Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Some of the biggest questions in planetary science are written across the dusty surface of Mars. Why did a planet that once had flowing rivers and lakes end up as a frozen desert? How did Mars lose its grip on liquid water - and what does that say about a planet’s ability to stay habitable? 



A new study may bring us closer to an answer. Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en">University of Chicago</a> have proposed a new model that explains why Mars couldn’t hold on to its early climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-mars-climate">The mystery of Mars' climate</h2>



The team suggests that Mars had short bursts of warmth triggered by gradual changes in sunlight. But each time conditions improved, the planet pushed itself right back into a deep freeze. That’s very different from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-a-stabilizing-mechanism-that-keeps-it-habitable/">Earth</a>, which has stayed habitable for billions of years.



“For years, we’ve had this huge unanswered question for why Earth has managed to keep its habitability while Mars lost it,” said Edwin Kite, a participating scientist on NASA’s Curiosity rover and associate professor at the University of Chicago. 



“Our models suggest that periods of habitability on Mars have been the exception, rather than the rule, and that Mars generally self-regulates as a desert planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-case-of-the-missing-carbon">The case of the missing carbon</h2>



Curiosity’s recent discovery of carbonate-rich rocks on Mars helped make this new theory possible. These minerals were the missing link in a puzzle scientists have been trying to solve for years. 



If Mars once had a thick, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-mars-missing-atmosphere-hiding-in-plain-sight/">carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere</a> - enough to warm the planet and allow water to flow - where did all that carbon go? “People have been looking for a tomb for the atmosphere for years,” Kite said.



Scientists had suspected that, like Earth, Mars might lock away carbon dioxide in its rocks through chemical reactions with water. But early tests by Mars rovers failed to find those carbonate deposits. 



That changed when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/">Curiosity</a> reached higher elevations on Mt. Sharp and finally hit the carbonate-rich layers they’d been hoping to find.



“It really is something you cannot know until you have a rover on the surface,” said study co-author Benjamin Tutolo, a professor at the University of Calgary. 



“The chemistry and mineralogy measurements they provide really are essential in our continuing quest to understand how and why planets stay habitable, in order to search for other hospitable worlds out in the universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-climate-cycle-worked-against-life">Mars' climate cycle worked against life</h2>



Mars and Earth started out with a lot in common. Both are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/">rocky planets</a>. Both have water and carbon. Both are at a decent distance from the Sun. Yet only one has remained friendly to life.



The new study explains how small differences added up over time. Earth has a built-in thermostat: carbon cycles from the atmosphere into rocks and back again through volcanic activity. 



When Earth heats up, reactions pull carbon dioxide out of the air, cooling things down. Then volcanoes push it back out again, preventing a deep freeze. On Mars, that cycle doesn’t work the same way.



“In contrast to Earth, where there are always some volcanoes erupting, Mars right now is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-volcano-arsia-mons-captured-with-its-head-above-the-clouds-in-sunrise-photo/">volcanically dormant</a>, and the average rate of volcanic outgassing on Mars is slow,” Kite said. 



“So in that situation, you don't really have a balance between carbon dioxide in and carbon dioxide out, because if you have even a little bit of liquid water, you're going to draw down carbon dioxide through carbonate formation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-carbon-in-mars-climate">The role of carbon in Mars' climate </h2>



The carbon imbalance means any brief warming on Mars - such as from a slowly brightening sun - triggers its own undoing. Water reappears. It helps form carbonates. That pulls carbon out of the air. Then the greenhouse effect fades, and Mars cools off again.



The models show Mars could have had warm, wet periods lasting a few million years, followed by dry spells that lasted 100 million years or more. That kind of stop-start habitability, with massive gaps in between, isn’t great for sustaining life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traces-of-environmental-catastrophe">Traces of environmental catastrophe </h2>



Between Curiosity, Perseverance, and the fleet of orbiters circling the planet, we’re finally piecing together a real history of what happened to Mars' climate.



“Fortunately, Mars preserves a trace of that environmental catastrophe in the rocks on its surface,” said Kite. “And today we're in a golden age of Mars science, with two plutonium-powered rovers on the surface and an international fleet of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-insight-mro-spacecraft-teamed-up-with-ai-to-find-a-fresh-impact-crater/">spacecraft</a> in orbit that allow us to deeply explore the planet for these traces.”



The more we understand about how Mars lost its atmosphere, the more we can learn about what keeps a planet stable - and what makes it fragile.



The full study was published in the journal Nature.



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Climate collapse: Why did Mars become a desert?

Some of the biggest questions in planetary science are written...

Aging doesn’t look the same for everyone. Most people know someone who seems to age faster or slower than others. One person may still run marathons in their 70s, while another starts struggling with memory and energy in their 50s. 



This aging discrepancy raises a basic question: Is there a way to actually measure how fast someone is aging?



Scientists from <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>, Harvard University, and the University of Otago in New Zealand have created a tool that uses a single brain scan to estimate how quickly your body and mind are aging. And it does this while you’re still in midlife, before major health problems show up.



“The way we age as we get older is quite distinct from how many times we’ve traveled around the sun,” said Ahmad Hariri, professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-clues-hidden-in-a-single-scan">Aging clues hidden in a single scan</h2>



The new tool, called DunedinPACE Neuroimaging or DunedinPACNI, can be used with a standard MRI brain scan. It gives doctors and researchers a read on your aging pace and potential risk for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-focused-medicine-physical-activity-reduces-chronic-disease-risk/">chronic diseases</a> long before symptoms appear. 



This kind of early warning system could give people a chance to make changes that might actually slow or prevent serious health problems.



“What’s really cool about this is that we’ve captured how fast people are aging using data collected in midlife,” Hariri said. “And it’s helping us predict diagnosis of dementia among people who are much older.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-most-aging-clocks-get-it-wrong">Why most aging clocks get it wrong</h2>



Many "aging clocks" already exist, but they mostly rely on things like blood tests or genetic markers collected from people of various ages at one point in time. That approach can be misleading.



According to Hariri, things that look like faster aging may simply be because of differences in exposure to things such as leaded gasoline or cigarette smoke that are specific to their generation. "We need to figure out how we can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-technology-uses-eye-scanner-to-measure-biological-aging/">monitor aging</a> in an accurate way."



The new model avoids that problem by using data from a rare and detailed dataset: the Dunedin Study. This long-term project has followed more than 1,000 people born in Dunedin, New Zealand, between 1972 and 1973. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-scans-predict-rates-of-aging">Brain scans predict rates of aging</h2>



Researchers have been tracking the participants' physical and mental health for over 50 years. Every few years, the study measured things like blood pressure, cholesterol, glucose, body mass index, kidney and lung function - even gum health. 



By analyzing how these markers changed over time, the researchers created a personalized aging rate for each participant.



The team trained DunedinPACNI to predict that rate of aging based only on brain scans taken when the participants were 45. Once the model was trained, it was tested on other datasets from the U.S., U.K., Canada, and Latin America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-your-brain-keeps-the-score">Your brain keeps the score</h2>



The results held up across different groups. People who were aging faster, according to the tool, performed worse on cognitive tests, experienced faster shrinkage of the hippocampus - the brain’s memory center - and faced a higher risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-pattern-wfd-that-is-a-clear-indication-a-person-is-in-cognitive-decline/">cognitive decline</a>.



In one sample of 624 older adults, those who were aging the fastest had a 60% higher chance of developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-dementia-is-much-higher-than-previously-thought/">dementia</a> and started showing symptoms earlier than their slower-aging peers.



When the team first saw the results, they were amazed. "Our jaws just dropped to the floor,” Hariri said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-the-brain">More than just the brain</h2>



The tool also revealed a strong link between brain aging and overall physical decline. People with high aging scores were more likely to suffer from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sugary-drinks-linked-to-millions-of-diabetes-and-heart-disease-cases/">heart disease</a>, lung issues, strokes, and other chronic illnesses. 



These individuals were 18% more likely to be diagnosed with a major disease and 40% more likely to die in the next few years compared with people aging at an average pace.



“The link between aging of the brain and body are pretty compelling,” Hariri said.



The model worked just as well across different racial and socioeconomic groups, including low-income and non-white participants in the U.K. and people in Latin America. "It seems to be capturing something that is reflected in all brains,” Hariri said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-populations-growing-problems">Aging populations, growing problems</h2>



Globally, the number of people over 65 is expected to double by 2050. That means more people will deal with diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-benefits-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s</a>, which already cost the world $1.33 trillion in 2020 and could climb to $9.12 trillion by mid-century.



“But because we live longer lives, more people are unfortunately going to experience chronic age-related diseases, including dementia,” Hariri said.



Current Alzheimer’s drugs don’t stop or reverse the disease - they mostly manage symptoms. One reason they may not work well is that they’re given too late. "Drugs can't resurrect a dying brain,” Hariri said.



That’s where a tool like DunedinPACNI could change things. If doctors can spot who’s at higher risk earlier, they could try new treatments while there’s still time to protect the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scans-may-identify-causes-of-faster-aging">Scans may identify causes of faster aging</h2>



Besides tracking dementia risk, the tool could help explain why certain factors - like poor sleep or mental health problems - seem to make people age faster.



“We really think of it as hopefully being a key new tool in forecasting and predicting risk for diseases, especially Alzheimer's and related dementias, and also perhaps gaining a better foothold on progression of disease,” Hariri said.



“More research is needed to advance DunedinPACNI from a research tool to something that has practical applications in healthcare,” said Ethan Whitman, a Ph.D. student in clinical psychology at Duke and the study’s first author.



In the meantime, the researchers hope others will use the tool in studies that already have brain scan data but lack long-term health tracking. It could open a new window into how we age - and how we might slow the process down.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-025-00897-z">Nature Aging</a>.



Image Credit: Ethan Whitman, Duke University



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How fast are you aging? Brain scans reveal hidden clues

Aging doesn’t look the same for everyone. Most people know...

Tropical trees are dying at faster rates than ever before. While deforestation continues to be a major issue, even untouched forests are seeing increased rates of tree death. 



Scientists have long pointed to drought, extreme heat, and wildfires as key contributing factors to tropical tree mortality. But now, they are highlighting another powerful and often-overlooked force: thunderstorms.



Unlike the more familiar hurricanes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-bomb-cyclones-increasing-due-to-climate-change/">cyclones</a>, these storms are short but intense. Their high winds and lightning can be devastating to trees.



According to a recent study from researchers at the <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies</a>, these storms are becoming more frequent due to climate change - and they’re causing serious harm to tropical forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-climate-cost-of-tropical-tree-death">The climate cost of tropical tree death</h2>



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-climate-change/">Tropical forests</a> have massive effects on global climate. They're like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/">lungs of the Earth</a>, and we're seeing trees in them dying at higher rates than in the past, and the composition of forests is changing, too,” said Evan Gora, a forest ecologist at&nbsp;Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies. 



“That could be really problematic for the future of not just tropical forests, but for the planet.”



While storms might seem like fleeting events, their impact on tropical forests can be lasting. These powerful bursts of wind and lightning can injure or topple even the largest trees, disrupting forest structure and biodiversity in seconds.



“Being in the forest during a tropical storm is unforgettable,” said study co-author Vanessa Rubio. “As the storm quickly builds, the sky darkens, humidity changes drastically, and strong winds shake the trees. 



"Then, thunder and lightning come. Leaves and branches fall to the ground, rain pours down, and your instinct is to get back to the field station as quickly as possible.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-silent-driver-of-tree-death">A silent driver of tree death</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thunderstorms-are-becoming-more-intense-due-to-climate-change/">Thunderstorms</a> haven’t been given the same attention as other climate-related threats. But that’s starting to change. The team re-examined data from earlier studies on tropical tree death and forest carbon levels. They found that storms are just as significant - if not more so - than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-crisis-un-warns-of-unprecedented-emergency/">drought</a> or heat.



“We were surprised to find that storms may be the largest single factor causing tree death in these forests, and they’re largely overlooked by research into carbon storage in the tropics,” said Gora. 



“Our estimates suggest that storms are responsible for 30 to 60% of tree mortality in the past, and that number must be increasing as storm activity increases by 5 to 25% each decade.”



When the researchers added storms to the largest plot-based study on tropical forest carbon, the picture changed dramatically. The previous data showed a sharp drop in carbon when temperatures rose above a certain point. But adding storms made that link disappear.



“But when you add storms, that relationship goes away,” Gora said. “It basically shows that you have to include storms, or you might not get the answers right.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-double-trouble-for-tropical-trees">Double trouble for tropical trees</h2>



The team found that storms and drought often hit the same forests. The southern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-show-amazon-rainfall-is-getting-more-extreme/">Amazon</a>, for instance, experiences both frequent storms and severe water stress. These combined threats are reshaping the region’s ecology.



“During my studies on threats to tropical forests, my professors, our textbooks, and even overall climate policy never mentioned small, convective storms as a potential source of forest mortality,” said study co-author Ian McGregor.



“I don't remember seeing them in global climate models used to inform climate policy. Given our findings, however, it's clear we need a more thorough understanding of these storms to have more accurate climate models, and thus more effective policy,” he added.



So why have storms flown under the radar until now? Part of the reason is that heat and drought are easier to measure. Tools like weather stations and long-term satellite tracking make it simpler to monitor those threats. 



But storms are different. They strike quickly and cause scattered damage. Satellites often miss the evidence of tropical tree deaths, and it’s nearly impossible for researchers to check vast forests manually after every storm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-trees-from-sky-to-soil">Tracking trees from sky to soil</h2>



To address these challenges, the team launched the Gigante project, co-led by the University of Birmingham. It uses a combination of lightning-tracking systems, drones, and field experts to monitor large areas of tropical forest. 



This enables scientists to pinpoint the location and extent of tree death, when the damage occurs, and which species are most at risk.



“If we make decisions about which species to plant or conserve based on an incorrect understanding of what's actually killing these trees and which species are most vulnerable, those forests won’t reach their full potential,” said Gora. 



Mature trees are especially vulnerable to storm damage. Without clearer insight, we might not realize our reforestation choices were flawed until decades later.



“However, if we can build a more holistic picture of what’s driving forest change, we can be a lot more confident in guiding forest management practices for long-term sustainability," noted Gora.



Understanding why tropical trees are dying isn’t just a scientific concern - it’s a climate priority with global consequences.



The study is to be <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/news-insights/press-release/thunderstorms-are-major-driver-tree-death-tropical-forests">published</a> in a perspective article in the journal Ecology Letters.



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Tropical tree deaths are increasing, even in untouched forests

Tropical trees are dying at faster rates than ever before....

Fire has licked the planet’s surface for more than 400 million years, scorching forests, clearing grasslands, and lofting smoke into the upper air. Yet pinning down when people stopped fearing flames and started steering them has been surprisingly hard.



A fresh <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2500042122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of a 300,000‑year‑old sediment core pulled from the East China Sea finds a sharp surge in soot about 50,000 years ago, a signal that stands apart from normal climate‑driven wildfire patterns.



The work, led by Dr. Zhao Debo at the <a href="http://english.qdio.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Oceanology</a>, Chinese Academy of Sciences, together with partners in Germany and France, strings together chemical, archaeological, and climate evidence into one timeline.



“Our findings challenge the widely held belief that humans only began influencing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ideas-traveled-farther-than-people-in-the-early-days-of-farming/">environment</a> with fire in the recent past, during the Holocene,” said Dr. Zhao Debo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-humans-began-using-fire">When humans began using fire</h2>



Researchers tracked <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01343-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyrogenic carbon</a>, the charred plant residue left when biomass burns incompletely, because rivers flush those tiny black flecks into coastal mud where they store a record of past fires.



Between 60,000 and 45,000 years ago that charcoal fraction doubled, then stayed high. The jump broke its long connection to East Asian monsoon strength, showing that weather alone could not explain the flames.



Parallel charcoal peaks in Europe, Southeast Asia, and the Papua New Guinea–Australia corridor line up with the same window, pointing to a continent‑scale shift rather than scattered lightning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birth-of-farming-driven-by-humans/">strikes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-use-spreads-across-continents">Fire use spreads across continents</h2>



Archaeological <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/more-45000-years-ago-modern-humans-ventured-neanderthal-territory-here-s-what-happened" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hearths</a> from Bulgaria’s <a href="https://visitbulgaria.com/bacho-kiro-cave/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bacho Kiro Cave</a> to northern Australia’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Madjedbebe" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Madjebebe</a> site cluster inside the same interval, confirming that <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/more-45000-years-ago-modern-humans-ventured-neanderthal-territory-here-s-what-happened" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">campfires</a> had become routine parts of daily life.



Genetic <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09154-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> trace almost all non‑African ancestry to a single successful wave of Homo sapiens that left Africa about 50,000 years ago, matching the charcoal timeline.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/humans_fire_early-homo-sapiens_map-sites_credit-IOCAS_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/humans_fire_early-homo-sapiens_map-sites_credit-IOCAS_1s.webp" alt="Fire history of Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea–Australia and age distribution of archaeological sites since the last 300,000 years. Credit: IOCAS" class="wp-image-1976185"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fire history of Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea–Australia and age distribution of archaeological sites since the last 300,000 years. Click image to enlarge. Credit: IOCAS</figcaption></figure>



While earlier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-ancient-plant-farming-found-in-east-africa/">humans</a> played with sparks, evidence for habitual fire stretches back at least 250,000 years in Europe, those earlier experiments were local and intermittent. The new record shows the first moment when fire use scales with population growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-cold-nights-and-campfires">Migration, cold nights, and campfires</h2>



The out‑of‑Africa travelers trekked into ice‑age Eurasia where nights dipped well below freezing. Fire kept predators away, cooked meat, dried hides, and allowed late‑night tool making.



“Even during the Last Glaciation, the use of fire had probably started to reshape ecosystems and carbon fluxes,” added <a href="http://english.qdio.cas.cn/people/jzg/202208/t20220803_310174.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Wan Shiming</a>, a co‑author on the study.



Controlled flame also opened new food groups. Roasting tubers breaks down starches, and heated stone cracks to yield sharper blades, advantages that likely boosted survival odds for the migrants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burning-added-carbon-to-land-and-ocean">Burning added carbon to land and ocean</h2>



Modern wildfires already release between 116 and 385 teragrams of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-10455-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyrogenic carbon</a> to land and sea each year, a sizable slice of the global carbon ledger. 



When ancient people started burning wood on purpose, they nudged that ledger long before industrial smokestacks appeared.



Charcoal is stable. Some pieces survive for millennia in soils, some drift as <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2305030121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dissolved black carbon</a> into the deep ocean where currents can store it for thousands of years. 



By pushing extra charcoal into these sinks, early fire managers may have offset part of the carbon dioxide they released.



Climate models that begin counting human impacts only with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cave-discovery-of-ancient-avocados-could-rescue-a-global-crop/">farming</a> or factories might therefore miss a slow, earlier perturbation that started when nightly campfires became normal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-human-fire-use-shaped-climate">Early human fire use shaped climate</h2>



The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212682112000261" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East China Sea</a> record shows that environmental influence is not a recent human monopoly. Small groups with stone tools and wooden spears were already altering regional fire regimes and, in turn, the carbon cycle.



That insight reframes today’s policy debates. If early people changed atmospheric chemistry with nothing but sticks and sparks, eight billion of us wielding fossil fuels carry far more leverage, and responsibility, than any ancestral hunter‑gatherer could imagine.



Fire management still shapes global climate in modern times. Prescribed burns reduce fuel loads but also emit smoke; savanna fires in Africa and Australia pulse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-greenhouse-gas-detecting-satellite-is-now-in-orbit/">greenhouse gases</a> each dry season; boreal megafires now send record carbon plumes aloft. 



Understanding the deep history of intentional burning helps calibrate those modern choices. Fifty thousand years later we still gather around flames, but the scale has ballooned from glowing embers to global power grids.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2500042122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Early humans learned to use and control fire much sooner than previously believed

Fire has licked the planet’s surface for more than 400 million...

The world’s seas have long acted as a planetary safety net, soaking up excess heat and roughly a quarter of all human-generated carbon dioxide. 



Yet this crucial buffer is anything but uniform. Some waters capture carbon, others release it, and the balance can swing in a matter of days.



Until now, most global maps blurred those variations into month-long snapshots at coarse, 100-kilometer grids. 



A new satellite-driven product called <a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/13/777/2021/">OceanSODA-ETHZ</a> changes that picture, offering eight-day updates at 25-kilometer resolution and revealing the ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-carbon-sinks-are-being-pushed-to-their-limits/">carbon sink</a> in unprecedented detail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-fill-ocean-carbon-gaps">Satellites fill ocean carbon gaps</h2>



Direct readings of surface-water CO2 come from ships and buoys, leaving vast gaps in space and time.



“Increasing the resolution of these global datasets is challenging because the number of direct measurements of carbon dioxide at the ocean’s surface is rather sparse across all regions and times,” explained project co-leader Nicolas Gruber of ETH Zurich.



To fill those gaps, Gruber’s team paired the in situ data with a suite of Earth-observation satellites that sense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-substantially-changing-the-seasons-of-the-ocean/">sea-surface temperature</a>, color, wind, and more - variables tightly linked to how much CO2 water can hold.



Feeding that information into a cascade of machine-learning algorithms produced a fine-grained, eight-day global mosaic.



“This new version maps the parameters of the ocean carbon system every eight days at a resolution of about 25 by 25 kilometers, more than 30 times finer than previous products,” Gruber said.



“A critical part of the approach is the use of satellite data, which provides detailed information to interpolate the measurements in time and space.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-track-ocean-carbon-changes">Satellites track ocean carbon changes</h2>



Presented this week at <a href="https://lps25.esa.int/">ESA’s Living Planet Symposium</a>, the dataset already highlights dramatic short-term swings. 



An animation released by the team tracks the 2017 Atlantic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hurricanes-help-oceans-fight-climate-change/">hurricane</a> season, when storms such as Maria and Irma churned deep, carbon-rich waters to the surface.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/cEUvoY8krHM?si=cX1giVtLnycyFKqr
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Animation generated using the new OceanSODA-ETHZv2 product by Luke Gregor, Jamie Shutler and Nicolas Gruber</figcaption></figure>



In the visualization, red plumes - areas where the sea outgasses CO2 - flare beneath the swirling wind arrows, then fade as cooler, oxygen-laden surface layers return.



Jamie Shutler from the University of Exeter, while not involved in developing the product, is already using it for storm studies.



“Thanks to its fine detail, the dataset can help us separate and understand the influence of events like hurricanes - where deep water, often high in carbon, can be forced to rise to the surface - which can cause sudden spikes or changes in surface ocean carbon dioxide levels,” said Shutler.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-ocean-acidification">A new view of ocean acidification</h2>



Every molecule of CO2 that the ocean absorbs reacts with seawater, lowering pH and shifting carbonate chemistry in ways that erode coral skeletons, thin oyster shells, and alter plankton communities.



Until now, researchers tracking this “other CO2 problem” relied on sparse records or coarse climatologies. 



OceanSODA-ETHZ delivers near-real-time fields of surface pH and carbonate ions, letting scientists watch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-acidification-is-spreading-into-deeper-waters/">acidification</a> pulses unfold as upwelling, rainfall, or melting sea ice change local chemistry.



Because the product also extends back to 1985, analysts can mine four decades of fine-scale variability to see where buffers are weakening and hotspots are emerging. 



Those insights can feed into fisheries management, coastal planning, and global carbon-budget assessments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-esa-powers-new-ocean-maps">ESA powers new ocean maps</h2>



The dataset is the latest deliverable from <a href="https://eo4society.esa.int/">ESA’s FutureEO “Science for Society” program</a>, which funds innovative uses of satellite records.



“The fact that we can use this method to gain new insights into the exchange of carbon dioxide between the ocean and atmosphere - and on the ocean acidification altogether - is a great step forward in ocean science,” said Roberto Sabia, an ocean scientist at <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth">ESA Earth-Observation</a>. 



Gruber and colleagues emphasize that OceanSODA-ETHZ is not a static atlas but a living product that can assimilate new ship measurements and leverage upcoming satellite missions.



Higher-resolution sensors such as <a href="https://pace.gsfc.nasa.gov/">NASA’s PACE</a> and <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Copernicus/Copernicus_Sentinel_Expansion_missions">ESA’s Copernicus Expansion</a> promise even clearer views of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/">plankton</a> blooms, sea-surface roughness, and dissolved organic matter - all factors that modulate carbon exchange.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forecasts-of-regional-carbon-uptake">Forecasts of regional carbon uptake</h2>



Ultimately, the goal is to couple these detailed maps with ocean-atmosphere models, yielding short-term forecasts of regional carbon uptake akin to daily weather predictions.



Such tools could alert coastal managers when acidification thresholds are likely to be breached or help negotiators refine national emissions budgets by tracking natural carbon sinks more precisely.



For now, the new product already reshapes our understanding of the ocean’s role in moderating climate. 



Where earlier charts smoothed over crucial dynamics, OceanSODA-ETHZ reveals a living, breathing carbon landscape - one where swirling eddies, roaring storms, and shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-ocean-currents-play-a-huge-role-in-earths-climate/">currents</a> all leave their stamp on the planet’s most important carbon reservoir.



Image Credit: ESA



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Satellites reveal how oceans absorb carbon in unprecedented detail

The world’s seas have long acted as a planetary safety...

The James Webb Space Telescope has delivered the clearest, deepest images yet of the Bullet Cluster, unveiling thousands of faint, distant galaxies and offering the most precise map of dark matter in this iconic colliding galaxy cluster.



“With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-galaxies-revealed-in-a-single-webb-image/">Webb</a>’s observations, we carefully measured the mass of the Bullet Cluster with the largest lensing dataset to date, from the galaxy clusters’ cores all the way out to their outskirts,” said lead author Sangjun Cha, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.yonsei.ac.kr/en_sc/index.do">Yonsei University</a> in Seoul. 



Previous studies relied on less lensing data, leading to less precise estimates of the system’s mass.



“Webb’s images dramatically improve what we can measure in this scene -&nbsp; including pinpointing the position of invisible particles known as dark matter,” said co-author Kyle Finner, an assistant scientist at <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/">Caltech</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-light-shows-the-dark">How light shows the dark</h2>



The Bullet Cluster is made of two massive galaxy clusters bound by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desi-gravity-study-new-discovery-proves-einstein-right-again/">gravity</a>. It acts as a natural gravitational lens that magnifies background galaxies.



James Jee, a professor at Yonsei University and research associate at UC Davis, is a co-author of the study. “Gravitational lensing allows us to infer the distribution of dark matter,” he said.



To visualize this effect, Jee compares it to ripples on a pond. You can't see the clear water unless there are ripples that distort the shapes of the pebbles below - just as dark matter distorts the light from galaxies behind it.



By measuring thousands of galaxies, the scientists used Webb’s images to weigh visible and invisible mass in the cluster. 



The team also mapped the faint glow of intracluster stars - those not bound to any single galaxy. These drifting stars may closely trace dark matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-dark-matter-reveal">Webb’s dark matter reveal</h2>



Webb’s observations produced a layered view, combining near-infrared data with X-ray imagery from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/chandra-x-ray-observatory/">NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory</a>, revealing hot gas in pink, the bullet shape in the cluster, and the newly refined dark matter distribution in blue.



“We confirmed the intracluster light can be a reliable tracer of dark matter, even in a highly dynamic environment like the Bullet Cluster,” Cha said. 



This strengthens the case that these unbound stars closely trace dark matter’s invisible scaffolding.



The new map reveals detailed structure, including an asymmetric mass region on the left side of the larger cluster. This feature indicates prior collisions that have left behind signatures in the distribution of matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-nature-of-dark-matter">Mysterious nature of dark matter </h2>



Dark matter does not emit, reflect, or absorb light, making it notoriously difficult to study. Yet the Bullet Cluster offers a rare laboratory, showing dark matter separated from hot gas during a cosmic collision while still aligning with the galaxies.



“As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/titanic-galaxy-cluster-collision-defies-all-current-understanding-of-the-universe/">galaxy clusters</a> collided, their gas was dragged out and left behind, which the X-rays confirm,” Finner explained. “Webb’s observations show that dark matter still lines up with the galaxies - and was not dragged away.”



The results set tighter constraints on the possibility of dark matter particles interacting with each other. They support theories that dark matter passes through itself without friction, consistent with its mysterious and ghostly nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-a-chaotic-past"><a></a>Clues to a chaotic past</h2>



The elongated mass and clumps in the new map hint at a more complex history for the Bullet Cluster, suggesting multiple collisions over billions of years.



“A more complicated scenario would lead to a huge asymmetric elongation like we see on the left,” Jee said.



The Bullet Cluster, located in the Carina <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-jupiter-discovered-in-the-great-bear-constellation/">constellation</a> 3.8 billion light-years from Earth, is so massive that even Webb’s powerful NIRCam could only capture part of it.



“It’s like looking at the head of a giant,” Jee explained. “Webb’s initial images allow us to extrapolate how heavy the whole 'giant' is, but we’ll need future observations of the giant’s whole 'body' for precise measurements.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-missions-deeper-maps">Future missions, deeper maps</h2>



NASA’s upcoming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-roman-space-telescope-hopes-to-solve-the-dark-matter-mystery/">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a>, launching by May 2027, will complement Webb’s discoveries with wide-field near-infrared imaging. 



The Roman telescope will enable complete mass estimates of the Bullet Cluster and allow scientists to simulate its ancient collision in detail.



“With Roman, we will have complete mass estimates of the entire Bullet Cluster, which would allow us to recreate the actual collision on computers,” Finner said.



Through these detailed observations, Webb is enriching our understanding of dark matter. It’s also advancing knowledge of how massive structures form and evolve, offering a clearer view of the hidden forces shaping the cosmos.



The study is published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/add2f0">Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, CXC



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Webb telescope uncovers secrets of dark matter in cosmic collision zone

The James Webb Space Telescope has delivered the clearest, deepest...

Coffee is prized for its taste and mental boost. A new study shows that caffeine may also fine‑tune the internal clock that makes cells grow old.



Researchers observed that yeast aged more slowly when caffeine altered the same energy pathways that help human cells <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/">survive</a> under stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-slows-aging-in-yeast-cells">Caffeine slows aging in yeast cells</h2>



Dr. Charalampos (Babis) Rallis of <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a> focused on the yeast species Schizosaccharomyces pombe because its DNA repair and growth controls echo our own. 



The team logged changes in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9139625/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronological lifespan</a>, the length of time that non‑dividing cells stay viable, then mapped the molecular traffic that caffeine set in motion.



“This is our most exciting find to date,” said Dr. Rallis. The results point to a fuel‑sensing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-aging-how-some-people-live-past-100-years/">pathway</a> that kicks in when nutrients dip, mirroring how people burn stored energy between meals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yeast-helps-us-understand-aging">Yeast helps us understand aging</h2>



Fission yeast may seem worlds apart from humans, but it shares many core <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4772020/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulatory pathways</a> found in our cells. Systems like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2779044/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMPK</a> and <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3241408/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TOR</a> have been conserved over hundreds of millions of years because they work so well.



This makes yeast an ideal testing ground for decoding how compounds like caffeine affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-experimenting-with-new-approach-to-fight-and-stop-human-aging-necrosis/">lifespan</a> and stress response. What happens in a petri dish often sparks questions that ripple out to animal models and eventually to people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-caffeine-may-slow-aging">How caffeine may slow aging</h2>



The key player is AMPK, an enzyme that "notices" when the cell’s ATP (energy) balance tilts toward empty and then shifts metabolism to survival mode. 



“Caffeine helps flip that switch,” said <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=913OCBIAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. John‑Patrick Alao</a>, the postdoctoral scientist who ran the experiments.



Earlier <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23551936/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> suggested caffeine blocked <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23551936/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TOR</a>, a growth promoter, but new data reveal the compound reaches TOR indirectly by first waking up AMPK. 



Cells then slow growth, patch damaged DNA, and boost antioxidant defenses, the very responses that lengthen life in many lab organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-and-metformin-use-same-pathway">Caffeine and metformin use same pathway</h2>



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6779524/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Metformin</a>, the common diabetes drug, also charges AMPK and is being tested as a geroprotector in humans. The overlap hints that coffee’s benefits may parallel those seen in metformin cohorts, though dosage and metabolism differ widely.



Both agents dial back inflammation, clear out faulty proteins through autophagy, and keep insulin signaling from running too hot. 



If future trials confirm safety, researchers may combine low‑dose caffeine with metformin analogs to see whether their effects stack without side effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-helps-manage-cell-stress">Caffeine helps manage cell stress</h2>



The AMPK pathway doesn’t just manage fuel, it also guides how cells respond to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/medgen/222489" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genotoxic stress</a>, such as radiation or chemicals that harm DNA. 



The yeast data showed caffeine increased sensitivity to DNA damage in some mutants, revealing AMPK's role in damage response.



This dual role, energy control and DNA repair, suggests that caffeine tunes both survival and quality control systems. 



It’s part of a wider stress adaptation strategy that has been conserved across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/">evolution</a>, and is now offering new angles for anti-aging research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-people-who-drink-coffee-may-live-longer">People who drink coffee may live longer</h2>



Observational work involving hundreds of thousands of adults links two to four cups of coffee daily with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31055709/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lower all‑cause mortality</a>. 



Separate <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34468722/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analyses</a> in Asian populations find similar protection against heart disease and several cancers.



Because these studies track behavior, not biology, confounding factors like diet, exercise, and income can cloud cause and effect. 



The yeast data now give those population numbers a plausible mechanism anchored in cell chemistry, without the noise of other factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-caffeine-and-aging">Future research on caffeine and aging</h2>



Yeast tolerate caffeine levels far above a latte, so dose matters when translating findings to people. 



Human AMPK is embedded in tissues that react differently, so benefits in muscle may come at a cost elsewhere if DNA repair stalls during caffeine peaks.



High caffeine can raise blood pressure, trigger anxiety, and interfere with sleep - processes that can speed cell aging if left unchecked. 



Clinical trials that track AMPK activation, cardiovascular markers, and cognitive scores together will be needed before doctors advise specific amounts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-diet-and-exercise">The role of diet and exercise </h2>



Exercise is one of the most well-known ways to activate AMPK in humans. When muscles burn through energy during physical activity, this pathway turns on to help cells adapt and recover.



Certain foods, including those high in polyphenols like berries and green tea, may also give AMPK a nudge. 



Understanding how diet and lifestyle naturally influence this system could lead to everyday habits that support healthy aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-healthy-lifestyle-matters">A healthy lifestyle matters</h2>



For now, moderate coffee remains a safe pleasure that lines up with epidemiology and basic science. Sleepless nights and energy drinks loaded with sugar still pose risks that no enzyme tweak can erase.



Nutrient‑sensing pathways such as AMPK give researchers a roadmap for therapies, yet lifestyle, steady sleep, balanced diet, and movement, keep the road free of potholes. 



The next wave of studies may explore caffeine analogs that lock onto AMPK with precision, separating the perks from the jitters.



The study is published in <a href="https://microbialcell.com/researcharticles/2025a-alao-microbial-cell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microbial Cell</a>.



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Scientists learn that caffeine could slow cellular aging under the right conditions

Coffee is prized for its taste and mental boost. A...

Hidden inside the chests of nearly 700 Toronto residents, doctors have spotted the faint fingerprints of air pollution.



Using one of medicine’s most sensitive tools - cardiac magnetic resonance imaging - researchers have shown that long-term exposure to fine particulate matter, or PM2.5, is linked to subtle scarring of the heart muscle, known as diffuse myocardial fibrosis.



The finding helps explain why people who live with polluted air face a greater risk of heart failure, heart attacks, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-patients-have-a-unique-vulnerability-to-air-pollution/">cardiovascular problems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-pollutant-big-damage">Tiny pollutant, big damage</h2>



PM2.5 refers to particles less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter, small enough to bypass the lungs’ natural filtering defenses and pass directly into the bloodstream.



Traffic exhaust, coal-fired power plants, industrial smokestacks, and even wildfire smoke all contribute to PM2.5 pollution.



While previous studies have repeatedly shown correlations between high PM2.5 levels and cardiovascular disease, the biological chain of events connecting the two remained hazy.



Kate Hanneman, a cardiothoracic radiologist at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/">University of Toronto</a> and the <a href="https://www.uhn.ca/">University Health Network</a>, is the senior author of the study.



“If you’re exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-map-reveals-health-threats-from-tiny-particles/">air pollution</a>, you’re at higher risk of cardiac disease, including having a heart attack,” she said. “We wanted to understand what drives this increased risk at the tissue level.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heart-scans-uncover-pollution-s-toll">Heart scans uncover pollution’s toll</h2>



Hanneman’s team recruited 201 healthy volunteers and 493 patients diagnosed with dilated cardiomyopathy, a condition that weakens the heart’s pumping ability.



Each participant underwent a sophisticated MRI scan that measures how strongly the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-muscles-may-soon-be-able-to-regenerate-like-other-muscles/">heart muscle</a> holds onto a contrast dye. From that signal, physicians can calculate the degree of microscopic scarring that standard tests would otherwise miss.



The researchers then used satellite data, government air-quality monitors, and residential histories to estimate a decade’s worth of PM2.5 exposure for every participant. 



Even within the relatively modest pollution levels found in Canadian cities, a clear pattern emerged. Higher long-term exposure to PM2.5 was linked with higher levels of myocardial fibrosis. 



Particulate pollution may harm hearts even without pre-existing disease, affecting both cardiomyopathy patients and healthy individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-hits-harder-for-some">Pollution hits harder for some</h2>



A deeper dive into the numbers revealed that some groups bear a disproportionate burden. Women showed a stronger pollution-fibrosis relationship than men. Smokers and people with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-minimum-amount-of-physical-activity-needed-to-prevent-high-blood-pressure/">hypertension</a> also displayed heightened sensitivity. 



Those findings suggest that physiological or lifestyle factors can amplify the heart’s vulnerability to polluted air.



“Even modest increases in air pollution levels appear to have measurable effects on the heart,” Hanneman said.



“Our study suggests that air quality may play a significant role in changes to heart structure, potentially setting the stage for future cardiovascular disease.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-below-the-regulatory-radar"><a></a>Below the regulatory radar</h2>



One of the study’s most striking conclusions is that harmful changes occur well below many national and international air-quality standards. 



Most of the Toronto cohort lived in neighborhoods that meet Canadian and World Health Organization guidelines. Yet the researchers still saw progressive scarring as pollution levels rose incrementally.



Public health policy often hinges on the idea of a safe threshold, but these results challenge that assumption.



“There have been improvements in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-are-changing-the-quality-of-our-air/">air quality</a> over the past decade, both in Canada and the United States, but we still have a long way to go,” Hanneman said.



She argues for more stringent regulations, better monitoring, and meaningful reductions in emissions from transportation, industry, and wildfire-prone landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-seen-through-mri">Pollution seen through MRI</h2>



The work also expands the role of medical imaging beyond traditional diagnostics. “Medical imaging can be used as a tool to understand environmental effects on a patient’s health,” Hanneman explained.



By identifying and quantifying early tissue changes caused by pollution, imaging specialists can collaborate with cardiologists, epidemiologists, and public health officials to refine risk prediction and guide interventions.



For clinicians, the practical takeaway is that environmental history belongs in the exam room. 



If a patient commutes along congested highways, works at an industrial facility, or lives downwind of frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-wildfire-smoke-more-deadly/">wildfires</a>, physicians may want to factor that exposure into cardiovascular risk assessments. 



These environmental risks could be considered alongside established factors like smoking or hypertension.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-long-term-heart-damage">Tracking long-term heart damage</h2>



The Toronto team plans to follow its volunteers over time to see whether diffuse fibrosis translates into overt heart disease and whether reducing pollution exposure can halt or reverse the damage. 



The experts also hope to replicate the study in regions with higher PM2.5 levels to test whether the relationship strengthens under harsher conditions.



Meanwhile, policymakers can draw a clear lesson: cutting particulate pollution yields not only cleaner skies but healthier hearts. Every gram of soot kept out of the atmosphere is a gram of microscopic scarring averted in the population’s cardiac muscle.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/10.1148/radiol.250331">Radiology</a>.



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Air pollution may quietly scar your heart

Hidden inside the chests of nearly 700 Toronto residents, doctors...

If you’ve ever blamed a slice of pizza or a bowl of ice cream for a restless night of sleep, you’re not alone - and you might be onto something. 



A new survey of more than 1,000 Canadian college students links certain food sensitivities, especially lactose intolerance, to poorer sleep and a spike in unsettling dreams.



“Nightmare severity is robustly associated with lactose intolerance and other food allergies,” said lead author Tore Nielsen from the <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca/en/">University of Montréal</a>. 



“These new findings imply that changing eating habits for people with some food sensitivities could alleviate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nightmares-daymares-hallucinations-may-be-early-warning-signs-serious-disease/">nightmares</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-diet-and-dreams">Tracking diet and dreams</h2>



Folk wisdom has long insisted that a heavy meal - or the wrong one - can wreck a good night’s rest. But solid data has been thin.



To dig deeper, Nielsen’s team surveyed 1,082 students at <a href="https://www.macewan.ca/home/">MacEwan University</a> in Edmonton. They asked about eating, bedtime and wake-up routines, overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/">sleep quality</a>, dream recall, and how often respondents suffered nightmares. 



Next, the researchers zeroed in on eating patterns, known food allergies or intolerances, and any personal hunch that certain foods affect dreams.



Roughly one-third of participants reported frequent nightmares. Women were more likely than men to remember their dreams and to say they slept poorly. They also reported food intolerances almost twice as often.



About 40 percent of all students felt that late-night eating or specific ingredients influenced their sleep, while roughly 25 percent believed certain foods made their nights specifically worse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dairy-blamed-for-sleep-loss">Dairy blamed for sleep loss</h2>



Among those who pinned their sleep woes on food, sweets, spicy dishes, and dairy products topped the list of potential villains. 



Yet the most consistent pattern emerged when researchers compared diagnosed food sensitivities to nightmare frequency. 



Students who were lactose intolerant had more gastrointestinal discomfort at night, recalled more nightmares, and rated their sleep quality as poorer.



“Nightmares are worse for lactose-intolerant people who suffer severe gastrointestinal symptoms and whose sleep is disrupted,” Nielsen noted. “This makes sense, because we know that other bodily sensations can affect dreaming.”



The logic is straightforward. If undigested lactose creates gas and cramping, that discomfort can seep into the dreaming brain, morphing into threatening imagery and prompting abrupt awakenings.



Repeated interruptions prevent sleepers from cycling into the deeper, restorative stages of rest - and can reinforce a vicious loop of dread and disturbed sleep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distress-signals-in-the-brain">Distress signals in the brain</h2>



Only about 5 percent of students believed specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-more-fruits-and-vegetables-will-help-you-get-better-sleep/">foods</a> colored the tone of their dreams, but those few often put the blame on dairy or sugary treats.



Interestingly, a similar survey Nielsen ran 11 years ago found a larger share of students convinced that food shapes dreams. 



The drop-off might reflect growing public awareness of food allergies. For example, people who know milk upsets their stomachs may simply avoid it at night, dulling any obvious link.



Still, the new results echo a broader scientific push to understand the “gut-brain axis,” the two-way communication network that lets digestive distress influence mood, cognition, and, apparently, dreamscapes. 



Even modest belly rumblings can send distress signals northward, nudging the brain to script darker stories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-food-really-shape-dreams">Can food really shape dreams?</h2>



Of course, correlation doesn’t prove cause. People who eat poorly may sleep poorly - but chronic sleep loss can also drive cravings for comfort foods. Stress, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resistance-exercise-in-the-evening-can-improve-sleep/">exercise</a>, and genetics muddy the waters further.



Nielsen calls for controlled trials: volunteers would eat dairy or placebo snacks before bed while researchers monitor gut activity, brain waves, and dream reports.



“We are routinely asked whether food affects dreaming - especially by journalists on food-centric holidays,” Nielsen said. “Now we have some answers.”



Yet big questions linger. Do other intolerances, like gluten sensitivity, twist dream content? Are the effects different in older adults or in kids? And how does mental health, which can influence both diet and dreaming, intertwine with these findings?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eat-early-to-stop-nightmares">Eat early to stop nightmares</h2>



While science sorts out the details, the advice is common-sense: if you know milk or cheese bothers you, avoid it late in the evening, especially if nightmares plague you. 



For anyone prone to indigestion at bedtime, lighter, earlier dinners and a pause on sugary or spicy snacks can’t hurt.



More broadly, the study nudges sleep hygiene beyond blue-light screens and blackout curtains to include what (and when) we eat. Our digestive tract doesn’t clock out at night; its complaints can echo loudly in the dream theater.



Until researchers run those carefully controlled cheese-before-bed experiments, moderation in the kitchen remains the gentlest path to sweeter dreams - and quieter nights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1544475/full">Frontiers in Psychology</a>.



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Nightmares could be triggered by what you eat

If you’ve ever blamed a slice of pizza or a...

Carbon dioxide usually takes center stage in climate talks, yet it is not the only culprit turning up Earth’s thermostat. A group of heat‑trapping compounds known as super pollutants packs an outsized punch, both for the atmosphere and for our lungs.



Unlike carbon dioxide, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2025-plastic-pollution-is-choking-our-planet/">pollutants</a> linger for only days to a few years, so cleaning them up can cool the planet and clear the air within a single political term.



Drew Shindell, a climate scientist at <a href="http://Duke University https://g.co/kgs/4dGmi2p">Duke University</a> and long‑time contributor to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/">IPCC</a>), refers to the group as “low‑hanging fruit for a safer future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cutting-super-pollutants-now">Cutting super pollutants now </h2>



Super <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/">pollutants</a> are responsible for almost half of the warming recorded since the industrial era began, according to a 2018 briefing from the <a href="https://www.ccacoalition.org/sites/default/files/resources/2018_infosheet_slcps_ccac.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate and Clean Air Coalition</a>. Cutting them now buys precious time while nations decarbonize their power grids.



Because they fade quickly, the temperature response is just as quick. A strong push on <a href="https://www.epa.gov/gmi/importance-methane" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a> alone could avoid about 0.5 °F (0.28 °C) of warming by the 2040s, the <a href="https://www.igsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/IGSD-Methane-Primer.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Governance &amp; Sustainable Development</a> estimated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biggest-super-pollutant-sources">Biggest super pollutant sources</h2>



Methane has 86 times the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-are-a-surprising-source-of-deadly-air-pollution/">warming</a> power of carbon dioxide during its first twenty years aloft, the press release noted. It leaks from oil and gas fields, escapes landfills, and bubbles out of rice paddies.



<a href="https://www.ccacoalition.org/short-lived-climate-pollutants/black-carbon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Black carbon</a>, the sooty particle that darkens smoke plumes, hangs around for barely two weeks yet warms 1,500 times more per ton than carbon dioxide. Road traffic, wood stoves, and wildfires are the leading sources.



Tropospheric ozone is not emitted directly. Sunlight cooks methane, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds to create this lung‑irritating gas, which persists for only days but still drives warming.



<a href="https://www.ccacoalition.org/short-lived-climate-pollutants/hydrofluorocarbons-hfcs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hydrofluorocarbons</a> keep refrigerators cold and office buildings comfortable, while <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/nitrous-oxide-laughing-gas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrous oxide</a> rises from fertilizer. Both belong to the super pollutant club even though they have far lower direct health impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-super-pollutants-harm-health">How super pollutants harm health</h2>



Soot and ground‑level ozone are part of the air pollution mix that claims 6.7 million lives every year, the <a href="https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/air-quality-and-health/health-impacts/types-of-pollutants" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a> estimates. Ozone alone accounts for roughly 2.4 million of those deaths through heart and lung disease, the Clean Air Task Force <a href="https://cdn.catf.us/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/19120324/troposheric-report.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reports</a>.



Black carbon’s fine particles penetrate deep into the bloodstream, raising blood pressure, worsening asthma, and affecting fetal growth. Scientists are still unraveling how toxic the particle is compared with other <a href="https://en.air-q.com/messwerte/feinstaub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PM₂.₅</a> ingredients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-health-and-climate">Linking health and climate</h2>



While climate change and public health are deeply linked, many experts still treat them as separate issues. This disconnect has slowed coordinated responses to super <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-can-reshape-a-babys-brain-before-birth/">pollutants</a>, especially when the pollutant isn't immediately toxic to breathe.



For example, methane doesn't directly harm human lungs, so it's often left out of air quality policies. But methane is a major precursor to tropospheric ozone, which is deadly in polluted cities and rural areas alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-hurts-food-and-water">Pollution hurts food and water</h2>



Ozone sneaks into plant tissue and slashes crop yields. Global models suggest up to twelve percent of staple grains are lost each year because of methane‑driven ozone formation that threatens food supplies in already vulnerable regions, the <a href="https://www.ccacoalition.org/sites/default/files/resources/2021_Global-Methane_Assessment_full_0.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CCAC briefing</a> adds.



Soot, meanwhile, dims sunlight and shifts rainfall. When it settles on mountain snow, the dark dust speeds up melting, thereby disrupting drinking‑water supplies far downstream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-ways-to-cool-the-planet">Fast ways to cool the planet</h2>



An old <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1210026" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> led by Shindell identified 14 ready‑to‑deploy measures, ranging from sealing gas wells to filtering diesel exhaust, that could trim expected warming in 2050 by about 0.9 °F (0.5 °C) while preventing millions of premature deaths.



The same package would save agricultural crops worth tens of billions of dollars every year, showing that climate, health, and economic gains often march together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cutting-super-pollutants-effectively">Cutting super pollutants effectively</h2>



Oil and gas firms can spot methane plumes with infrared cameras and satellites, then patch leaks at low cost. Cattle feed additives cut <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/climate-change/faq/which-is-a-bigger-methane-source-cow-belching-or-cow-flatulence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bovine methane belches</a> by as much as 30 percent.



Households can replace smoky wood stoves with electric induction cooktops. Cities that restrict high‑emitting vehicles show immediate drops in black carbon, making bus stops and playgrounds safer for children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-action-to-global-pledges">Local action to global pledges</h2>



More than 100 countries have signed the <a href="https://www.globalmethanepledge.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Methane Pledge</a>, committing to a 30 percent cut by 2030. Meeting the goal could avert 690,000 premature deaths a year by mid‑century, according to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-022-00247-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">models</a>.



Regulators can also fold super pollutants into national climate plans under the Paris agreement, ensuring that air‑quality and greenhouse‑gas rules pull in the same direction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-achieving-global-climate-goals">Achieving global climate goals</h2>



Scientists still need better monitoring. Low‑cost sensors on school rooftops, paired with satellite data, are beginning to map pollution hot spots in real time.



“To achieve global climate goals, we must reduce methane emissions while also urgently reducing carbon dioxide emissions,” said Shindell during a United Nations press briefing on the <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/global-assessment-urgent-steps-must-be-taken-reduce-methane" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Methane Assessment</a>.



Faster progress hinges on funding such dual‑benefit projects.



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Cutting super pollutants could quickly cool the planet

Carbon dioxide usually takes center stage in climate talks, yet...

Once native to the rocky shores of Jeju Island, the top shell Turbo sazae is now moving north. Scientists at KIOST have linked the snail's shifting range to rising sea temperatures driven by climate change.



Genetic evidence supports the snails' expansion, showing shared ancestry between eastern and southern Korean populations.



A research paper published in the journal Animals reveals that this shift is not just recent. It is tied to deeper evolutionary history and ocean current dynamics.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-wins-in-2025-came-from-unexpected-places/">Climate</a> change-driven rises in sea temperatures are a core variable in the impact of climate change on marine ecosystems,” said <a href="https://www.kiost.ac.kr/eng.do" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KIOST</a> President Hyi Seung Lee.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snails-with-shared-ancestry">Snails with shared ancestry</h2>



The researchers collected samples from six locations, including Jeju and the East Sea. Using mitochondrial DNA (COI), the team built haplotype maps to assess relatedness. 



A dominant genetic type, called EJ1, appeared in 60% of Jeju individuals and 50% of East Sea ones. This strong overlap suggests these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-impacting-earths-rotation/">regions</a> share more than just warm waters. They share a common genetic base. 



Bayesian analysis dated the most recent common ancestor between these populations to between 9.7 and 23.3 million years ago. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-currents-and-snail-dispersal">Ocean currents and snail dispersal</h2>



The ancestral link between the snails reflects a long evolutionary history shaped by currents like the Kuroshio and Tsushima. 



These ocean currents are central to the story. They carry larvae north during early planktonic stages. Turbo sazae larvae live in open water for 3 to 5 days before settling. That short window is enough to disperse widely along current paths.



This dispersal helps maintain genetic continuity between distant populations. That is why genetic differentiation between Jeju and the East Sea is low. 



The study’s FST values and AMOVA results confirm that most genetic variation occurs within, not between, these groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-regions-still-shape-genes">Unique regions still shape genes</h2>



Despite shared ancestry, some sites showed early signs of divergence. Populations at Dokdo and Wangdolcho had site-specific haplotypes. 



These locations have complex underwater topography and eddies that may trap larvae. This can limit outside gene flow and shape unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-just-three-years-away-from-dangerous-carbon-milestone/">traits</a> over time.



Dokdo, for instance, rises steeply from the ocean floor and is shaped by dynamic currents. These geographic features might create local barriers that influence how genes move. More research could clarify whether such structures truly restrict connectivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warmer-waters-weaken-snail-immunity">Warmer waters weaken snail immunity</h2>



Earlier studies suspected diet changes caused population drops in Jeju. Researchers thought urchin barrens affected feeding behavior. But recent findings show diet had little impact on physiology or reproduction. 



Instead, warming waters weakened the snail’s immune function. In other words, climate change was the real driver of the snail's population decline around Jeju.



This finding came from a second study published in the journal Marine Environmental Research. The study confirmed that higher sea temperatures compromise the snail’s immunity and make it more vulnerable to environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-warming-shifts-sea-life-habitats">Ocean warming shifts sea life habitats</h2>



Between 2009 and 2018, Turbo sazae expanded north at a rate of 12.4 km per year. That is a fast pace for a marine mollusk. It aligns with rising sea surface temperatures of 0.38°C per decade in the region. Warmer waters now support life where it once could not.



A marine desertification phenomenon called barren ground is also changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-fueling-antibiotic-resistance-in-our-soils/">habitats</a>. These zones lose kelp and become covered with white algae. Such shifts leave snails like T. sazae with fewer choices. They must move or decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-snail-conservation">Climate change and snail conservation </h2>



The study's findings have practical implications. They show that Jeju acts as a source for new East Sea populations. 



The shared genetics suggest that populations should not be managed as isolated units. Instead, integrated approaches should reflect their connectivity.



Yet, local differences still matter. Management plans must protect unique habitats, especially where signs of early genetic differentiation emerge. Monitoring, habitat conservation, and tracking larval dispersal are essential steps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snails-adjusting-to-climate-change">Snails adjusting to climate change </h2>



As the sea changes with the climate, snails and other inhabitants are changing too. Turbo sazae is adjusting, relocating, and surviving. 



The science behind this shift not only charts the path of one species. It gives a broader glimpse into how ocean warming is reshaping sea life. 



KIOST President Hyi Seung Lee said the findings will help deepen scientific understanding of how sea life distribution is changing and support ongoing efforts to protect marine ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/9/1321" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animals</a>.



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Ocean warming is pushing sea life into new territories

Once native to the rocky shores of Jeju Island, the...

Many adults trust AI systems that confidently give wrong answers. Children, who lack deep domain knowledge, often find it even harder to tell when AI is wrong. 



A new game developed by <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> researchers flips the script. It helps kids recognize AI’s failures and think more critically about its logic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kids-test-ai-logic">Kids test AI logic</h2>



AI Puzzlers draws its design from the Abstraction and Reasoning Corpus (ARC), a set of visual puzzles that are easy for humans and hard for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ai-framework-dimon-turning-any-laptop-into-a-supercomputer/">machines</a>. These puzzles don’t require language. Instead, they ask users to spot a pattern and apply it to new inputs using color grids.



The game engages kids by asking them to solve puzzles first. Then, they test <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/">AI</a> chatbots on the same puzzles and compare answers. 



Even if the AI sometimes guesses the right answer, its explanation rarely matches. This mismatch becomes a key moment of discovery. Kids learn that confidence doesn’t equal correctness.



“Kids naturally loved ARC puzzles and they’re not specific to any language or culture,” said study lead author Aayushi Dangol. “Because the puzzles rely solely on visual pattern recognition, even kids that can’t read yet can play and learn.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kids-notice-when-ai-fails">Kids notice when AI fails</h2>



Kids begin by thinking AI is smart. They expect it to outperform them. But when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-traffic-cameras-are-preventing-thousands-of-crashes-each-year/">AI</a> repeatedly fails, the surprise sparks curiosity and laughter. “That is very very wrong,” one child said after watching an AI completely miss a basic pattern.



Visual comparison helps kids instantly spot what the AI missed. This strengthens their own logic and boosts confidence. They begin to understand that being human brings advantages. Unlike AI, they can use creativity, context, and reasoning grounded in real experience.



One child described the AI as having “the internet’s mind,” saying, “It’s trying to solve it based only on the internet, but the human brain is creative.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kids-guide-ai-with-better-instructions">Kids guide AI with better instructions</h2>



AI Puzzlers includes a special Assist Mode where kids give the AI clues. This mode turns them into guides, not just players. 



The children move from broad statements like “Make a donut” to specific instructions like “Place white in the center, blue all around.” As they experiment, they learn how to help the AI get closer to the correct logic.



The researchers found that this step-by-step refining deepened the kids’ understanding. They weren’t just pointing out errors. They were learning how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-games-could-accelerate-discoveries-in-cancer-research/">AI</a> misinterprets vague language and how precise input shapes better output.



In one session, a child wrote, “Make a pattern of the colors and gray alternating and a background of white, red, light blue, green, yellow.” The AI still got it wrong. 



The frustration was real. “I am so done with you, AI,” the child said. But the effort showed critical thinking at work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-game-mechanics-that-build-ai-literacy">Game mechanics that build AI literacy</h2>



The game uses three main modes: Manual, AI, and Assist. In Manual Mode, kids build their answers from scratch. 



AI Mode lets them test the chatbot’s performance and read its reasoning. Assist Mode invites them to guide the AI, learning what helps and what doesn’t.



This design is grounded in Mayer and Moreno’s theory of multimedia learning. By using both visuals and text, the game lightens cognitive overload and keeps kids engaged. Switching between modes lets them explore ideas, spot contradictions, and build layered understanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kids-can-help-improve-ai">Kids can help improve AI</h2>



The researchers used a participatory design approach called Cooperative Inquiry. In two summer sessions, 21 children aged 6 to 11 collaborated with adult facilitators. These kids weren’t just test subjects. They helped shape the tool.



Children gave feedback, refined features, and even inspired the Assist Mode. In group discussions, they evaluated AI logic, challenged explanations, and brainstormed ideas to improve AI understanding. 



One child noted: “AI is very scientific, given its scientific explanation, but sometimes it’s better not to go super, duper scientific.”



The project showed that children, when given space and tools, are more than passive users. They become critics, testers, and co-creators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-minds-human-vs-machine">Comparing minds: Human vs. machine</h2>



As they kept solving puzzles, kids saw the difference between how they think and how AI thinks. AI, they noticed, often guesses randomly or repeats errors. 



“AI just keeps guessing,” one child said. Another called it “stupid” and said it only “gets lucky.”



The kids began to frame AI as limited. “Look at the references and think like a human being,” one urged. They recognized that humans can draw from experience, emotion, and logic, while AI relies on patterns it has seen.



This shift is crucial. Children stopped treating AI as infallible. They started viewing it as a tool that needs supervision, not praise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-thinking-in-other-settings">Critical thinking in other settings </h2>



The system is open source and works on any browser. The team hopes to extend it with more puzzle types and newer AI models. They also want to explore if these critical thinking skills transfer to other settings like schoolwork or web searches.



The researchers are also thinking about voice integration and better accessibility for colorblind users. 



The long-term vision is to help kids build habits of questioning, experimenting, and reflecting. These are skills that apply far beyond the game.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puzzles-build-ai-skills">Puzzles build AI skills</h2>



This work shows that critical AI thinking doesn’t need lectures. It can begin with puzzles, color grids, and curiosity. By allowing kids to compare, question, and fix AI logic, AI Puzzlers gives them agency.



“Kids are smart and capable,” said study co-senior author Julie Kientz. “We need to give them opportunities to make up their own minds about what AI is and isn't.”



The success of AI Puzzlers shows what’s possible. When kids are given space to think critically, they don’t just understand AI. They start to outthink it.



The study is published in <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3713043.3728836" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the 24th Interaction Design and Children</a>.



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Can kids outsmart AI? Puzzle games put them to the test

Many adults trust AI systems that confidently give wrong answers....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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