In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

Mars has fascinated observers for centuries with its striking red hue, shining brightly in our night skies. Research from multiple space agencies suggests that this distinctive color comes primarily from iron in the planet's rocks, which contributes to its dusty appearance.



Despite decades of exploration, we still do not know exactly why the surface of Mars appears red. A new study suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars’s earliest environment</a> may hold the key to understanding its famous color.



Adomas Valantinas, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a>, began this research at the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a> in Switzerland. 



“What we want to understand is the ancient Martian climate, the chemical processes on Mars - not only ancient - but also present,” explained Valantinas. 



“Then there’s the habitability question: Was there ever life? To understand that, you need to understand the conditions that were present during the time of this mineral formation.”



Along with collaborators, he compared data from multiple spacecraft and tested basalt mixtures with various iron oxides in the lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-s-red-dust-may-come-from-water">Mars’s red dust may come from water</h2>



Scientists have often linked Mars’s color to hematite, a type of iron oxide believed to form under dry conditions. 



However, the latest <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56970-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> points to ferrihydrite, a water-rich iron mineral that can only arise in the presence of cool liquid water.



Ferrihydrite can retain hints of water in its molecular structure, providing a record of damp conditions long ago. 



By testing rock powders in a specialized laboratory setup, the team discovered that ferrihydrite, combined with basalt, replicated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-year-on-mars-avalanches-icy-explosions-and-the-arrival-of-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> dust more convincingly than other mixes.



“These new findings point to a potentially habitable past for Mars and highlight the value of coordinated research between NASA and its international partners when exploring fundamental questions about our solar system and the future of space exploration,” said Geronimo Villanueva from NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a> in Greenbelt, Maryland, and co-author of this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-environment-of-mars">Shifting environment of Mars</h2>



“We were trying to create a replica <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-spectacular-glowing-clouds-at-sunset/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> dust in the laboratory using different types of iron oxide,” said Valantinas.&nbsp;&nbsp;



If ferrihydrite took shape when Mars had a thicker atmosphere and steady surface water, then the planet’s environment transitioned earlier than scientists once believed. 



This suggests Mars was once very different from its dry, cold self today, noted the researchers.



Mars now has a thin atmosphere that makes liquid water on its surface improbable for long stretches. 



Past rover missions including <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/msl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity</a> and Opportunity found signs of ancient streams and lakes, but current conditions are much less forgiving.



The presence of ferrihydrite indicates that water likely existed on Mars when the mineral first formed. 



Many experts believe that these liquid conditions faded away several billion years ago as Mars lost much of its atmospheric protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spread-of-red-dust-on-mars">Spread of red dust on Mars</h2>



Wind is still a dominant force on Mars, shaping and distributing dust across vast distances. Over time, these movements broke down iron oxides and spread them around the planet.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-can-engulf-the-entire-planet-of-mars-but-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Persistent dust storms</a> continue to swirl, obscuring ground views and leaving rovers coated in fine debris. 



Despite the harsh environment, the original water-rich signature of ferrihydrite may remain locked in the dust grains.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars_why-is-it-red_dust-replica-lab_credit-NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars_why-is-it-red_dust-replica-lab_credit-NASA_1s.webp" alt="Laboratory sample showing simulated Martian dust. The ochre color is characteristic of iron-rich ferrihydrite, a mineral that provides crucial insights into ancient water activity and environmental conditions on Mars. The fine-powder mixture consists of ferrihydrite and ground basalt with particles less than one micrometer in size (1/100th diameter of a human hair) (Sample scale: 1 inch across). Credit: Adam Valantinas" class="wp-image-1961055"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Laboratory sample showing simulated Martian dust. The ochre color is characteristic of iron-rich ferrihydrite, a mineral that provides crucial insights into ancient water activity and environmental conditions on Mars. The fine-powder mixture consists of ferrihydrite and ground basalt with particles less than one micrometer in size (1/100th diameter of a human hair) (Sample scale: 1 inch across). Credit: Adam Valantinas</figcaption></figure>



The <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Videos/2022/11/Bringing_Mars_rock_samples_back_to_Earth" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA-ESA Mars Sample Return program</a> aims to gather Martian rocks, dust, and regolith for deeper inspection on Earth. 



Scientists hope to confirm the exact mineral makeup of these samples and see if ferrihydrite dominates the red dust.



Probing collected material with high-precision instruments could pin down when water was truly abundant. 



Such details may refine our picture of whether early Mars had <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> that could have supported life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-dust-points-to-life-and-water-on-mars">Red dust points to life and water on Mars</h2>



Several lines of <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/planetary-science/programs/mars-exploration/science-goals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a>, including ancient lakebeds, clay minerals, and valley networks, point to a past where water was not a fleeting visitor. 



This latest ferrihydrite finding strengthens the argument that Mars underwent a cool and moist period well before it dried out.



The researchers noted that understanding these iron minerals unlocks a chapter in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’s history that we’re just beginning to unravel. 



The color we see today might hide clues about a time when oxygen and water were abundant.



“We eagerly await the results from upcoming missions like ESA’s Rosalind Franklin rover,” said Colin Wilson, ESA’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Express</a> project scientist. He expects the future findings to shed more light on Mars’s watery transformation.



Many questions remain about how this wet period influenced the potential for simple life-forms to emerge. 



Researchers across the world will keep watching, testing, and wondering what else Mars has hidden in its dusty past.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56970-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Why is Mars red? Scientists think they figured it out

Mars has fascinated observers for centuries with its striking red...

In the hidden corners of the world, caterpillars and ants have a remarkably specialized relationship. The caterpillars secrete a sweet, nectar-like substance that ants feed on, and the ants often protect the growing caterpillars from predators.



This interesting relationship, which exists between ants and the larvae of some species of the Riodinidae family (metalmark butterflies), is so particular that each species of caterpillar interacts with only one species of ant.



Scientists have now investigated the complex mechanisms of this mutualistic partnership. 



They show that chemical signals and sweet secretions determine whether the ant response is one of protection or destruction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillar-protection-from-ants">Caterpillar protection from ants</h2>



In tropical forests, caterpillars provide an important food source to many insectivores. Caterpillar mortality is inevitably high, unless the adult butterfly lays its eggs on a plant that is inhabited by the correct species of ant. 



The research was conducted by Luan Dias Lima during her postdoctoral studies at the University of São Paulo’s Ribeirão Preto School of Philosophy, Sciences, and Letters (<a href="https://www.ffclrp.usp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FFCLRP-USP</a>). 



The ants and caterpillars were collected at the Serra das Araras Ecological Station in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso.



The researchers analyzed the chemical signals produced by caterpillars. The goal was to understand how ants can identify specific types of caterpillars as those to protect or those to kill.



The findings suggest that this relationship is delicately balanced as each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/treasure-map-will-help-experts-find-new-ant-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species of ant</a> recognizes only one species of caterpillar as worthy of protection. 



The ants will kill any other caterpillars, even if they secrete the sweet liquid that is believed to promote protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-signals-and-sweet-secretions">Chemical signals and sweet secretions</h2>



In the experiments, the researchers focused on caterpillars of the species&nbsp;Juditha molpe, which live in harmony with ants of the species&nbsp;Dolichoderus bispinosus.



The team also studied caterpillars of the species&nbsp;Nymphidium chione, which are found only where there are ants of the species&nbsp;Pheidole biconstricta.



They analyzed the cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) present on the ants, caterpillars and plants. CHCs are chemical compounds that are found in the coverings of plants and insects, and play a vital function in waterproofing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-silent-language-decoding-the-chemical-signals-of-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication</a>, and species recognition.



"We found insect and plant CHCs to be quite different from each other. In caterpillars, they signal food for ants. The caterpillars in our experiment offered a sweet secretion, allowing them to be recognized and protected by specific ant species," explained Lima, the study’s first author. 



This sugary secretion not only promotes recognition but also cements the partnership between these species by offering the ants a source of food. 



In return for the nectar, the ants defend the caterpillars from predators, thus improving their chances of survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-ants-turn-hostile">When ants turn hostile</h2>



However, when the researchers mixed up the ant-caterpillar pairings, the harmonious alliance turned hostile, and destroyed the delicate balance that sustains this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-symbiotic-relationships-evolve-between-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic relationship</a>.



At first, the unfamiliar ants showed little interest in the caterpillars, seemingly indifferent to their presence. They ignored them until they discovered the caterpillar organ that secretes the nectar, which momentarily piqued the ants' curiosity.



Their curiosity soon turned to aggression, however, and they began to behave erratically, opening their mandibles and biting the larvae. What started as a potential new alliance quickly devolved into a deadly confrontation.



"Almost all of the caterpillars were killed during this pair-switching treatment. Soldiers of the species P. biconstricta even used their strong mandibles to cut J. molpe into pieces," said Lima.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-the-right-partnership">The importance of the right partnership </h2>



Why are caterpillars relying on ants when things can go so badly wrong? It turns out that ant protection is so important to the caterpillars that adult female butterflies lay eggs only on plant species colonized by the right ant species.



The life of the developing young caterpillars depends on their protection from ants. Without this protection, predators would destroy them.



In the future, the scientists aim to investigate whether CHCs also serve as a deterrent against other natural enemies like parasitoids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-caterpillar-ant-relationships">Evolution of caterpillar-ant relationships </h2>



The exclusivity of these caterpillar-ant partnerships raises intriguing questions about their evolutionary origins. 



Scientists suggest that these relationships may have developed through a long process of co-evolution, where both species adapted to each other over time.



One theory proposes that ancestral caterpillars, once vulnerable to predation, evolved the ability to secrete nectar as a survival strategy, and gradually refined their chemical signals to align perfectly with specific ant species.



In turn, ants learned to recognize these caterpillars as a valuable food source, strengthening the mutual dependence between them.



The evolution of such specialized interactions likely resulted from a long history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a>. 



Caterpillars that failed to match their chemical profiles to local ants faced higher risks of mortality, while those that adapted found a niche where they could thrive.



By studying these ancient alliances, researchers hope to uncover broader patterns in insect evolution and symbiosis, and to shed light on how cooperation between different species shapes ecosystems.



Also contributing to the study were <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a>, the <a href="http://www.ufrgs.br/english/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul</a>, and the <a href="https://ufal.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Alagoas</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1744-7917.13474" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insect Science</a>.



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Ants and caterpillars have a great working relationship, until it isn't

In the hidden corners of the world, caterpillars and ants...

Few ocean mysteries capture as much fascination as&nbsp;whale songs, the melodies produced by giant sea creatures. Recent findings suggest these&nbsp;whale songs&nbsp;can offer unique clues about shifting conditions deep below the surface.



Scientists have long recognized that <a href="https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/what-is-baleen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baleen whales</a> emit structured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-whales-use-songs-to-hide-from-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sound signals</a> to maintain contact across staggering distances. 



These signals may also serve as a key to understanding variations in whale foraging patterns, according to a new study led by John Ryan from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (<a href="https://www.mbari.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBARI</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-whale-songs-the-basics">Understanding whale songs - the basics</h2>



Whales are prodigious singers, creating long, complex melodies that can last for hours and even change over time, almost like a hit song evolving. 



Scientists believe whales use these songs to attract mates, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-whales-use-songs-to-hide-from-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signal danger</a>, or even just socialize. What’s wild is that these sounds can travel for miles underwater, thanks to the way sound waves move through the ocean.



But whale songs aren’t just about romance and chit-chat - they also reveal a lot about ocean health. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-have-moved-their-singing-rituals-away-from-shorelines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Noise pollution</a> from ships, drilling, and sonar disrupts whale communication, making it harder for them to find each other and navigate. 



Some researchers even think whales might be adjusting their songs to compete with human-made noise. 



Studying these songs helps scientists understand whale behavior, migration patterns, and even changes in the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-songs-and-prey-availability">Whale songs and prey availability </h2>



The researchers monitored the songs of blue, fin, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback whales</a> for six years. Their analyses uncovered major fluctuations in how frequently these songs appeared, pointing to links between shifting prey availability and whale vocal behavior.



One significant discovery involved <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/humpback-whale" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback whales</a>, whose song detections rose from 34% to 76% of days over the study period. 



The experts noted that this shift coincided with local jumps in key prey resources, such as krill and anchovy, and took place as humpbacks demonstrated an ability to switch food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-shifts-in-whale-songs">Monitoring shifts in whale songs</h2>



Whale vocalizations are recorded by <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/hydrophone.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrophones</a>, which are underwater microphones designed to pick up <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/tags/acoustics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sounds</a> traveling through the ocean. 



These instruments have become vital tools for conservation efforts, because they operate around the clock and can capture subtle changes in whale presence.



Some whales produce <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2008.00208.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">songs</a> not only for social bonding but also as a way to sense one another’s proximity and intentions. 



Shifts in these signals can reveal how whales cope with changing ocean temperatures, prey availability, and competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-habits-in-flux">Feeding habits in flux</h2>



The new findings highlight how dynamic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-songs-share-very-similar-patterns-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> diets really are. Humpbacks, in particular, are known to pivot between different types of prey when certain species decline or relocate.



The investigators found that rising anchovy stocks eventually joined earlier surges in krill populations. This sudden turn in food supply matched an upward trend in humpback whale songs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-songs-and-ocean-health">Whale songs and ocean health</h2>



“Surprisingly, the acoustic behavior of baleen whales provides insights about which species can better adapt to changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean conditions</a>. Our findings can help resource managers and policymakers better protect endangered whales,” said Ryan.



Although song patterns can be influenced by whale migration schedules and local population sizes, the strongest factor was the allure of abundant prey. 



This correlation suggests that whale songs might function as an unexpected barometer of ecosystem health.



These results may motivate future projects to use passive acoustic monitoring as an early alert system for changes in marine life. 



Interpreting whale song data in real time could help managers identify potential feeding hotspots or track unusual shifts in the food web.



Whales occupy higher levels in the food chain. When something affects their prey, whales respond in noticeable ways that can reverberate across the entire ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The study’s approach might encourage researchers to explore additional ocean basins for similar patterns. 



Gathering data from many regions could strengthen our grasp on how large-scale events, such as warming water or temporary food shortages, alter whale behavior.



Other investigations might look at the interplay between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acoustic-tagging-helps-decode-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> communication and environmental stressors. 



Since whales project sound across great distances, these vocalizations can offer clues on changing conditions far beyond the immediate listening area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-humans-and-whales">Bridging humans and whales</h2>



Whale songs offer a unique way to engage the public in ocean health, resonating even with those on land. 



These vocalizations emphasize whales' reliance on a balanced food chain, promoting a deeper connection to marine ecosystems.



Scientists emphasize that new acoustic methods open doors for more frequent and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">less intrusive monitoring</a>. This technology can strengthen marine conservation and give whales a better chance to thrive.



Beyond assessing whales, hydrophone systems also detect an array of ocean sounds. Ships, seismic activity, and the movements of other marine creatures all appear in audio recordings.



Each acoustic signal contributes to a growing library of ocean noise. As we learn to interpret the data, these songs and calls can fill in the blanks about habitat quality and species interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-songs-reveal-ocean-changes">Whale songs reveal ocean changes</h2>



Studying year-to-year changes in whale songs reveals not just the presence of these huge, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/add-humpback-whales-to-list-of-animals-that-build-and-use-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">highly-intelligent animals</a> but also the stability of their feeding grounds. 



These musical signals can serve as markers of subtle transformations in an ecosystem that is often hidden from casual view.



Researchers hope continued listening efforts will help people appreciate how finely tuned whale populations are to changes in their environment. 



With more attention on acoustic monitoring, we may eventually predict and manage the obstacles faced by these gentle giants.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0318624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Whale song complexity continues to astound scientists with each new discovery

Few ocean mysteries capture as much fascination as&nbsp;whale songs, the...

Smiling,Young,Couple,Embracing,While,Looking,At,Smartphone.,Multiethnic,Couple

Love is often seen as a driving force in human relationships, but could it also shape intelligence in the animal kingdom? Scientists have uncovered a surprising connection between cognitive abilities and mating success.



These tiny fish, originally from Central America, are now found in waters worldwide. The new research suggests that intelligence in males plays a crucial role in reproductive success, much like in human relationships where wit and charm often make a difference.



The study reveals that male mosquitofish with better problem-solving skills are more successful in finding mates. This challenges traditional ideas that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-intelligent-life-is-likely-very-common-throughout-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a> in animals primarily evolves for survival. 



Instead, it suggests that brainpower can be just as valuable in securing a mate as it is in avoiding predators or finding food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-male-intelligence-in-reproduction">Role of male intelligence in reproduction</h2>



Male mosquitofish are not just competing for food and shelter; they are also competing for partners. 



<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University (ANU)</a> researchers found that males capable of solving complex tasks had a higher chance of mating than their less-intelligent counterparts. This suggests that intelligence provides a direct reproductive advantage.



Lead author Dr. Ivan Vinogradov explained that cognitive abilities likely evolved because they helped males locate and attract females, increasing their chances of producing offspring. 



This process, known as sexual selection, plays a crucial role in shaping intelligence in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-flightless-birds-are-more-intelligent-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intelligence-beyond-survival">Intelligence beyond survival</h2>



For many years, scientists believed that intelligence in animals evolved primarily through natural selection. Smarter animals had better chances of survival because they could find food, escape predators, and adapt to new environments.



“Evolution of intelligence in animals has long been thought to have been driven by natural selection. Animals that were better at problem solving were more adept at gathering food, finding shelter, and avoiding predators and hence lived longer,” Dr. Vinogradov explained.



“They then passed on these genes to their offspring, helping future generations become smarter over time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bottom-line-intelligence-is-attractive">Bottom line - Intelligence is attractive</h2>



But there is another possible explanation for the evolution of intelligence: the quality of braininess is attractive to the opposite sex. 



A better brain might help an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-aliens-could-detect-earth-what-would-they-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> find more mates, have more sex, and eventually produce more offspring.



Dr. Vinogradov and his collaborators suggest that intelligence in mosquitofish may partly have evolved through sexual selection as well. 



Usually, the pressure of sexual selection is stronger on males than females because, at any given time, there are more males seeking mates than there are females ready to breed.



During this form of selection, traits that boost mating and fertilization success become more common over generations, as the genes for the traits are passed on to offspring. 



“Our study suggests that intelligence in mosquitofish isn’t only driven by their need to find food or avoid predators, but also by the complex challenges of finding love. This shows that, much like humans, love conquers all,” remarked Dr. Vinogradov.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-abilities-of-mosquitofish">Cognitive abilities of mosquitofish</h2>



To understand how male intelligence affects mating success, researchers designed a series of underwater tests. These tests assessed the problem-solving abilities of male mosquitofish. 



The fish had to navigate mazes, figure out how to move around transparent barriers, and remember different colored spots. Those that completed the challenges were rewarded.



The study tracked the reproductive success of each male over two months. The researchers recorded how many offspring each fish produced when competing for mates. 



The results were striking - mosquitofish that excelled at problem-solving tasks had significantly higher reproductive success than those that struggled with the challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-males-more-offspring">Smarter males, more offspring</h2>



After performing over 2,000 paternity tests, the scientists confirmed their hypothesis. Intelligence scores were positively correlated with reproductive success in male mosquitofish. 



The males that performed well in cognitive tests mated with more females and produced more offspring than those that failed the tests.



“Our findings imply that the evolution of cognitive abilities may have been driven by sexual selection for males who gained more mating opportunities,” study co-author Professor Michael Jennions said.



“Something about these males seemingly gave them an edge in securing mating opportunities. Perhaps females recognized and preferred smarter males, or maybe smarter males were better at chasing the females and forcing them to mate, a common, if unpleasant, practice in mosquitofish."



More observations and analyses are needed in order to establish differences in the mating behavior of the smarter males. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-evolutionary-biology">Implications for evolutionary biology</h2>



These findings challenge traditional views on how intelligence evolves. While many scientists have focused on its survival advantages, this study highlights the potential role of mate selection in shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive traits</a>.



Intelligence may not only be about problem-solving for survival but also about improving an individual’s chances of reproduction.



The study also raises questions about how females perceive intelligence in potential mates. If smarter males are more successful in mating, it suggests that females may have preferences that go beyond physical traits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-male-intelligence">Future research on male intelligence</h2>



The study, published in Nature Ecology and Evolution, was conducted by researchers from Australia, Germany, and South Africa. 



The next step is to investigate how, exactly, intelligence influences mating success. Do females recognize intelligence in a mate, or do smarter males use their cognitive skills to outmaneuver their rivals?



Future research could explore whether this pattern holds in other species. If intelligence plays a role in mate selection beyond mosquitofish, it could reshape our understanding of how cognitive abilities evolve in the animal kingdom.



This research suggests that intelligence is not just about survival - it is also about attraction. 



Much like in human relationships, wit and problem-solving skills may help individuals find love and pass on their genes. In mosquitofish, as in life, intelligence may be one of the most valuable traits a male can have.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02645-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.&nbsp;



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Animal intelligence did not evolve due to natural selection

Love is often seen as a driving force in human...

Belly fat - most people want less of it. It is linked to heart disease, diabetes, and other health risks. But what if losing too much of it could also have unexpected downsides for the brain?



New research from <a href="https://global.toho-u.ac.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Toho University</a> in Japan suggests that visceral fat - the deep fat stored around organs - does more than just pad the waistline. It may actually help keep the brain functioning as we age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-belly-fat-is-bad">Not all belly fat is bad</h2>



The study, published in&nbsp;GeroScience, challenges the idea that all fat is bad. While excess visceral fat remains dangerous, a moderate amount might be critical for brain health.



Forgetfulness, slower thinking, and difficulty focusing are some of the frustrating aspects of cognitive decline that often come with aging. 



Particularly interesting is the role that belly fat plays in this process. The researchers found that belly fat communicates with the brain via chemical signals. 



One of these influential messengers is a protein called CX3CL1, tasked with preserving memory and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-exercise-can-make-belly-fat-healthy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive function</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-belly-fat-in-brain-function">Role of belly fat in brain function</h2>



An essential molecule in brain science is the BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor). It aids neurons in growing, surviving, and building new connections - all of which are critical for learning and memory.



However, with aging, BDNF levels naturally decrease, leading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/subtle-dna-changes-shaped-human-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive slowing</a>, memory loss, and a higher risk of neurodegenerative diseases. 



CX3CL1 production in belly fat was found to help keep BDNF levels stable, but with age, both CX3CL1 and BDNF levels decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-belly-fat-and-brain-health-are-linked">Belly fat and brain health are linked</h2>



To validate the fat-brain link, the Toho University scientists manipulated CX3CL1 levels in mice through experiments. 



When they artificially lowered CX3CL1 in younger mice, signs of premature brain aging were noted, as BDNF levels dropped considerably. On the other hand, when older mice were injected with extra CX3CL1, BDNF levels rose again, restoring some of the brain's youthful resilience. 



This indicates that CX3CL1 and BDNF play crucial roles in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-time-and-space-interact-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-stress-hormones">The role of stress hormones</h2>



The reasons behind a decline in CX3CL1 production are linked to stress hormones - cortisol in humans and corticosterone in mice. These hormones regulate various bodily functions, including CX3CL1 production.



"Glucocorticoids boost CX3CL1 production. An enzyme in belly fat called 11β-HSD1 reactivates inactive forms of glucocorticoids and keeps them active in cells, promoting glucocorticoid-dependent expression of CX3CL1," noted Dr. Yoshinori Takei, one of the study's authors. 



However, with aging, 11β-HSD1 levels decline, leading to a slowdown in CX3CL1 production, a drop in BDNF levels, and consequent cognitive decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-perception-of-belly-fat">Changing perception of belly fat</h2>



This discovery shifts our traditional views on belly fat. While it is linked to serious conditions like diabetes, high blood pressure, and heart disease, this research suggests that visceral fat is not just a storage unit. It plays an active role in brain function. 



The researchers stress the importance of balance. Maintaining a healthy range of visceral fat is key. Too little can diminish brain-protecting signals, while too much increases the risk of severe metabolic diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-belly-fat-and-brain-boosting-treatments">Belly fat and brain-boosting treatments</h2>



The findings raise many intriguing questions about future treatments for cognitive decline. 



Could doctors develop therapies to preserve or enhance CX3CL1 production in order to maintain BDNF levels? Is it possible to slow cognitive decline by focusing on the fat-brain link?



While the research is in its early stages, it reminds us that the body works as an interconnected system. What happens in one part can influence the whole, including the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-implications-for-health">Practical implications for health</h2>



While scientists explore these potential treatments, individuals can undertake certain lifestyle practices to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-and-female-brains-are-wired-completely-differently/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. Regular exercise, a nourishing diet, and effective stress management are all vital.



Since chronic stress disrupts hormone balance, impacting both CX3CL1 and BDNF levels, these proactive measures can play a significant role in maintaining cognitive health.



This research questions the simple narratives about belly fat and its role in brain health. While excess visceral fat remains harmful, a certain amount is crucial for maintaining cognitive sharpness. 



The relationship between belly fat and brain health turns out to be more complex than previously thought. The body has its own way of maintaining balance - and sometimes, the solutions are hidden in unexpected places.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11357-025-01546-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GeroScience</a>.



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Moderate belly fat may actually boost brain health

Belly fat - most people want less of it. It...

Earth has never been a stranger to changes in the ice age cycle. 



Around 2.5 million years ago, the planet settled into a rhythm - glaciers advanced, then melted back, over and over. The last big freeze ended about 11,700 years ago, leaving us in a warm, stable period. But how long will this last?



If history followed its usual script, the next ice age would arrive in roughly 10,000 years. That’s what a new study suggests. A team of researchers, including scientists from UC Santa Barbara, has traced the subtle shifts in Earth’s orbit - its wobbles and tilts that are so slight they seem insignificant.



Yet, over thousands of years, these changes have rewritten the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lessons-from-the-ice-age-how-climate-change-reshapes-plant-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet’s climate</a> again and again. Their findings, published in Science, reveal a strikingly predictable pattern in Earth’s natural cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-mechanics-of-a-changing-climate">Subtle mechanics of a changing climate</h2>



The team combed through a million years of climate records, tracking how ice sheets across the Northern Hemisphere expanded and shrank. 



They compared those shifts to the temperature of deep ocean waters, which represent cold storage in terms of Earth’s climate history. Then, they lined it all up with data about variations in Earth’s orbit.



It turns out that every major climate shift has followed a script dictated by these orbital quirks.



“We found a predictable pattern over the past million years for the timing of when Earth's climate changes between glacial ‘ice ages’ and mild, warm periods like today, called interglacials,” explained <a href="https://www.geol.ucsb.edu/people/faculty/lorraine-lisiecki" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lorraine Lisiecki</a>, a professor in UCSB’s Earth Science Department.



Some orbital changes signaled the end of an ice age, while others set the stage for a new one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-pattern-hidden-in-plain-sight">A pattern hidden in plain sight</h2>



Scientists have long suspected that Earth’s orbit plays a role in glacial cycles. The idea dates back over a century. But proving it has taken time. Not until the mid-1970s did data begin to confirm the connection. Even then, the details remained murky.



Now, thanks to this new study, those details are much clearer. 



“We were amazed to find such a clear imprint of the different orbital parameters on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-caps-may-only-exist-because-of-unusual-climate-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate record</a>. It is quite hard to believe that the pattern has not been seen before,” expressed Stephen Barker, a professor at <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cardiff University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-the-next-ice-age-on-hold">Is the next ice age on hold?</h2>



Looking at the past 900,000 years, the team uncovered a repeating pattern. Left to its own devices, Earth would remain in this warm interglacial period for several more millennia before the next deep freeze began.



“The pattern we found is so reproducible that we were able to make an accurate prediction of when each interglacial period of the past million years or so would occur and how long each would last,” Barker stated. This discovery confirms that climate changes over tens of thousands of years are anything but random.



But there’s a catch. This natural rhythm assumes that nothing interferes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-have-changed-the-natural-ice-age-cycle">Humans have changed the natural ice age cycle</h2>



“And because we are now living in an interglacial period – called the Holocene – we are also able to provide an initial prediction of when our climate might return to a glacial state,” noted Chronis Tzedakis, a professor at University College London.



However, there is a problem. Human activity has already thrown the system off course.



“But such a transition to a glacial state in 10,000 years’ time is very unlikely to happen because human emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere have already diverted the climate from its natural course, with longer-term impacts into the future,” added Gregor Knorr from the Alfred Wegener Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



The research team isn’t stopping here. They plan to refine their predictions, calibrating past climate changes to create a clearer picture of what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-life-ice-ages-gave-evolution-a-kick-start/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s climate</a> should look like over the next 10,000 to 20,000 years. 



Combined with modern climate models, this data could reveal the full extent of human influence on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a>.



“Now we know that climate is largely predictable over these long timescales, we can actually use past changes to inform us about what could happen in the future,” Barker said. “This is something we couldn’t do before with the level of confidence that our new analysis provides.”



Understanding these cycles matters. It’s not just about predicting the next ice age - it’s about understanding how our choices today may reshape the climate for millennia to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp3491" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Will Earth go through another ice age?

Earth has never been a stranger to changes in the...

Aging affects every part of the body, but the brain holds the key to how well we navigate our later years. Some people maintain sharp cognition well into their 80s and 90s, while others experience rapid mental decline much earlier. Understanding why this happens has long been a challenge for scientists.



A remarkable study has now introduced a revolutionary way to measure how fast the brain is aging with the help of artificial intelligence (AI). Unlike previous methods that provided a single estimate of brain age, this approach calculates the rate of decline over time.



By tracking how quickly the brain changes between two MRI scans, researchers can determine an individual’s "pace of aging."



“This is a novel measurement that could change the way we track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parenting-may-help-keep-the-brain-younger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a> both in the research lab and in the clinic. Knowing how fast one’s brain is aging can be powerful," said Andrei Irimia, an associate professor at the <a href="https://gero.usc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC Leonard Davis School of Gerontology</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-age-vs-chronological-age">Biological age vs. chronological age</h2>



Chronological age measures time since birth, but biological age reflects how fast an individual’s body and brain are aging. 



Some people experience aging at a slower or faster rate than their peers. Earlier methods only provided a static snapshot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-pass-down-x-chromosomes-that-accelerate-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> age, missing important information about ongoing changes.



The new technique addresses this gap by analyzing two MRI scans from the same person at different times. By comparing these scans, researchers can calculate the rate of change and determine whether someone’s brain is aging faster or slower than expected.



“The pace of brain aging conveys the rate of aging-related alteration in neurobiological system integrity,” wrote the researchers. “For example, faster pace reflects faster adverse cognitive changes contributing to morbidity and mortality.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-of-blood-based-aging-tests">Limits of blood-based aging tests</h2>



Some studies have attempted to measure biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-25-years-of-research-revealed-about-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a> through blood samples. However, this method does not provide an accurate picture of brain aging.



“The barrier between the brain and the bloodstream prevents blood cells from crossing into the brain, such that a blood sample from one’s arm does not directly reflect methylation and other aging-related processes in the brain,” explained Professor Irimia.



To overcome this challenge, researchers at the University of Southern California trained their AI model using MRI scans from thousands of cognitively normal adults. The model was then tested on independent groups, including patients with Alzheimer’s disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-pace-of-brain-aging">Measuring the pace of brain aging</h2>



This new approach examines changes between two MRI scans over time. Instead of estimating brain age at a single point, the AI system determines how much aging has occurred between scans and calculates the rate of decline.



The AI model achieved a mean absolute error of just 0.16 years when predicting brain aging in cognitively normal adults. In comparison, the best traditional model had an error of 1.85 years - more than ten times worse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-reveals-differences-in-brain-aging">AI reveals differences in brain aging</h2>



Beyond tracking the pace of aging, the researchers identified key differences between sexes, age groups, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-the-secret-to-keeping-your-brain-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive conditions</a>.



“The 3D-CNN also generates interpretable ‘saliency maps,’ which indicate the specific brain regions that are most important for determining the pace of aging,” said Paul Bogdan, associate professor at the USC <a href="https://viterbischool.usc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Viterbi School of Engineering</a>.



For women, brain aging was most prominent in regions such as the right precentral gyrus, superior parietal lobules, and precunei. Men, however, exhibited more aging-related changes in the left transverse frontopolar gyrus and right supramarginal gyrus.



People in their 50s showed aging in different regions compared to those in their 70s. Younger individuals had more decline in the left lateral temporal lobe and right medial occipital lobe. Meanwhile, those in their 70s experienced faster aging in the right central and postcentral gyri.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-brain-aging-to-cognitive-decline">Linking brain aging to cognitive decline</h2>



The study also found that individuals with faster brain aging had greater declines in cognitive function over time.



“Rates of brain aging are correlated significantly with changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aging-hotspot-found-in-the-brain-may-hold-the-key-to-longevity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive function</a>,” Irimia said. “So, if you have a high rate of brain aging, you’re more likely to have a high rate of degradation in cognitive function, including memory, executive speed, executive function, and processing speed.”



This was particularly evident in scores from the Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale (ADAS13). People whose brains were aging more quickly showed greater errors in cognitive tests, indicating a strong link between brain structure and cognitive function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-at-risk-individuals">Identifying at-risk individuals</h2>



Perhaps the most significant finding was that the pace of brain aging could predict future cognitive impairment. Among the study participants, those who later developed cognitive decline had a significantly higher rate of brain aging than those who remained cognitively normal.



“The alignment of these measures with cognitive test results indicates that the framework may serve as an early biomarker of neurocognitive decline,” Bogdan said. “Moreover, it demonstrates its applicability in both cognitively normal individuals and those with cognitive impairment.”



Early identification of at-risk individuals could allow for preventive measures, such as lifestyle changes or medical interventions, before symptoms appear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-brain-health-monitoring">Future of brain health monitoring</h2>



Irimia believes this model could help detect brain aging before cognitive symptoms emerge. With new Alzheimer’s treatments available, early intervention may be crucial in improving outcomes.



“One thing that my lab is very interested in is estimating risk for Alzheimer’s; we’d like to one day be able to say, ‘Right now, it looks like this person has a 30% risk for Alzheimer’s.’ We’re not there yet, but we’re working on it,” Irimia said. 



“I think this kind of measure will be very helpful to produce variables that are prognostic and can help to forecast Alzheimer’s risk. That would be really powerful, especially as we start developing potential drugs for prevention.”



Since men and women showed different patterns of brain aging, this model could also help researchers understand why they face different risks for neurodegenerative diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The study had some limitations. Because it calculates an average pace of aging over a set period, it may not capture recent changes in brain health. 



Additionally, the model performed better for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-habits-may-age-the-brain-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitively</a> normal individuals than for those with Alzheimer’s, likely because it was trained on healthy adults.



Future studies with larger and more diverse populations could improve the model’s accuracy. However, even with its limitations, this research represents a major step forward in understanding how brain aging progresses over time.



By focusing on how fast the brain is changing rather than just its current state, this research could lead to more personalized medical interventions. Maintaining brain health isn’t just about age - it’s about how quickly aging is taking place.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2413442122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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AI can detect if your brain is aging too quickly

Aging affects every part of the body, but the brain...

Robots are learning in a way that was once thought to be exclusive to humans - by watching themselves.



A recent study shows that robots can use simple video footage to understand their own structure and movement. This ability allows them to adjust their actions and even recover from damage without human any intervention.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> have developed a method that enables robots to achieve a deeper understanding of their own bodies. 



Instead of relying on engineers to create detailed simulations, these robots watch their own movements, using a regular camera, and teach themselves how their bodies work.



By developing "self-awareness," these machines could revolutionize automation, making robots more independent, adaptable, and efficient in real-world environments like homes, factories, and disaster zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-observation">Learning from observation</h2>



"Like humans learning to dance by watching their mirror reflection, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-to-accomplish-any-task-by-watching-videos-or-observing-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robots now use raw video</a> to build kinematic self-awareness," explained study lead author Yuhang Hu, a doctoral student at the Creative Machines Lab at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a>.



"Our goal is a robot that understands its own body, adapts to damage, and learns new skills without constant human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-human-bond-helps-guide-social-robot-programming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">programming</a>."



Traditionally, robots are first trained in digital simulations. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/real-life-star-trek-holodeck-created-for-robots-using-chatgpt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">simulations</a> help the robots understand movement before they are deployed in the real world. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/robots_learn-to-move_mirror-watching-themselves_credit-Columbia_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/robots_learn-to-move_mirror-watching-themselves_credit-Columbia_1s.webp" alt="A robot observes its reflection in a mirror, learning its own morphology and kinematics for autonomous self-simulation. The process highlights the intersection of vision-based learning and robotics, where the robot refines its movements and predicts its spatial motion through self-observation. Credit: Jane Nisselson/Columbia Engineering" class="wp-image-1961049"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A robot observes its reflection in a mirror, learning its own morphology and kinematics for autonomous self-simulation. The process highlights the intersection of vision-based learning and robotics, where the robot refines its movements and predicts its spatial motion through self-observation. Credit: Jane Nisselson/Columbia Engineering</figcaption></figure>



“The better and more realistic the simulator, the easier it is for the robot to make the leap from simulation into reality,” said Professor Hod Lipson, chair of the Department of&nbsp;Mechanical Engineering.



However, designing these simulations is a time-consuming and complex task that often requires expert knowledge.



The researchers found a way to bypass this step by allowing robots to build their own simulations based on input from watching themselves move.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-awareness-in-robots">Self-awareness in robots</h2>



The study’s breakthrough came from using deep neural networks to infer 3D movement from 2D video. 



This means the robot can understand its own shape and how it moves, without needing sophisticated sensors. 



More importantly, it can detect changes in its body - such as a bent arm - and adjust its actions accordingly. This kind of adaptability has real-world benefits.



"Imagine a robot vacuum or a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-glimpse-of-the-future-robots-in-nursing-homes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personal assistant bot</a> that notices its arm is bent after bumping into furniture," said Hu. 



"Instead of breaking down or needing repair, it watches itself, adjusts how it moves, and keeps working. This could make home robots more reliable - no constant reprogramming required."



In industrial settings, this capability could be just as valuable. For example, a robot arm in a car factory could get knocked out of alignment and need to be readjusted.



"Instead of halting production, it could watch itself, tweak its movements, and get back to welding, which would cut downtime and costs. This adaptability could make manufacturing more resilient," noted Hu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-robots-need-self-awareness">Why robots need self-awareness </h2>



As robots become more integrated into everyday life, their ability to operate independently will be essential. 



“We humans cannot afford to constantly baby these robots, repair broken parts and adjust performance. Robots need to learn to take care of themselves if they are going to become truly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-with-space-to-think-will-become-more-useful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">useful</a>,” said Professor Lipson. “That’s why self-modeling is so important.”



This study builds on two decades of research at Columbia University. During this time, the researchers have been developing ways for robots to create self-models using cameras and other sensors.



In 2006, their robots could only generate simple stick-figure-like simulations. A decade later, they advanced to higher-fidelity models using multiple cameras. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-self-sufficient-robots">The future of self-sufficient robots</h2>



Now, for the first time, a robot has managed to build a complete kinematic model of itself using just a short video clip from a single standard camera - input that is similar to looking in a mirror.



“We humans are intuitively aware of our body; we can imagine ourselves in the future and visualize the consequences of our actions well before we perform those actions in reality,” explained Professor Lipson.



“Ultimately, we would like to imbue robots with a similar ability to imagine themselves, because once you can imagine yourself in the future, there is no limit to what you can do.”



The ability of robots to self-model and adapt is a significant step forward. It could lead to more resilient machines that require less human oversight, and pave the way for smarter, more independent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-robots-now-with-added-common-sense-and-ability-to-self-correct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robots in homes</a>, factories, and beyond.



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Watch the robot learn by watching itself in the mirror <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rEWQatU5JIw" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">by clicking here...</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42256-025-01006-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Machine Intelligence</a>.



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Robots can now learn like humans, using self-awareness

Robots are learning in a way that was once thought...

In the wild, every meal is a gamble. Animals like lizards must constantly weigh&nbsp;their&nbsp;options - play it safe or take a risk. The wrong choice could mean starvation. But the right one? A feast.



For some creatures, survival is about consistency. They take the sure thing, never gambling on an uncertain future. Others, when faced with starvation, throw caution to the wind.



A recent study led by Maria Thaker, professor at the Centre for Ecological Sciences (<a href="https://ces.iisc.ac.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CES</a>) at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), reveals that certain tropical lizards fall into the latter category. Under the strain of hunger, they roll the dice - risking it all for a chance at a bigger meal.



The study challenges a long-standing belief. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-lizards-struggle-as-global-warming-raises-their-energy-needs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reptiles</a> have often been dismissed as slow, instinct-driven animals. But this research suggests otherwise. These creatures, despite their cold blood, are surprisingly calculating. They don’t just react; they strategize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunger-makes-lizards-take-risks">Hunger makes lizards take risks </h2>



Scientists call it the “risk-sensitive foraging hypothesis.” The idea is simple: hunger changes how animals approach risk. When full, they opt for reliable food sources, even if they’re small. When starving, they chase bigger, uncertain rewards.



Birds and mammals have demonstrated this behavior. But reptiles? They’ve largely been overlooked. After all, many can slow their metabolism and enter a state of torpor when food is scarce. But tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-provide-new-clues-about-the-diets-of-extinct-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a> don’t have that luxury.



“Reptiles can slow down their metabolism a lot. So, in food-scarce times like winter, they go into torpor (hibernation) to avoid starving to death,” explained Professor Thaker.



“In the tropics, however, reptiles are exposed to warm temperatures all year round and cannot slow their metabolism down enough to get through tough (food lean) times. We expected that lizards in the tropics should have evolved the ability to assess food options, because if they don’t, they may risk starving to death.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starving-lizards-make-riskier-choices">Starving lizards make riskier choices</h2>



To test this, the researchers turned to the rock agama (Psammophilus dorsalis), a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-threatens-the-future-of-8-in-10-lizards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizard</a> commonly found in and around cities like Bengaluru. These small, fast-moving reptiles navigate both natural and urban landscapes, making them ideal for studying adaptive behavior.



The team devised a straightforward test. First, they split the lizards into two groups. One group received plenty of food, while the other received nothing for 48 hours. 



Next, both groups were presented with a choice. One option offered two mealworms, guaranteed. The other was a gamble - either zero or four mealworms. Would hunger change their decisions?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-taking-lizards">Risk-taking lizards</h2>



The results showed that well-fed lizards stuck to the safe bet - two mealworms, no surprises. But the starved lizards? They took the risk, picking the unpredictable option far more often.



“We found that well-fed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-lizard-day-2024-celebrating-our-scaly-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a> played it safe, opting for the guaranteed two mealworms option,” said study lead author and PhD student Avik Banerjee.



“On the other hand, starved lizards took greater risks, frequently choosing the variable option which has the potential to get them four mealworms. Remarkably, both groups of lizards ended up with similar net food gains by the end of the trials, indicating that the different strategies worked.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-survival-strategy-not-a-fluke">A survival strategy, not a fluke</h2>



The study reshapes how we see reptile decision-making. Unlike their cold-climate cousins, which rely on metabolic slowdowns, tropical lizards must stay active. Their survival depends on making smart, timely choices.



And this goes beyond instinct. The lizards remembered their options, assessed the risks, and made choices based on their needs. That’s strategy, not reflex.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lizards-remember-past-choices">Lizards remember past choices</h2>



For decades, intelligence has been linked primarily to mammals and birds. But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-rely-on-trees-so-what-happens-when-they-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> are proving to be far more complex than previously assumed.



“We think that humans have an excellent ability to assess our environment and take calculated risks when needed. But lizards can too,” said Professor Thaker.



“The fact that the rock agamas can remember different options and make appropriate choices to secure their survival is rather cool. We are surrounded by very clever and calculating animals.”



Lizards, often overlooked, might just be thinking more than we ever gave them credit for. And if they can weigh risks and rewards - who knows what else they’re capable of?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0628" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Lizards take bigger risks when they are hungry

In the wild, every meal is a gamble. Animals like...

Finding time to rest often takes a back seat with our fast-paced lifestyles. Yet, a recent study shows how quickly sleep deprivation can lead to hidden health problems.



The research suggests that even a single day of poor sleep can affect the immune system in ways that raise inflammation. 



The findings come from Dr. Fatema Al-Rashed, lead researcher at the <a href="http://dasmaninstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dasman Diabetes Institute</a> in Kuwait City, who worked with a team to uncover connections between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-helps-prevent-unwanted-memories-from-popping-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disrupted rest</a> and physical health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-sleep-matters">Why sleep matters</h2>



Many people focus on dieting or exercise without realizing sleep is just as important. A full night of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-sleep-patterns-affect-your-health-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rest</a> gives the body time to restore its cells.



A lack of quality sleep can leave the brain and body under pressure. This stress can spill over into metabolic pathways that help regulate appetite and energy.



Researchers have observed that loss of sleep may push the body to release more cortisol, a hormone tied to stress responses. Elevated cortisol levels can drive up inflammation if this continues for prolonged periods.



Another issue is that poor rest can weaken the body’s defenses against infections. When energy is in short supply, the immune response may not be as efficient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-sleepless-night-alters-immune-cells">One sleepless night alters immune cells</h2>



The scientists noted that missing one 24-hour period of sleep could shift the makeup of certain monocytes, which regulate inflammation. This shift matched what was seen in individuals with obesity.



Monocytes are known as the body’s first responders when a threat appears. One type, known as non-classical monocytes, became more common in those who did not sleep.



These cells can ramp up pro-inflammatory signals, raising concerns about ongoing health effects. If this pattern becomes routine, it might open the door to lingering problems.



Experts emphasize that rest is a key factor in balancing immune cell populations. Small tweaks in a person’s daily routine might keep these changes in check.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poor-sleep-and-long-term-health-issues">Poor sleep and long-term health issues</h2>



Prolonged poor sleep might make the body more vulnerable to metabolic disorders. Those who consistently lose rest may struggle with weight management, insulin regulation, and stable blood pressure.



Certain daily habits, like screen time before bed, can steal hours that could be spent recharging. Many devices also emit light that signals the brain to stay awake.



Work schedules and social commitments sometimes disrupt natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-less-than-seven-hours-high-blood-pressure-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep rhythms</a>. Over time, these disturbances add up and may contribute to chronic issues.



"This disruption in sleep has profound implications for immune health and overall well-being," said Dr. Al-Rashed. She noted that modern lifestyles often clash with the body’s need for consistent rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-sleep-changes-improve-overall-health">Small sleep changes improve overall health</h2>



The research team hopes to pinpoint how modest changes in rest might help curb disease risk. "We aim for this research to drive policies and strategies that recognize the critical role of sleep in public health," said Dr. Al-Rashed.



Community interventions could nudge people toward better sleep habits. Even simple actions like placing a limit on nighttime device use might spark improvements.



More comprehensive guidelines might come from health authorities who see a link between quality sleep and national well-being. Some public health campaigns are already highlighting the importance of regular sleep.



Employers may consider flexible shifts or designated rest areas to accommodate workers with hectic schedules. Such steps could ease the strain on employees juggling multiple responsibilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-lifestyle-factors">Exploring lifestyle factors</h2>



Foods high in sugar or caffeine can disturb restful nights. Eating a balanced dinner earlier in the evening is often easier on the digestive system.



Bright screens from phones, TVs, or computers can trick the brain into thinking it is still daytime. This effect can reduce melatonin secretion, which helps maintain the body’s natural clock.



Regular physical activity often helps individuals nod off more easily. However, high-intensity workouts late at night might boost alertness instead of promoting calm.



Managing stress through simple relaxation exercises, such as mindful breathing, can prepare the body for sleep. A calmer state often leads to fewer midnight awakenings.



A comfortable bedroom environment with minimal noise supports deeper rest. Slightly lowering the thermostat might make it easier to settle down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solutions-for-better-sleep-and-health">Solutions for better sleep and health</h2>



Younger groups are particularly vulnerable to late-night schedules. Some schools have considered adjusting start times to align with <a href="https://www.nigms.nih.gov/education/fact-sheets/Pages/circadian-rhythms.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circadian rhythms</a> in teens.



Travelers who regularly cross time zones also experience disruptions that can harm their overall wellness. Quick fixes like short naps sometimes help, but consistent strategies are better for lasting relief.



Future studies may explore how small disruptions in rest, such as pulling an all-nighter once a week, stack up over longer stretches. Researchers want to see if targeted interventions can offset these irregularities.



Some scientists envision collaborations with technology developers to reduce nighttime screen impact. By supporting balanced habits, society might ward off the hidden risks linked to missed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-timing-has-a-powerful-effect-on-our-mood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jimmunol/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jimmun/vkae016/8037869" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Immunology</a>.



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One night of lost sleep can trigger hidden health issues

Finding time to rest often takes a back seat with...

More than 99% of birds can fly, but some species have lost this ability over time. Penguins, ostriches, and kiwis evolved into flightless forms, adapting to their specific environments. 



A recent study published in the journal Evolution examines how birds transition from flight to flightlessness. 



The researchers compared the feathers and bodies of flightless birds with their closest flying relatives, identifying which traits change first.



These findings provide insights into evolutionary processes and help determine whether extinct birds were flightless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-birds-stop-flying">Why some birds stop flying</h2>



All <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> that are flightless today descended from ancestors that could fly.



“Going from something that can't fly to flying is quite the engineering challenge, but going from something that can fly to not flying is rather easy,” noted Evan Saitta, a research associate at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Field Museum</a> in Chicago and lead author of the study.



Birds often lose the ability to fly when they settle in predator-free islands. Without evolutionary pressure to escape threats, they gradually adapt to a ground-based lifestyle. Another common reason for flight loss is a shift to semi-aquatic living. 



Penguins, for instance, “fly” underwater using their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-birds-brains-evolved-to-enable-them-to-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wings</a>, leading to significant changes in their feathers and skeletons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flight-loss-in-modern-birds">Flight loss in modern birds</h2>



Saitta, primarily a paleontologist, took advantage of the Field Museum’s vast bird collections. 



“I suddenly had access to all these modern birds, and it made me wonder, ‘What happens when a bird loses the ability to fly?’” 



Measuring various feather characteristics, Saitta compared preserved skins of 30 flightless species and their closest flying relatives. He also examined more distant species to expand the dataset.



Previous studies show when different flightless birds diverged from their flying ancestors. Ostriches lost flight much earlier than the Fuegian steamer duck. Their feathers reflect this difference. 



“Ostriches have been flightless for so long that their feathers are no longer optimized for being aerodynamic,” said Saitta. Their long, shaggy feathers serve different purposes, such as insulation and display.



In contrast, the Fuegian steamer duck, which lost flight more recently, retains feathers similar to those of flying ducks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feather-evolution-after-flight-loss">Feather evolution after flight loss</h2>



Saitta was surprised at how long flightless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-wings-inspire-improvements-in-airplane-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> retained flight-adapted feathers. Logically, one would expect unnecessary feather traits to change quickly. However, his postdoctoral advisor Peter Makovicky offered another explanation.



“Pete pointed out that when trying to understand why a modern bird looks the way it does, you can’t just think about natural selection or relaxation thereof. You have to also consider developmental constraints,” said Saitta.



Feathers develop in a strict sequence that is difficult to alter. When birds lose flight, their feather features disappear in the reverse order they evolved.



Feather evolution follows a predictable pattern. Flight feathers first evolved in dinosaurs and became increasingly complex. When a bird loses flight, these adaptations vanish in reverse order. 



Some recent features, like asymmetric flight feathers, disappear quickly. However, fundamental feather structures take much longer to change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skeleton-changes-occur-first">Skeleton changes occur first </h2>



Saitta and his team also found that certain body features change more quickly than feathers. 



“The first things to change when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-talk-to-each-other-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> lose flight, possibly even before the flight feathers become symmetrical, is the proportion of their wings and their tails. We therefore see skeletal changes and also a change in overall body mass,” explained Saitta.



Skeleton changes occur before feather modifications because bones require more energy to grow. Evolution prioritizes reducing these costs first. 



“Let’s say a bird species lands on an island where they are able to safely live on the ground and don’t need to fly anymore. The first things to go are going to be these big, expensive bones and muscles, but feathers are cheap, so there’s less active selection to change them,” said Saitta.



Maintaining a flight-ready skeleton is a larger evolutionary burden than retaining unnecessary feathers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossilized-flightless-birds">Fossilized flightless birds</h2>



This study aids paleontologists who study fossilized birds and feathered dinosaurs.



“Flight didn’t evolve overnight, and flight, or at least gliding, was possibly lost many times in extinct species, just as in surviving bird lineages. Our paper helps show the order in which birds’ bodies reflect those changes,” said Saitta.



Fossilized feathers alone may not indicate whether an ancient bird could fly. Instead, researchers should first examine body mass and wing proportions. 



These traits change before feathers do. If skeletal features suggest flight loss, feather asymmetry can provide further confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-research-on-flight-loss">Past research on flight loss</h2>



Saitta’s study aligns with earlier research on feather changes after flight loss. 



“The good news is that because I came at this question from a different angle, we got results that are very consistent with a lot of the previous research, but I think maybe a little bit broader than if I had approached the question with a more specific focus,” said Saitta.



By analyzing both skeletal and feather changes, this research offers a more complete understanding of how and why birds lose the ability to fly. It also provides valuable tools for identifying flightlessness in extinct species, adding another layer to the study of avian evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/evolut/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/evolut/qpaf020/7997201?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution</a>.



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Why some birds lose the ability to fly

More than 99% of birds can fly, but some species...

A giant iceberg is drifting from the icy edges of Antarctica, and experts warn that this massive chunk is just one more sign of a changing climate.



As temperatures rise, the formation of these migrating ice islands is happening more frequently. Experts wonder how much bigger these chunks could get and what that means for ocean life.



Dr. Peter Bijl at <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> leads a team investigating iceberg <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-iceberg-a23a-breaks-free-from-ocean-cyclone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">routes</a> to understand how these icy remnants of the past might affect our future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-antarctica-s-icebergs-break-away">Why Antarctica's icebergs break away</h2>



Icebergs are more than just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-iceberg-may-crash-into-a-wildlife-sanctuary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">floating ice</a>. They form when large chunks of glaciers break away from the main ice mass and drift into open water.



Meteorological shifts can accelerate this breakage, leading to towering shapes that can stretch for miles. During warmer periods in Earth’s distant past, these frosty giants also broke free and ventured far beyond the polar circle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-missing-link-from-the-past">A missing link from the past</h2>



During the late Eocene epoch, Earth was generally warmer than it is today. Scientists suspect that some regions near the present-day Weddell Sea still managed to generate icy blocks that traveled vast distances.



Evidence of these journeys emerged when ancient ice-rafted debris (IRD) was found near South Orkney. IRD refers to rock fragments carried by drifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-icebergs-are-not-the-main-threat-to-antarcticas-stability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice</a>, which later settles on the ocean floor as the ice melts away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-details-about-iceberg-survival">New details about iceberg survival </h2>



Master’s student Mark Elbertsen used computer simulations to uncover surprising details about iceberg survival during those warmer intervals. He showed that some areas of the Weddell Sea likely remained cold enough for medium-sized bergs to stay intact and reach distant spots.



“The high melt rates under the Eocene warm climate require a minimum initial iceberg mass on the order of 100 Mt,” wrote Elbertsen and colleagues. By meeting that threshold, these drifting blocks could endure the journey across warmer waters and still leave traces in places like South Orkney.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctica-s-iceberg-breakaways">Antarctica’s iceberg breakaways</h2>



<a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/land-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> now wonder if the same conditions are appearing again, but for a different reason. Today, human-driven warming threatens to shift the balance between ice accumulation and melt in Antarctica even faster.



With more calving events on the horizon, the Southern Ocean faces a flood of fresh water that might affect deep ocean circulation. 



Experts also warn that this influx could influence how carbon is stored in the seas, potentially speeding up broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-iceberg-a23a-undergoing-major-erosion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate shifts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-icebergs-and-ocean-currents">Icebergs and ocean currents</h2>



Ocean currents are essential for distributing heat, nutrients, and oxygen around the globe. If currents weaken or alter their path, marine habitats could be disrupted, impacting both wildlife and human communities.



Researchers continue to piece together how these enormous chunks of ice can not only shape the present but also offer a preview of future conditions. By tracking the flow of fresh water, they hope to reveal the ocean’s response to rising temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctica-s-icebergs-affect-wildlife">Antarctica's icebergs affect wildlife</h2>



Species like penguins, seals, and whales rely on stable conditions in the Southern Ocean. Large icebergs can disrupt or enhance their feeding grounds, depending on where the ice settles or breaks apart.



An iceberg that runs aground may stir up nutrients and plankton, supporting local fish populations. Some scientists see these drifting masses as both hazards and possible lifelines in regions struggling with warming waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Ongoing climate models suggest that Antarctic glaciation events will intensify if warming continues at its current pace. This research feeds into broader global models that attempt to predict sea-level rise and possible disruptions to ocean circulation.



Geological records serve as clues to how these processes might unfold. The information gleaned from past iceberg drifts helps researchers anticipate what new threats could emerge as conditions keep changing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-icebergs-influence-ocean-chemistry">Icebergs influence ocean chemistry</h2>



Iceberg studies across multiple eras highlight the importance of understanding how drifting ice shapes ocean chemistry, wildlife, and global currents. These insights remind us that changes at the poles have consequences that ripple across the planet.



Satellite monitoring has made it easier to track icebergs as they drift across thousands of miles in the Southern Ocean. Mariners rely on up-to-date advisories to avoid collisions and chart safe passages through changing waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-new-waters">Navigating new waters</h2>



Tourism in polar regions has grown steadily, with cruise ships now venturing closer to icy coastlines. This creates fresh opportunities for exploration, but also raises concerns about accidents in remote areas and potential harm to fragile ecosystems.



In light of these realities, scientists emphasize that understanding iceberg <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-levels-drop-to-record-lows-on-both-poles-as-scientists-issue-warning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> is more than an academic exercise. It holds tangible value for industries, communities, and marine life that depend on stable waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-iceberg-risks">Managing iceberg risks</h2>



Experts believe that international cooperation is crucial to handle any potential iceberg-related hazards. By sharing data and coordinated research efforts, nations can prepare for sudden shifts in these floating giants’ paths and mitigate possible risks.



Gaining new insights from ancient ice can also spark solutions for a future that may see even larger calving events. Mapping out those possibilities could support better planning for coastal communities worldwide.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/21/441/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate of the Past</a>.



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Massive iceberg that broke away from Antarctica sparks concerns

A giant iceberg is drifting from the icy edges of...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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