivorous fish are generally regarded as harmful because they bite the corals. But it turns out that this doesn’t tell the whole story. Corallivore feces contain many of the bacterial taxa that associate with healthy corals under normal conditions, potentially resulting in the natural dispersal of ‘coral probiotics’, analogous to fecal microbiota transplantation therapy in humans," explained Dr. Grupstra.



<h2 id="h-good-bacteria-may-boost-coral-reef-health">Good bacteria may boost coral reef health</h2>



Coral reefs are teeming with various fish species, all of which produce waste in the form of feces. While this waste can provide essential nutrients to support a thriving coral reef ecosystem, it may also contain pathogens and sediments that can smother coral and cause the formation of lesions - patches of dying coral. Understanding this complex cycle of waste and nutrients is critical for the protection of delicate coral reef ecosystems.



In the study, Dr. Grupstra and his team analyzed the effects of feces from both corallivores and grazers on live coral. They placed coral fragments in jars filled with sterile seawater, then added feces from both corallivore and grazer fish to different jars. Some samples were sterilized to determine if the physical characteristics of the feces alone caused the lesions. After the experiment, each coral fragment was examined and categorized as healthy, containing lesions, or dead.



The researchers also sampled the feces of several corallivore and grazer fish species to identify the bacteria present within them. This information helped them understand what types of bacteria might be contributing to the effects observed on the coral, whether the feces contained specific coral pathogens, and whether their results from the feces addition experiment could be generalized to other fish that also consume coral or algae and detritus.



<h2 id="h-maintaining-healthy-coral-reefs">Maintaining healthy coral reefs</h2>



The scientists placed coral fragments in jars with sterile seawater and added feces from corallivorous and grazing fish to different jars. They found that adding feces sometimes resulted in the formation of lesions on the coral pieces, and in some cases, even the death of the fragment.&nbsp;



Coral fragments without any feces remained healthy. Interestingly, feces from grazers caused lesions or death in all coral pieces, while feces from corallivores caused fewer and smaller lesions and rarely led to death.



Sterilized feces from either type of fish caused little harm, comparable to the low levels of damage caused by corallivore feces. The scientists suspected that this was due to the greater abundance of coral pathogens found in the fresh feces of grazers and the higher abundance of beneficial microbes found in the fresh feces of corallivores. Consequently, the fish that were previously assumed to be harmful may actually contribute to important processes that promote coral reef health.



“More research needs to be done to test how fish feces affect corals to see how we might use these feces in management efforts to support coral reef health," said Dr. Grupstra.



The scientists noted that the effects of lesions caused by feces might not be as severe under real-world conditions and may not be evenly distributed. Factors such as fish territories and behaviors can affect where and when they defecate, and feces could disintegrate in the water, thus limiting lesion formation. Additionally, some feces are consumed by other fish, and organisms living on coral may move remaining feces that fall on corals, potentially diminishing feces' effects.



“Together, these findings result in a more nuanced understanding of the roles of fish on coral reefs and may help us better understand the interactions that are happening on reefs around the world. Both corallivores and grazers have important ecological roles, and understanding these roles can help us better manage and conserve these important ecosystems," said Dr. Grupstra.



These findings underscore the importance of continued research into the intricate relationships within coral reef ecosystems. By broadening our understanding of these dynamics, we can develop more effective strategies to protect and conserve the world's coral reefs, which are vital to the health of our oceans and the planet as a whole.



<h2 id="h-how-climate-change-is-impacting-coral-reefs">How climate change is impacting coral reefs</h2>



Climate change is having significant impacts on coral reefs, which are among the most sensitive ecosystems on the planet. The main ways climate change affects coral reefs are through ocean warming, ocean acidification, sea level rise, and changes in weather patterns. These factors lead to various negative consequences for coral reefs and the marine life that depends on them:



<ol>
<li>Coral bleaching: Coral bleaching occurs when coral expel the symbiotic algae, known as zooxanthellae, that live within their tissues. This symbiosis provides corals with nutrients and their vibrant colors. Ocean warming due to climate change causes stress to corals, leading them to expel the algae, resulting in the coral appearing white, or "bleached." Bleached corals are more susceptible to disease, and if the stress continues for an extended period, the corals can die.</li>



<li>Ocean acidification: The increase in atmospheric CO2 levels due to human activities also affects the chemistry of the ocean. As the ocean absorbs more CO2, it becomes more acidic, reducing the availability of carbonate ions that corals and other marine organisms need to build their skeletons and shells. This process, known as ocean acidification, makes it difficult for corals to grow and repair themselves, and can even cause their skeletons to dissolve.</li>



<li>Sea level rise: Rising sea levels caused by climate change can have both positive and negative impacts on coral reefs. While deeper waters can provide protection against heat stress, excessive sunlight, and wave damage, they can also reduce the amount of light available for photosynthesis, making it harder for corals and their symbiotic algae to survive. Additionally, rising sea levels can lead to increased coastal erosion and sedimentation, which can smother coral reefs and deprive them of the light needed for photosynthesis.</li>



<li>Changes in weather patterns: Climate change can lead to changes in weather patterns, including more frequent and intense storms, as well as altered ocean currents. Strong storms can physically damage coral reefs, breaking apart coral colonies and altering reef structure. Changes in ocean currents can impact the distribution of nutrients, temperature, and salinity in reef ecosystems, potentially causing stress to corals and other marine organisms.</li>
</ol>



These climate change-driven impacts on coral reefs have far-reaching consequences for marine biodiversity, fisheries, and coastal communities that depend on healthy coral reef ecosystems for their livelihoods and protection against storms and coastal erosion.&nbsp;



To mitigate these impacts and preserve these vital ecosystems, it is essential to address the root causes of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to more sustainable energy sources.&nbsp;



Additionally, local conservation efforts, such as reducing pollution and protecting coral habitats, can help support the resilience of coral reefs in the face of climate change.



—-&nbsp;



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Poo from fish that eat coral is beneficial for coral reefs

A recent breakthrough in coral reef research has revealed that...

For the first time, scientists have shed light on why larger dog breeds tend to have shorter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-you-eat-and-when-may-extend-your-lifespan/">lifespans</a> than their smaller counterparts. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/">University of Adelaide</a> have discovered that selective breeding for size has made large breeds more susceptible to cancer.&nbsp;



The groundbreaking study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/an/current">The American Naturalist</a>, is the result of a year-long comparative analysis using published data on 164 dog breeds from around the world, including chihuahuas and Great Danes.



Dr. Jack da Silva from the University of Adelaide’s School of Biological Sciences and his team examined the causes of differences in lifespan and death among these various breeds.&nbsp;



"When we analyzed these data sets, we discovered that larger dogs were more likely to die from cancer at a younger age when compared with smaller dogs," said Dr. da Silva.&nbsp;



The study showed that although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-dogs-more-intelligent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger dogs</a> did not necessarily age faster than smaller breeds, their rates of cancer increased as their average body weight did. The researchers believe that the relationship between a dog's body size and its lifespan could be attributed to an evolutionary lag in the body's cancer defenses. 



<h2 id="h-cancer-is-the-culprit">Cancer is the culprit</h2>



According to Dr. da Silva, these defenses have been unable to keep up with the rapid and recent selective breeding of bigger dogs. The shorter lifespans of larger breeds were found to be consistent with a theory of aging known as life history optimization or the "disposable soma."



Dr. da Silva explained that this theory is based on the idea that if an organism invests most of its resources and energy into growth and reproduction, it cannot also invest in cell repair and cancer defenses. Consequently, the focus is on reproducing early, even if it comes at the expense of maintaining and repairing the body and living longer.



The findings of the study have implications beyond the canine world, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-their-humans-often-share-similar-personalities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> serve as a good model for studying aging in humans. Dr. da Silva noted that dogs, like humans in industrialized societies, live in environments that tend to protect them from accidental and infectious causes of death, making them more likely to die from age-related diseases like cancer.



While the results may be concerning for owners of large dogs, the researchers predict that bigger breeds will eventually evolve to develop better cancer-fighting genes.&nbsp;



Dr. da Silva said that most of the 400 or so dog breeds we know today have only been established in the past 200 years, so larger dogs have not had time to evolve better cancer defense mechanisms to match their size. He believes that this evolution could still occur, but it may come at a cost to reproduction.



Dr. da Silva predicts that <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/meet-the-newfoundland-dog-everyones-favorite-bear-dog/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger dog breeds</a> will adapt and extend their lifespan, but based on the theory of aging, they are more likely to have smaller litter sizes in the future. "This may occur naturally or through selective breeding, as people focus on breeding larger dogs that have lower cancer rates and thus greater longevity."



Dr. da Silva is now investigating the connection between litter size, cancer rates, and lifespan in dogs and other mammals to further understand the implications of selective breeding and body size on life expectancy.



<h2 id="h-average-lifespan-for-most-common-dog-breeds">Average lifespan for most common dog breeds</h2>



The average lifespan of dogs varies depending on factors such as breed, size, and overall health. Typically, smaller dog breeds tend to live longer than larger breeds.



For small breeds, the average lifespan ranges from 12 to 16 years. Some common small dog breeds and their average lifespans are:



<ol>
<li>Chihuahua: 14-18 years</li>



<li>Pomeranian: 12-16 years</li>



<li>Dachshund: 12-16 years</li>



<li>Maltese: 12-15 years</li>



<li>Beagle: 12-15 years</li>
</ol>



For large breeds, the average lifespan ranges from 8 to 12 years. Some common large dog breeds and their average lifespans are:



<ol>
<li>Labrador Retriever: 10-12 years</li>



<li>Golden Retriever: 10-12 years</li>



<li>German Shepherd: 9-13 years</li>



<li>Boxer: 9-12 years</li>



<li>Great Dane: 7-10 years</li>
</ol>



Please note that these are just average lifespans and individual dogs may live longer or shorter lives depending on various factors such as genetics, diet, exercise, and veterinary care.



-—



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Why do small dogs live longer than large breeds?

For the first time, scientists have shed light on why...

Can humans truly adapt to long-term living in deep space? This question has been a topic of debate and speculation for decades. However, a new theory published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2023.1081340">Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences</a>, called the Pancosmorio theory, provides a somewhat tentative answer.&nbsp;



Pancosmorio, a term coined to mean "all world limit," describes the challenges and complexities involved in maintaining gravity and oxygen, obtaining water, developing agriculture, and handling waste far from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-signals-are-aliens-trying-to-contact-earth/">Earth</a>.



Morgan Irons, a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, co-authored the paper alongside her father, Lee Irons, executive director of the Norfolk Institute. Morgan's research focuses on soil organic carbon persistence under Earth's gravity and varying gravity conditions. She also collaborated with Johannes Lehmann, a professor in Cornell's School of Integrative Plant Science.



“For humans to sustain themselves and all of their technology, infrastructure, and society in space, they need a self-restoring, Earth-like, natural ecosystem to back them up,” said Morgan. She further emphasized that without these kinds of systems, any mission to colonize space is bound to fail.



<h2 id="h-solving-the-gravity-problem">Solving the gravity problem</h2>



One of the most significant factors in sustaining human life in space is gravity. Earth life has evolved within the context of 1G of gravity, which is essential for the proper functioning of living organisms.&nbsp;



“Gravity induces a gradient in the fluid pressure within the body of the living thing to which the autonomic functions of the life form are attuned ” explained Lee Irons. He pointed to the negative effect on human eyesight in Earth orbit as an example of gravity imbalance.



Morgan Irons emphasized the importance of solving the gravity problem before investing billions of dollars in space settlements. “Our bodies, our natural ecosystems, all the energy movement, and the way we utilize energy is all fundamentally based upon 1G of gravity being present.”&nbsp;



Morgan noted that no other place in our solar system has 1G of gravity, making this one of the first problems that must be addressed.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-generating-enough-sustainable-oxygen">Generating enough sustainable oxygen</h2>



Another vital factor for sustaining life in space is oxygen. Earth's ecosystem generates oxygen for humans and other life forms.&nbsp;



Lee Irons highlighted the need for a reserve system in case a technologically advanced primary and backup system fail to provide oxygen for a moon base or another outpost. “A reserve exists everywhere in Earth’s nature. Think of the hundreds of thousands of species of plants that generate oxygen. That’s the kind of system reserve we need to replicate to be truly sustainable.”



Creating such an ecological system for a space outpost would require an enormous amount of energy from the sun. However, the more distant planets and moons in our solar system receive decreased amounts of solar energy. Lee Irons emphasizes the need for abundant energy, comparing powering the ecological system of an outpost to running a car or an entire household on a cell phone battery.



In conclusion, the Pancosmorio theory highlights the complexities and challenges involved in maintaining a self-sustaining, Earth-like ecosystem in deep space.&nbsp;



While the answer to whether humans can endure long-term living in space remains a lukewarm maybe, the theory underscores the need for innovative solutions to the problems of gravity, oxygen, and energy to make space colonization a viable possibility.



<h2 id="h-technology-needed-for-humans-to-colonize-space">Technology needed for humans to colonize space</h2>



For humans to successfully colonize space, numerous technological advancements and innovations must be developed to address various challenges. Some key technologies include:



<ol>
<li>Advanced propulsion systems: Developing faster and more efficient propulsion systems is crucial for reducing travel time between Earth and potential space colonies, as well as for exploring more distant regions of our solar system and beyond.</li>



<li>Artificial gravity: As the Pancosmorio theory highlights, gravity is crucial for the proper functioning of living organisms. Therefore, creating artificial gravity systems, such as rotating habitats or centrifugal force-based solutions, will be necessary to mimic Earth-like conditions in space colonies.</li>



<li>Life support systems: Reliable and closed-loop life support systems are essential for providing breathable air, clean water, and waste management. These systems must be highly efficient, regenerative, and capable of handling contingencies.</li>



<li>Space agriculture and food production: Colonists will need a sustainable food supply, which means developing space agriculture and advanced food production methods that can function in microgravity or low-gravity environments.</li>



<li>Radiation protection: Space is filled with harmful radiation, which poses a significant risk to human health. Technologies to shield astronauts and colonists from radiation, both during space travel and while living in space habitats, are vital.</li>



<li>In-situ resource utilization (ISRU): Utilizing local resources, such as water and minerals found on the Moon or Mars, can reduce the cost and logistical challenges of transporting supplies from Earth. Technologies for extracting, processing, and using these resources will be crucial for self-sustaining colonies.</li>



<li>Energy generation and storage: Reliable and efficient energy sources, such as advanced solar panels, nuclear reactors, or other novel energy generation methods, are essential for powering space colonies. Additionally, developing robust energy storage solutions will ensure a stable power supply.</li>



<li>Habitat construction and infrastructure: Technologies for constructing habitats and infrastructure in space, including 3D printing, modular design, and the use of local materials, will be necessary for establishing permanent settlements.</li>



<li>Communication systems: High-speed and reliable communication systems will be needed to maintain contact between Earth and space colonies, as well as among colonists within settlements.</li>



<li>Medical and health technologies: Prolonged exposure to space environments can lead to numerous health issues. Developing advanced medical technologies and countermeasures for diagnosing, treating, and preventing these health problems will be essential for the long-term survival of space colonists.</li>
</ol>



These technologies represent only a portion of what will be required for successful space colonization. As research and development continue, we can expect further innovations to emerge, addressing the myriad challenges associated with human settlement beyond Earth.



-—



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Earth-like ecosystem necessary for humans to live in deep space

Can humans truly adapt to long-term living in deep space?...

Since dense urban areas usually amplify the impact of high temperatures due to a phenomenon known as the “urban island effect,” cities are more vulnerable to extreme climate events. Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a> in Sweden has found that large investments in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harvesting-electricity-with-nature-inspired-techniques/">electricity</a> networks will be necessary to protect us from heatwaves and cold snaps.



“Unless we account for extreme climate events and continued urbanization, the reliability of electricity supply will fall by up to 30 percent. An additional outlay of 20-60 percent will be required during the energy transition in order to guarantee that cities can cope with different kinds of climate,”&nbsp;said co-author Vahid Nik, a professor of Building Physics at Lund.



The experts designed a modeling platform tying together climate, building, and energy system models. The goal was to facilitate the simulation and evaluation of cities’ energy transition in order to secure their resilience against future climate changes while densification of urban areas is increasing.



“Our results show that high density areas give rise to a phenomenon called urban heat islands, which make cities more vulnerable to the effects of extreme climate events, particularly in southern Europe. For example, the outdoor temperature can rise by 17 percent while the wind speed falls by 61 percent. Urban densification – a recommended development strategy in order to reach the UN’s energy and climate goals – could make the electricity network more vulnerable. This must be taken into consideration when designing urban energy systems,” said co-author Kavan Javanroodi, an assistant professor of Building and Urban Physics at Lund.



This new framework relates future climate models to buildings and energy systems at city level, while taking the urban microclimates into account, revealing that peaks in demand in the energy system increase much more than previously thought when extreme microclimates are considered.&nbsp;



“There is a marked deviation between the heat and cooling requirements shown in today’s urban climate models, compared to the outcomes of our calculations when urban morphology, the physical design of the city, is more complex. For example, if we fail to take into account the urban climate in Madrid, we could underestimate the need for cooling by around 28 percent,” Javanroodi explained.



Although an increasing number of countries are currently concerned by the relation between extreme weather events, energy issues, and public health, there are still no accurate methods of quantifying the effects of climate change and devising appropriate adaptation strategies. Future research is needed to investigate the relationship between urban density and climate change in energy forecasts and to develop more innovative methods of increasing energy flexibility and climate resilience in cities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41560-023-01232-9">Nature Energy</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Cities need resilient electricity networks to cope with climate change

Since dense urban areas usually amplify the impact of high...

A breakthrough study from researchers at <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/">Carnegie Science</a> and UCLA suggests that the origins of Earth's water may be linked to the interactions between hydrogen-rich atmospheres and magma <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-could-be-devastating-to-all-living-creatures/">oceans</a> of the planetary embryos during Earth's formative years.&nbsp;



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05823-0">Nature</a>, offers new insights into the development of Earth's signature features and has significant implications for our understanding of the planet's evolution.



For many years, the understanding of planet formation was primarily based on observations of our own Solar System. While there are active debates surrounding the formation of gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn, it is widely accepted that Earth and other rocky planets accreted from the disk of dust and gas surrounding the Sun during its infancy.



The planetesimals that eventually formed Earth grew larger and hotter as they collided with increasingly larger objects, creating a vast magma ocean due to the heat generated from these impacts and the presence of radioactive elements. Over time, as the planet cooled, the densest material sank inward, separating Earth into three distinct layers: the metallic core, and the rocky, silicate mantle and crust.



Recent advancements in exoplanet research have led to a new approach to modeling Earth's early stages. "Exoplanet discoveries have given us a much greater appreciation of how common it is for just-formed planets to be surrounded by atmospheres that are rich in molecular hydrogen, H2, during their first several million years of growth," explained Anat Shahar, one of the researchers involved in the study. "Eventually these hydrogen envelopes dissipate, but they leave their fingerprints on the young planet’s composition."



<h2>How the study was done</h2>



Armed with this new perspective, Shahar and her colleagues at Carnegie Science and UCLA developed a model to simulate Earth's formation and evolution, examining whether the planet's unique chemical traits could be reproduced.&nbsp;



Their findings reveal that early interactions between Earth's magma ocean and a molecular hydrogen proto-atmosphere could have led to the formation of its abundance of water and its overall oxidized state.



The research team utilized mathematical modeling to explore the exchange of materials between molecular hydrogen atmospheres and magma oceans, considering 25 different compounds and 18 different types of reactions.



The results from these simulations revealed that the interactions between the magma ocean and the atmosphere caused large masses of hydrogen to move into the metallic core, oxidized the mantle, and produced significant amounts of water.



The study suggests that even if all the rocky material that combined to form Earth was completely dry, the interactions between the molecular hydrogen atmosphere and the magma ocean would still generate substantial amounts of water. While other water sources may exist, they are not necessary to explain the current state of our planet.



Shahar emphasizes that this is just one possible explanation for Earth's evolution, but one that could establish an important connection between Earth's formation history and the most common exoplanets discovered orbiting distant stars, known as Super-Earths and sub-Neptunes.



This research was conducted as part of the multi-institution, interdisciplinary AEThER project, led by Shahar, which aims to understand the chemical makeup of the Milky Way galaxy's most common planets and develop a framework for detecting signs of life on distant worlds.&nbsp;



Funded by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the project seeks to understand how the formation and evolution of these planets shape their atmospheres, which could, in turn, help scientists differentiate true biosignatures from atmospheric molecules of non-biological origin.



"Increasingly powerful telescopes are enabling astronomers to understand the compositions of exoplanet atmospheres in never-before-seen detail," Shahar said. "AEThER’s work will inform their observations with experimental and modeling data that, we hope, will lead to a foolproof method for detecting signs of life on other worlds."



<h2 id="h-prevalence-of-water-in-the-universe">Prevalence of water in the universe</h2>



Water is indeed quite common throughout the universe. It is primarily composed of two of the most abundant elements in the cosmos: hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up about 75% of its elemental mass, while oxygen is the third most abundant element.



Water has been detected in various forms in our Solar System, such as ice on planets and moons, as well as in the form of water vapor in the atmosphere of some planets. Additionally, water has been found in the form of ice in comets and asteroids, which are remnants from the early Solar System.



Beyond our Solar System, water has been detected in interstellar clouds and the disks around young stars, where new planets are forming. Observations of exoplanets, planets orbiting stars outside our Solar System, have also revealed the presence of water vapor in the atmospheres of some of these distant worlds.



Although water is common throughout the universe, it is important to note that the conditions required for liquid water to exist, which is essential for life as we know it, are more specific and depend on factors such as temperature, pressure, and the presence of a suitable atmosphere.&nbsp;



The search for planets within the "habitable zone" around their host stars, where conditions might allow for liquid water to exist, is a key aspect of the ongoing quest to find potentially habitable worlds and evidence of extraterrestrial life.



<h2 id="h-liquid-water-in-our-solar-system">Liquid water in our solar system</h2>



Apart from Earth, where liquid water is abundant, there is evidence of liquid water on other celestial bodies as well, although it is often hidden beneath the surface or mixed with other materials. Some examples include:



<ol>
<li>Mars: There is evidence of liquid water beneath the surface of Mars, with several underground lakes discovered through radar data from the Mars Express orbiter. Additionally, scientists believe that water may exist as transient, thin layers of briny (salty) water on the Martian surface due to the presence of hydrated salts.</li>



<li>Europa: Europa, one of Jupiter's largest moons, is believed to have a subsurface liquid water ocean beneath its icy crust. This ocean might contain more than twice the amount of water found on Earth. The presence of this subsurface ocean is inferred from observations made by the Galileo spacecraft and the Hubble Space Telescope, such as evidence of geysers and surface features indicating a liquid layer below the ice.</li>



<li>Enceladus: Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, is also believed to have a subsurface ocean of liquid water beneath its icy shell. This has been supported by data from the Cassini spacecraft, which observed geysers spouting water vapor and ice particles from the moon's south polar region. These geysers are believed to be connected to the subsurface ocean, which could contain hydrothermal vents, making Enceladus a potential target in the search for extraterrestrial life.</li>



<li>Ganymede: Ganymede, another of Jupiter's large moons, is also suspected to have a subsurface ocean of liquid water beneath its icy surface. Evidence from the Galileo and Hubble missions, as well as from Earth-based telescopes, suggests the existence of this subsurface ocean.</li>
</ol>



These examples show that liquid water exists in our Solar System beyond Earth, primarily in the form of subsurface oceans on icy moons. This has led to increased interest in these celestial bodies as potential habitats for life, as water is a crucial ingredient for life as we know it.



-—



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Scientists may have learned how Earth got its water

A breakthrough study from researchers at Carnegie Science and UCLA...

Arctic rivers play a crucial role in transporting fallen trees from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-are-forest-gardeners-that-help-reduce-global-warming/">forests</a> to oceans, inadvertently contributing to long-term carbon storage as logs accumulate along the waterways' twists and turns.&nbsp;



Recently, a groundbreaking study has mapped the largest known woody deposit in the Mackenzie River Delta, Nunavut, Canada, spanning 51 square kilometers (20 square miles) and storing an estimated 3.4 million tons (3.1 million metric tons) of carbon.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Low-Res_DJI_0058.JPG.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1916737"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists have mapped the world’s biggest cumulative logjam that we know of, as reported in a new study in the AGU journal Geophysical Research Letters. Image Credit: Alicia Sendrowski</figcaption></figure>



According to Alicia Sendrowski, the research engineer who led the study at <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a>, this staggering quantity of carbon is equivalent to the emissions produced by approximately two and a half million cars in a year.&nbsp;



Despite its significance, our understanding of this "large carbon" in the form of wood remains limited compared to other forms of carbon, such as dissolved or particulate organic carbon. However, recent developments in research are beginning to address this gap in knowledge.



For many years, scientists have been aware of the mobility of driftwood in the Arctic, but only recently have they started to quantify the amount of wood and the potential loss of carbon storage due to climate change.&nbsp;



The region's cold, often dry or icy conditions allow trees to remain preserved for tens of thousands of years. As Sendrowski explained, a tree that fell a thousand years ago might appear just as fresh as one that fell the previous winter.



Virginia Ruiz-Villanueva, a fluvial geomorphologist at the University of Lausanne who was not involved in the study, highlights the importance of this emerging research area: "There's been a lot of work on fluxes of carbon from water and sediment, but we simply didn't pay attention to the wood until very recently. This is a very young field of research that is developing quite fast."&nbsp;



Ruiz-Villanueva further emphasizes the significance of studying these woody deposits, not only in the context of the carbon cycle but also to better understand the functioning of natural fluvial systems and the mobilization and distribution of wood by rivers.



<h2 id="h-how-scientists-measured-this-giant-logjam">How scientists measured this giant logjam</h2>



The research team sought to map and quantify woody deposits in the Arctic. They focused on the Mackenzie River, which boasts exceptionally high-resolution imagery and is known for its sizable wood deposits. The river's delta, the third-largest in the world by land area, drains approximately 20% of Canada. The team examined around 13,000 square kilometers (5,000 square miles) of delta in the largest attempt to map woody deposits to date.



Over a three-week period, Sendrowski and her colleagues from Colorado State University measured river driftwood, mapped logjams, and sampled wood for radiocarbon dating. Utilizing remote imagery, Sendrowski identified wood on the river's surface and estimated the areal extent of the logjam. She then calculated the volume of wood within the logjam and the amount of carbon it stored based on her field measurements.



The deposit, which comprises over 400,000 miniature caches of wood, stores approximately 3.4 million tons (3.1 million metric tons) of carbon. The largest single deposit, covering an area equivalent to around 20 American football fields, holds 7,385 tons (6,700 metric tons) of carbon.&nbsp;



However, Sendrowski believes that the actual amount of carbon stored in the delta's wood could be roughly twice as large, considering the logs buried in soil, submerged underwater, and hidden under vegetation from aerial imagery.



Although the Mackenzie River Delta is a "hotspot" of carbon storage due to its highly carbon-rich soils, the logs' carbon storage represents a relatively small fraction of the delta's total carbon storage - around 3 quadrillion grams of carbon.&nbsp;



"But we think it's still important because as changes in the basin occur, like logging or damming, and as climate change alters precipitation patterns and warming, wood preservation will decrease. It's a significant amount of carbon, so there's a potentially significant loss of carbon storage," said Sendrowski.



The study reveals that the Mackenzie logjam is only one of many such basins in the Arctic. With at least a dozen deltas larger than 500 square kilometers, the combined large woody deposits throughout the region could constitute a significant carbon storage pool - one that remains largely unexplored.



The researchers also investigated the lifespan of trees in the Arctic, a crucial factor when modeling how "active" a carbon pool is, meaning how quickly material is moved around. Carbon dating revealed that while many sampled trees started growing around or after 1950, some were much older, dating back to around 700 CE. One study from the 1960s even carbon-dated wood from a tree preserved in an icy mound to approximately 33,000 years ago.



According to Sendrowski, the Mackenzie River Delta proved an ideal starting point for the study. "The exciting aspect for me isn't just the scale, but also the potential to apply this to other places where large wood hasn't been focused on," she said.&nbsp;



As a burgeoning field, there is still much to be learned about the role of large woody deposits in carbon storage and the Arctic environment.



This groundbreaking study, which sheds new light on the role of Arctic rivers in carbon storage, was published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2022GL100913">Geophysical Research Letters</a>, a journal known for high-impact, short-format reports with immediate implications across all Earth and space sciences.



<h2 id="h-more-about-logjams-around-the-world">More about logjams around the world</h2>



It is difficult to determine the exact number of massive logjams around the world, as they can form and dissipate in various river systems over time. Logjams, also known as wood jams or driftwood accumulations, are naturally occurring phenomena that result from the transport and deposition of large woody debris by rivers and streams. The size and location of logjams can change due to factors such as river flow, precipitation, vegetation, and human intervention.



Massive logjams have been documented in several major river systems worldwide, such as the Mackenzie River Delta in Canada, the Amazon River in South America, and the Lena River in Siberia. However, without comprehensive studies and monitoring, it is challenging to provide an accurate count of massive logjams across the globe.



Research on large woody deposits and their role in carbon storage and ecosystem functioning is still a burgeoning field. As more studies are conducted, scientists will likely gain a better understanding of the distribution, dynamics, and impact of massive logjams worldwide.



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Dead trees in the Arctic store massive amount of carbon

Arctic rivers play a crucial role in transporting fallen trees...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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