Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Scientists have found that a common parasite might have a bigger impact on brain function than we previously realized - even when it infects only a few cells.



Most people who carry the parasite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasite-makes-infected-people-look-more-attractive/">Toxoplasma gondii</a> never even realize. It can hide in the brain for years without causing any symptoms.



A new study from researchers at the University of California, Riverside sheds light on how this microscopic intruder messes with the brain’s communication system. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-parasite-does-in-brain-cells">What the parasite does in brain cells</h2>



Toxoplasma gondii is able to infect almost any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-and-birds-became-warm-blooded-after-surviving-a-mass-extinction/">warm-blooded</a> animal, including humans. It tends to settle in the brain, where it forms long-lasting cysts inside neurons. Once there, it can stay dormant for decades.



Using both mouse models and human cells, the researchers found that infected neurons release fewer extracellular vesicles - small packets used by cells to pass information. This breakdown in communication can have ripple effects throughout the brain.



Emma H. Wilson, a professor of biomedical sciences in the <a href="https://medschool.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside School of Medicine,</a> led the research team. 



“We found this disruption in EV signaling can interfere with how neurons and glial cells, especially astrocytes, maintain a healthy brain environment,” said Professor Wilson. “Even a handful of infected neurons can shift the brain’s neurochemical balance."



"This suggests that communication between neurons and supporting glial cells is not only critical, but also vulnerable to hijacking by parasites.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-common-infection-with-hidden-risks">A common infection with hidden risks</h2>



About 10–30% of people in the U.S. are estimated to be infected with Toxoplasma gondii. The parasite is usually picked up from eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worrying-levels-of-antibiotic-resistance-found-in-uncooked-meats/">undercooked meat</a> or contact with cat feces.



While a healthy immune system keeps it in check, it can become dangerous in people with weakened immunity, such as those undergoing chemotherapy or living with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-variant-linked-to-both-covid-risk-and-hiv-protection/">HIV</a>.



Current tests can only show if someone has been exposed by detecting antibodies. They can’t tell if the parasite is still in the brain or whether it’s affecting brain health.



According to Professor Wilson, the research opens the door to using EVs as biomarkers, which can be isolated from blood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-brain-chemistry-breaks-down">When brain chemistry breaks down</h2>



Professor Wilson explained that in healthy mouse brains, astrocytes help keep neurotransmitters like glutamate in balance, preventing neurons from becoming overexcited.



But when Toxoplasma gondii infects neurons and disrupts their EV signaling, that balance is lost. Glutamate levels rise, which can lead to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-is-more-likely-to-cause-seizures-than-the-flu/">seizures</a>, neural damage, or changes in brain connectivity.



“The parasite may play a larger role in neurological and behavioral conditions than we previously thought,” said Professor Wilson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-clues-and-future-treatments">Blood clues and future treatments</h2>



The research team is now analyzing human blood samples to search for EVs that could signal a Toxoplasma gondii brain infection.



They are also working to understand how glial cells sense and respond to parasite proteins. This knowledge could one day lead to new treatments - or even a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-influenza-vaccine-could-offer-lifetime-immunity/">vaccine</a>.



“Our brains have built-in defenses that may recognize and respond to neurons infected by Toxoplasma gondii,” noted Professor Wilson. “If we can learn how to support or enhance that process, we may be able to better protect people, especially the most vulnerable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-the-public">What this means for the public</h2>



Despite its potential effects, the parasite is often misunderstood. “There’s no need to avoid someone who is infected; most people live their entire lives without symptoms,” said Professor Wilson.



 “Pregnant individuals should be cautious as the parasite can cause serious birth defects if contracted for the first time during pregnancy."



The most effective prevention is proper food handling and hygiene. "Cook meat thoroughly, wash vegetables, and always wash your hands after handling cat litter, especially from young cats, which are more likely to shed the parasite."



This research doesn’t mean everyone needs to panic. But it does mean we should take this tiny parasite seriously - not just because of what it does when active, but because of how it quietly changes the way brain cells talk to each other. 



Understanding those changes may eventually help protect millions of people living with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-can-hide-in-lung-cells-and-cause-chronic-disease/">chronic infections</a> they never knew they had.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1012733">PLOS Pathogens</a>.



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Common parasite may be affecting your brain without symptoms

Scientists have found that a common parasite might have a...

For centuries, scientists have tried to understand how sharks and other animals grow and function as they increase in size. 



At the heart of this inquiry lies a simple geometric principle: surface area grows more slowly than volume. The "two-thirds scaling law" captures this relationship, suggesting that surface area scales with volume to the power of 2/3. 



While the idea is elegant, proving it in large, complex animals like sharks has been a challenge.



Now, a new study led by researchers from James Cook University (JCU) and the <a href="https://www.umass.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts</a> offers compelling proof that this rule holds true for one of the most diverse and ancient animal groups on the planet - sharks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-grow-by-the-rules">Sharks grow by the rules</h2>



Using digital models of 54 shark species, the team uncovered remarkable consistency in how these animals scale in size. Their work not only strengthens a foundational principle in biology but also reveals hidden constraints that may shape evolution itself.



“We found that sharks follow what's known as the 'two-thirds scaling law' almost perfectly,” said Joel Gayford, lead author and PhD candidate at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JCU</a>.



This means that as the body of a shark gets larger, the surface area increases in a predictable way based on their volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-models-map-the-shark-s-body">3D models map the shark's body</h2>



The team created high-resolution 3D meshes from CT scans and photogrammetry of museum specimens. The models were cleaned and processed in Blender software to remove distortions caused by preservation. Surface area and volume were measured digitally for accuracy.



The sample ranged from the tiny&nbsp;Euprotomicrus bispinatus&nbsp;to the massive&nbsp;Rhincodon typus, the whale shark. Across these, the team observed nearly perfect adherence to the expected geometric rule. 



They scaled every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-sea-monster-shark-fossils-found-in-worlds-largest-cave-325-million-years/">species</a> to the same body length (500 cm) and still found minimal differences in surface area and volume. This step removed body length as a confounding factor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-scaling-stays-consistent">Shark scaling stays consistent</h2>



The study grouped sharks by habitat - pelagic, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-two-thirds-of-coral-reef-sharks-and-rays-face-extinction/">reef-associated</a>, demersal, and others. Most showed near-identical surface area-to-volume relationships. 



Only reef-associated sharks showed minor deviation, with a scaling exponent of 0.60. Pelagic sharks matched the theoretical 0.66 almost exactly.



The team also accounted for evolutionary history using phylogenetic generalized least squares (PGLS) analysis. This ensured close relatives did not skew the results. Even after this, the average scaling value was just 0.64, only 3% off from 0.66.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biology-restricts-growth">Biology restricts growth</h2>



“This ratio is fundamental,” said Professor Jodie Rummer. “It underpins how animals breathe, regulate temperature, and process waste.” The near-perfect fit hints at deep-rooted evolutionary and developmental constraints.



Developmental limitations may prevent major changes in tissue distribution. Altering body geometry early in development is likely energy-intensive.



“Changing the way tissue is distributed throughout the body might require major changes during early embryonic development, and that's expensive, energetically speaking,” said Gayford.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-shape-stills-matters">Why shape stills matters</h2>



The two-thirds law is not just theoretical. It supports models predicting how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/">animals</a> regulate heat, absorb oxygen, or respond to climate change. 



“Surface area-to-volume ratios are key inputs in equations used to model how animals respond to climate change,” said Gayford. These equations can now be applied with greater confidence to sharks and other large animals.



The authors also observed that surface area in sharks did not follow phylogenetic patterns as strongly as volume did. This suggests that surface area may be more flexible but still constrained by developmental factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-body-follows-deep-biology">Shark body follows deep biology</h2>



Despite massive variation in shark ecology and movement, some are sluggish bottom-dwellers and others fast-swimming predators, their surface-to-volume relationships stay constant. 



Even differences in shape and lifestyle do not seem to change the rule. That consistency points to deeper biological limits rather than ecological demands.



This study adds weight to the idea that body design follows strict physical and developmental rules. It also shows how new tools like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-human-brain-created-by-harvard-and-google/">3D imaging</a> can answer long-standing questions in biology. 



Although researchers still need to explore the energy costs of body shape changes, this study lays a strong foundation.



Sharks obey the geometry of life, their body surfaces grow in lockstep with volume in a way that supports a basic biological law. The rule holds true across shape, size, and ecological function.



That’s a rare kind of simplicity in biology and one that might apply far beyond sharks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.242205" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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How the shark's body grows with geometric precision

For centuries, scientists have tried to understand how sharks and...

Thick, planet-wide blankets of clay are among the Red Planet’s most intriguing geological puzzles. Because clay forms only in the presence of abundant liquid water, scientists have long viewed these deposits as potential time capsules for ancient life.



A new study now paints a clearer picture of where, when, and how those mineral layers took shape.



Led by planetary geologist Rhianna Moore during her postdoctoral work at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">The University of Texas at Austin</a>, the team sifted through high-resolution images and topographic data for 150 previously cataloged clay outcrops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quiet-clay-terraces-on-mars">Quiet clay terraces on Mars</h2>



Thick clay deposits span across Mars and consistently show a surprising set of shared traits. Most sit at low elevations, adjacent to the vestiges of long-vanished lakes. Yet they remain distinctly removed from ancient river valleys that once carved the highlands.



“These areas have a lot of water but not a lot of topographic uplift, so they’re very stable,” Moore said. She added that such stability would have limited destructive erosion by fast-moving water. 



This would have allowed clays to accumulate layer upon layer rather than being scoured away.



“If you have stable terrain, you’re not messing up your potentially habitable environments. Favorable conditions might be able to be sustained for longer periods of time,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-earth-s-tropics"><a></a>Lessons From Earth’s tropics</h2>



Study co-author Tim Goudge, an assistant professor in <a href="https://eps.jsg.utexas.edu/">UT Austin’s Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences</a>, sees an echo of earthly analogues in Mars’ ancient past.



“On Earth, the places where we tend to see the thickest clay mineral sequences are in humid environments, and those with minimal physical erosion that can strip away newly created weathering products,” said Goudge.



The Martian patterns, he noted, match the latter half of that recipe almost perfectly. “These results suggest the latter element is true also on Mars, while there are hints at the former as well.”



Because Mars lacks plate tectonics, its surface doesn’t undergo the constant stirring seen on Earth. 



That relative stillness, combined with a clement climate billions of years ago, created quiet basins where rainfall and standing ponds could slowly break down <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-volcanic-clues-hint-at-ancient-life-on-mars/">volcanic rock </a>into clay minerals. Violent floods didn’t sweep the new sediments away, allowing them to accumulate over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-carbonate-conundrum"><a></a>A carbonate conundrum</h2>



The same conditions that favored clay formation could also explain one of Mars’ long-standing mysteries: the scarcity of carbonate rocks.



On Earth, volcanic CO2 reacts with fresh basaltic crust, eventually locking carbon into sprawling beds of limestone and dolomite. But on Mars, with no tectonic conveyor belt to bring up fresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-lava-worlds-magma-oceans-affect-the-evolution-of-hot-planets/">lava</a>, that cycle stalled.



Instead, the study proposes, CO2 may have remained aloft longer, warming the planet and further fueling slow, persistent weathering that built clays.



At the same time, by trapping byproducts of that weathering inside impermeable mineral layers, clay growth might have robbed the environment of ingredients needed to form carbonates in the first place.



“It’s probably one of many factors contributing to this weird lack of predicted carbonates on Mars,” Moore said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-life-friendly-conditions">Signs of life-friendly conditions</h2>



Taken together, the findings hint at expansive, placid watery habitats that persisted long enough to concentrate minerals - and perhaps organic molecules - essential for life.



Thick clays help astrobiologists by preserving biochemical evidence, protecting it from radiation and geological disruption.



Moore, now part of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grow-plants-on-moon-by-2026-nasa-artemis-iii-mission/">NASA’s Artemis</a> program team, emphasized that the work grew out of <a href="https://habitability.utexas.edu/">UT Austin’s Center for Planetary Systems Habitability</a>, an initiative that crosses disciplinary boundaries to answer where life might arise beyond Earth.



By mapping mild, lake-adjacent clay basins, the study offers a shortlist of enticing targets for future rover missions or even human explorers looking for fossilized biosignatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conditions-where-life-may-have-thrived">Conditions where life may have thrived</h2>



Mars today is frigid and desiccated, but during the period when these clays formed - more than three billion years ago - it was likely dotted with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-largest-lake-once-contained-an-enormous-amount-of-water/">lakes</a> and seas.



The new analysis suggests those bodies of water were not just transient puddles fed by catastrophic floods. Instead, long-lived, shallow basins may have hosted slow-unfolding chemical reactions over millennia.



Although valley networks delivered water downhill, the most extensive clay blankets on Mars avoided the valleys themselves. This is evidence that turbulence and sediment-choked streams were not the primary architects.



Instead, chemical dissolution - not physical abrasion - sculpted much of the ancient surface. That balance created calm, warm conditions where life might have thrived beneath a thicker, greenhouse-gas-rich atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probing-clays-for-clues">Probing clays for clues</h2>



With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-rover-captured-driving-for-the-first-time/">orbiters</a> continuing to beam back ever finer data, researchers hope to refine models of how water cycled through early Mars. Drill cores from future missions could verify the age, chemistry, and longevity of the newly mapped clay fields.



Meanwhile, laboratories on Earth will experiment with simulated Martian conditions to test whether stable, low-energy ponds truly can yield the mineral fingerprints observed from space.



For now, the study suggests that Mars’ most promising habitats might not have been in raging river deltas. Instead, they may have been in quiet lakeshores where mud settled gently, season after season, sealing away the planet’s watery secrets - and perhaps its biological ones as well.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-025-02584-w">Nature Astronomy</a>.



Image Credit: Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UArizona



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Clay layers on Mars may have harbored ancient life

Thick, planet-wide blankets of clay are among the Red Planet’s...

In the sweltering crown of the Amazon rainforest, nearly 200 feet above the forest floor, researchers have spent years chasing a deceptively complex question: How do tropical canopy trees keep from frying in the very sunlight they rely on?



A new study led by <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a> (MSU) has found that Amazonian trees juggle sunlight with remarkable finesse - yet that balance may falter as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-foundation-of-life-is-at-risk-from-climate-change/">climate change</a> turns the forest hotter, drier, and brighter.



Doctoral candidate Leonardo Ziccardi led the study under the guidance of forestry ecophysiologist Scott Stark. 



Since 2019, the team has mounted multiple field campaigns near Manaus, Brazil. They carried handheld photosynthesis instruments and ropes strong enough to haul scientists and gear into the leafy heights.



“It’s been a long journey,” Ziccardi said, recalling hundreds of hours spent aloft, recording minute-by-minute fluctuations in leaf temperature, humidity, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-dance-entangled-photons-wave-functions-captured-real-time/">photon</a> capture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-manage-light-like-solar-panels">Trees manage light like solar panels</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-inspired-energy-lessons-from-leaves-and-raindrops/">Leaves</a> are biological solar panels, absorbing photons to power photosynthesis. But excess light can scorch the photosynthetic machinery unless trees convert the overload to harmless heat or a faint red glow known as chlorophyll fluorescence.



For decades, ecologists have used satellite-detected “solar-induced fluorescence” (SIF) as a stand-in for photosynthesis across vast regions.



Until now, however, no one had mapped in detail how individual canopy leaves partition light between photosynthetic work and protective dissipation in the ever-shifting conditions of an Amazon dry season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-every-photon">Tracking every photon</h2>



Using the MultispeQ - a portable device created at <a href="https://prl.natsci.msu.edu/about/index.aspx">MSU’s DOE-funded Plant Research Laboratory</a> by co-author David Kramer - the team clipped onto thousands of leaves spanning dozens of tree species and all levels of the canopy.



The instrument measures absorbed light, photosynthetic electron flow, heat loss, and real-time fluorescence, letting the scientists trace every photon’s fate.



The data reveal canopy leaves acting as huge, sensitive antennas. Under mild conditions, leaves direct most light to carbon fixation, releasing only small amounts as heat and fluorescence.



As midday sun or dry-season humidity deficits intensify, the balance shifts. Leaves ratchet up safety valves that vent surplus energy as heat.



When those safeguards max out, fluorescence surges as a last-ditch outlet, even while photosynthetic rates plunge - an early warning that cell machinery is approaching burnout.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-three-phase-stress-signature"><a></a>A three-phase stress signature</h2>



This nuanced response emerged as a consistent three-phase pattern across species and canopy positions.



In a balanced phase, at low to moderate light, photosynthesis and fluorescence rise in tandem. Leaves are using energy efficiently, and protective heat dissipation remains secondary.



In the transition phase, higher light or drier air forces leaves to divert more absorption into heat. In this stage, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/">photosynthesis</a> plateaus and fluorescence begins to decouple from it.



Finally, in the overload phase, heat dissipation hits its ceiling. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluorescent-caves-on-earth-can-teach-us-about-extraterrestrial-life-environments/">Fluorescence</a> spikes even higher, signaling potential photodamage, while photosynthesis collapses.



Such high-resolution leaf physiology had never before been charted in Amazonian forests. For Ziccardi, the breakthrough sprang from relentless canopy work.



“Since 2019, we’ve run multiple field campaigns across seasons, climbing giant trees in the heart of the Amazon to understand how these forests respond to environmental changes," he said. "We’ve spent hundreds of hours up in the canopy doing measurements - some of the most intense and rewarding work I’ve ever done."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-may-misread-tree-stress">Satellites may misread tree stress</h2>



The discovery carries a caution for global remote-sensing efforts. Researchers often map SIF from space to estimate gross primary productivity. This key metric tracks how much carbon dioxide vegetation converts into biomass each year.



The study shows that during severe droughts - when cloud cover thins and sunlight becomes harsher - canopy leaves may glow brightly even as their photosynthetic capacity craters. Relying on SIF alone could therefore exaggerate the forest’s true productivity at precisely the times it is most stressed.



As the Amazon’s dry season lengthens under warming temperatures and regional deforestation, clouds are thinning, and insolation is rising. Whether canopy leaves can sustain their intricate balancing act under these compound pressures remains an open question.



The team’s measurements suggest resilience but not invincibility: energy-dissipating pathways can adjust, yet they have limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-amazon-trees-up-close">Studying Amazon trees up close</h2>



By combining leaf-level measurements with satellite imagery, researchers can refine algorithms that translate fluorescence into carbon uptake, improving forecasts of the forest’s future. But such calibration requires continued boots - or rather, ropes - in the canopy.



Stark notes that the Amazon’s towering biomes host myriad species, each with distinct physiology. Ongoing field campaigns will probe whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-forests-can-survive-drought-but-it-comes-at-a-high-cost/">drought</a>-adapted trees hold hidden advantages or if a tipping point looms where protective strategies fail en masse.



The work also provides a template for monitoring other tropical forests edging toward hotter, clearer climates.



Integrating handheld devices like the MultispeQ with flux towers, drones, and satellites could provide a multiscale view of photosynthetic health. This is crucial for sounding alarms before irreversible die-back sets in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-delicate-dance-with-light"><a></a>A delicate dance with light</h2>



The Amazon’s canopy trees evolved to thrive in a Goldilocks zone of radiant power. They receive enough sunlight to drive one-fifth of the planet’s photosynthesis, yet it's softened by frequent clouds and moist air. Climate change threatens to tip that balance.



Ziccardi’s data offer a first-hand glimpse of how each leaf on a giant tropical tree responds second by second to light’s bounty and burden. 



The delicate choreography between photosynthesis, heat venting, and fluorescence could determine whether the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforest-emissions-shape-the-climate-and-cloud-formation/">rainforest</a> continues to trap carbon - or begins to release it back to an already warming world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.70183">New Phytologist</a>.



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Climate change is disrupting how Amazon trees process sunlight

In the sweltering crown of the Amazon rainforest, nearly 200...

Hope isn’t just a nice feeling - it is a lifeline. While happiness and gratitude often get the spotlight in discussions around well-being, new research shows that hope might be even more important. 



A recent study from researchers at the <a href="https://missouri.edu/">University of Missouri</a> challenges long-held assumptions about hope. It’s not about wishful thinking - hope gives life depth, purpose, and direction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-powerful-emotional-force">A powerful emotional force </h2>



For years, hope has been primarily linked to motivation and setting goals. But this latest research suggests that there’s something deeper going on. 



Hope is not just about achieving things. It’s a powerful emotional force that helps us feel like our lives matter.



Study lead author Megan Edwards earned a doctorate at Mizzou and is now a postdoctoral scholar at Duke University.



"Our research shifts the perspective on hope from merely a cognitive process related to goal attainment to recognizing it as a vital emotional experience that enriches life's meaning," said Edwards. "This insight opens new avenues for enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/houseplants-boosted-psychological-well-being-during-covid-19-lockdown/">psychological well-being</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-isn-t-a-luxury-it-s-essential">Hope isn’t a luxury - it’s essential</h2>



The study, conducted in the Department of Psychological Sciences, included six experiments and more than 2,300 participants from different backgrounds. 



The team looked at a wide range of positive emotions - amusement, excitement, contentment, happiness. But again and again, one emotion stood out.



Only hope consistently predicted a stronger sense of meaning in life. This isn’t just an abstract idea. Feeling like your life has meaning has real-world effects. It’s tied to better relationships, improved physical health, higher income, and greater emotional well-being.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-often-undervalue-the-most-meaningful-experiences-in-life/">Experiencing life as meaningful</a> is crucial for just about every good thing you can imagine in a person's life,” said study co-author Professor Laura King.



“This cornerstone of psychological functioning is not a rare experience - it is available to people in their everyday lives and hope is one of the things that make life feel meaningful.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-sets-hope-apart">What sets hope apart</h2>



So what sets hope apart from other positive emotions? It isn’t just about feeling good in the moment - it’s about feeling like tomorrow might be better than today.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-happiness-come-from-it-depends-on-who-you-are/">Happiness</a>, for example, is often tied to what’s happening right now. A fun event, a compliment, a good day. 



Gratitude reflects on what has already happened - what you’ve received or survived. But hope is forward-looking. It lives in possibility, and that’s what gives it power.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-through-the-tough-times">Getting through the tough times</h2>



Hope helps people move through hard times, not by pretending things are perfect, but by allowing them to imagine that things could improve. 



It’s that sense of potential - even when things are rough - that keeps people going. Hope is what helps someone apply for a job after a rejection, try again after a setback, or get out of bed when life feels heavy.



And unlike fleeting moments of happiness, hope can stick around. It can grow quietly, even in tough conditions, shaping how we see our lives and what we believe is possible.



This emotional staying power might explain why hope plays such a strong role in shaping how meaningful life feels. It’s not just a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/houseplants-improve-mood-and-productivity/">mood</a> - it’s a mindset. One that’s deeply connected to resilience, purpose, and mental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-ways-to-build-hope-daily">Simple ways to build hope daily</h2>



You don’t need a big life overhaul to build hope. The researchers suggest simple, practical habits that can make a real difference. 



Start by noticing the good moments - even something as small as a peaceful morning or a kind gesture. These small wins remind us that things can go right.



In chaotic times, look for small chances to move forward. Even tiny steps can help you feel more in control. 



Recognize and celebrate progress - in yourself and others. Whether it’s healing, learning something new, or simply getting through a tough week, every step forward can fuel hope.



Taking care of something - a plant, a pet, or another person - reinforces the idea that the future matters.



And above all, remember that nothing stays the same forever. Hard times don’t last. Change is always possible, and hope begins with believing that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-research-is-going">Where the research is going</h2>



This study opens up a lot of questions, and the researchers are already looking ahead. They plan to dig deeper into how hope works in the middle of serious challenges. 



Can it help people find meaning even when they’re going through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-mourn-the-loss-of-other-pets-similar-to-human-grief/">grief</a>, illness, or major setbacks? That’s what they want to find out next.



One thing is clear: hope isn’t just a feel-good emotion. It’s something we need to live well. And it’s something we can practice every day. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Femo0001513">Emotion</a>.



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Experts identify the simple emotion that gives life meaning - and it's not happiness

Hope isn’t just a nice feeling - it is a...

Reconciling space and time has been one of the most profound challenges in physics. One of the thorniest is how to stitch together the rules that steer subatomic particles and the rules that sculpt galaxies.



Quantum mechanics nails the small stuff; general relativity nails the large. Yet the two frameworks still talk past each other.



For decades, researchers have tried weaving extra spatial dimensions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cozmic-simulations-of-milky-way-use-strange-physics-laws-to-study-alternate-universes-cozmic/">exotic particles</a>, or string-like objects into a single narrative. Each attempt solved one snag but left another dangling. 



A new proposal shifts focus from space to time, arguing that the clock-ticking we take for granted may be richer - and far stranger - than a single forward march through seconds, minutes, and hours.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puzzle-that-refuses-to-disappear">Puzzle that refuses to disappear</h2>



Quantum theory treats gravity as an afterthought, while relativity makes gravity the stage on which everything plays out. 



Reconciling those viewpoints matters for any extreme environment where tiny distances meet titanic mass, such as the heart of a black hole or the earliest split-second after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-big-bang-may-explain-cosmic-expansion-without-dark-matter/">Big Bang</a>. 



Observatories now catch ripples in spacetime from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/merging-quasars-cosmic-dawn-reveal-how-early-universe-formed/">colliding black holes</a>, and particle colliders probe ever-higher energies. A unified picture is therefore no longer an ivory-tower wish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-take-on-time-and-space">Fresh take on time and space</h2>



After years of probing the equations, associate research professor <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=cSOlP38AAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gunther Kletetschka</a> of the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a> argues that the fault line lies not in space but in how we count moments. 



He recently published a mathematical framework in Reports in Advances of Physical Science that treats time as possessing three independent directions. Space, in this view, is secondary - an emergent feature that rides on a multi-lane tempo.



“These three time dimensions are the primary fabric of everything, like the canvas of a painting,” Kletetschka explains. “Space still exists with its three dimensions, but it's more like the paint on the canvas rather than the canvas itself.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-layers-of-time">Three layers of time</h2>



In Kletetschka’s formulation, one time dimension governs the quantum playground. A second bridges that microscopic arena with familiar human experience. A third influences cosmic structure and the slow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-forces-have-made-the-structure-of-the-universe-messier/">evolution of the universe</a> at large. 



Day-to-day events feel ordinary because the extra time-like directions hide their influence unless energies are colossal or masses are immense.



Earlier attempts at three-dimensional time often stayed abstract. “Earlier 3D time proposals were primarily mathematical constructs without these concrete experimental connections,” he notes. 



Kletetschka’s model reproduces the measured masses of electrons, muons, quarks, and other <a href="https://home.cern/science/physics/standard-model" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Standard Model</a> residents with remarkable accuracy. That success nudges the idea out of speculation and into the territory of testable science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flipping-the-picture-of-space-and-time">Flipping the picture of space and time</h2>



Standard thinking treats matter and energy as things that unfold inside spacetime. Kletetschka flips that picture. All particles, fields, and even energy itself emerge as different ways in which the triple-layered tempo can twist. 



“My work transforms the concept from an interesting mathematical possibility into a physically testable theory with multiple independent verification channels,” he writes. 



If mass is a shadow cast by bent time, the long-standing mystery of why particles carry the particular masses they do may finally find a natural explanation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-math-to-measurement">From math to measurement</h2>



A good theory must stick its neck out. This one predicts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-category-of-particles-discovered-in-the-subatomic-realm-paraparticles/">new particles</a> that current accelerators might glimpse if they reach higher energies or analyze collision debris with sharper algorithms. 



It also forecasts subtle shifts in the spectrum of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expanding-our-view-of-the-universe-with-faint-gravitational-waves/">gravitational waves</a> and tweaks in the rate at which dark energy seems to push galaxies apart.



Because the three-fold tempo respects cause-and-effect ordering, it dodges the paradoxes that plague other multi-time ideas. 



That internal consistency means experimental teams can design clear yes-or-no tests rather than hunt for ambiguous signatures. 



If upcoming runs at the <a href="https://home.cern/science/accelerators/large-hadron-collider" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Large Hadron Collider</a> or next-generation detectors find the suggested fingerprints, the payoff could be huge. 



“The path to unification might require fundamentally reconsidering the nature of physical reality itself,” Kletetschka points out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Beyond unifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gravity-could-be-the-definitive-clue-that-the-universe-is-a-computer-storing-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a> and <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsquantum-mechanics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a>, a layered time, with space as a byproduct, offers tidy answers to several irritations in modern theory. 



It naturally yields exactly three particle families, accounts for quirks in mirror-symmetry breaking, and explains why time, as experienced by humans, seems to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-may-not-just-move-forward-experts-say-it-could-rewind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flow in a single direction</a>. 



None of those results require bolting on hidden spaces or hypothetical superpartners.



Skepticism remains healthy, of course. Independent groups will tear apart the mathematics and compare it with existing data from cosmology, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-radio-waves-anita-experiment-coming-from-under-the-antarctic-ice-defy-particle-physics/">neutrino observatories</a>, and precision atomic clocks. 



Yet the framework’s ability to recover known numbers while offering falsifiable predictions grants it a seriousness that many speculative models lack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-this-theory-on-time-and-space">Proving this theory on time and space</h2>



Physics advances when provocative ideas survive an assault of evidence. The suggestion that time itself boasts three axes is provocative indeed. 



Within a decade, instruments aimed at gravitational waves, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ground-based-telescopes-detect-light-from-the-cosmic-dawn/">cosmic microwave background polarization</a>, and high-energy particle scatterings will likely confirm or contradict the key forecasts. Either result will sharpen our view of nature’s fundamental script.



For now, the proposal reminds us that the universe may still harbor surprises in the very notion of “before” and “after.” 



If time truly comes with extra directions, then what we think of as matter, motion, and gravity could be nothing more than intricate choreography on an unseen temporal stage.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/S2424942425500045" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reports in Advances of Physical Sciences</a>.



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Time has three dimensions and space is just an afterthought, says new theory

Reconciling space and time has been one of the most...

In 1859, Darwin proposed that evolution worked slowly - even for creatures like the worm. Tiny changes, stacked over time, led species to gradually become something new.



But even he had to admit the fossil record didn’t back that up. It was missing too many pieces - too many “in-between” species. He chalked it up to a broken archive: most of the story was lost.



Then, in 1972, scientists Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge made a bold claim. Maybe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-and-squids-defy-the-slow-pace-of-evolution/">species don’t evolve slowly</a> at all. Maybe they stay mostly the same for millions of years, and then - bang - something dramatic happens.



This idea, called “punctuated equilibrium,” could explain why so many transitional fossils are missing. But decades later, scientists still argue about whether it’s the rule or just a rare exception.



Now, researchers at the Institute of Evolutionary Biology (IBE) - a joint center between the <a href="https://www.csic.es/en/csic">Spanish National Research Council</a> (CSIC) and Pompeu Fabra University (UPF) - have found compelling genomic evidence that supports the “bang” theory of evolution. And the evidence comes from a very unexpected place: worms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worms-and-evolution-s-missing-chapter">Worms and evolution's missing chapter</h2>



The team sequenced, for the first time, high-quality genomes of several earthworm species. They compared these to the genomes of other annelids like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-proof-of-leeches-jumping-captured-on-video/">leeches</a> and bristle worms. 



The work was painstaking - done at a level of detail usually reserved for human genome studies. And it filled a major gap. Until now, scientists lacked complete genomes for many invertebrates, which made it hard to study evolution at the chromosomal level.



That changed with this study. The new genomes allowed the researchers to look back more than 200 million years.



Rosa Fernández is the lead researcher of the IBE’s Metazoa Phylogenomics and Genome Evolution Lab.



“This is an essential episode in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-discoveries-about-the-evolution-of-life-on-land/">evolution of life</a> on our planet, given that many species, such as worms and vertebrates, which had been living in the ocean, now ventured onto land for the first time,” she said. What the team found was not slow, steady change. It was upheaval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worms-that-broke-all-the-rules">Worms that broke all the rules</h2>



The worm genomes didn’t just shift gradually, as traditional Neo-Darwinian models would expect. They shattered. Then they reassembled in totally new ways.



“The enormous reorganization of the genomes we observed in the worms as they moved from the ocean to land cannot be explained with the parsimonious mechanism Darwin proposed; our observations chime much more with Gould and Eldredge’s theory of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-have-not-changed-much-in-200-million-years/">punctuated equilibrium</a>,” Fernández said.



In simple terms: these marine worms broke their DNA into pieces, stitched it back together in a new order, and kept going. It wasn’t just odd - it was unheard of.



Across most species, including sponges, corals, and mammals, genomic structure tends to stay surprisingly stable. This was something else entirely.



“The entire genome of the marine worms was broken down and then reorganized in a completely random way, in a very short period on the evolutionary scale,” said Fernández. “I made my team repeat the analysis again and again, because I just couldn’t believe it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surviving-dna-chaos">Surviving DNA chaos</h2>



Normally, that kind of chaos would spell extinction. But in this case, the worms didn’t just survive. They adapted. 



The research team found that annelid genomes are much more structurally flexible than those of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/">vertebrates</a>. That flexibility could allow genes in different parts of the genome to change positions without losing function.



The shift to land was a massive environmental change. Suddenly, these animals had to breathe air, deal with sunlight, and navigate new terrains. The genomic rewiring may have helped them adapt quickly by creating new gene combinations.



“You could think that this chaos would mean the lineage would die out, but it’s possible that some species’ evolutionary success is based on that superpower,” said Fernández.



The study suggests that some genes didn’t just move - they fused with others. These new “genetic chimeras” may have played a role in helping the worms handle life on land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-isn-t-orderly-for-worms">Evolution isn’t orderly for worms</h2>



This finding also raises a bigger question: is genome stability really all that important?



“It seems from this study that conserving the genomic structure at the linear level - i.e., where the genes are more or less in the same place in different species - may not be as essential as had been thought,” said Fernández. 



“In fact, stability could be the exception and not the rule in animals, which could benefit from a more fluid genome.”



That idea has serious implications. In humans, similar genomic breakdowns are seen in cancer. There’s even a term for it: chromoanagenesis. It refers to catastrophic chromosome reorganization in cancer cells. The difference? In humans, it's a disease. In these worms, it was a survival strategy.



The comparison could open up new ways to study how genomes work - and how they break.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-evidence-challenges-darwin">DNA evidence challenges Darwin</h2>



The debate between slow change and sudden leaps isn’t settled. But this study adds strong support for the idea that both models might be right, depending on the circumstances.



“Both visions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/charles-darwins-complete-research-library-published-for-the-first-time/">Darwin’s</a> and Gould’s, are compatible and complementary," Fernández said. "While Neo-Darwinism can explain the evolution of populations perfectly, it has not yet been able to explain some exceptional and crucial episodes in the history of life on Earth."



"Those events included such as the initial explosion of animal life in the oceans over 500 million years ago, or the transition from the sea to land 200 million years ago in the case of earthworms. This is where the punctuated equilibrium theory could offer some answers.”



And this might just be the beginning. There are thousands of invertebrate species we know almost nothing about. Their genomes may hold more surprises - and more exceptions to the rules we thought we understood.



“There is a great diversity we know nothing about, hidden in the invertebrates, and studying them could bring new discoveries about the diversity and plasticity of genomic organization, and challenge dogmas on how we think genomes are organized,” Fernández concluded.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-025-02728-1">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Earthworm DNA is changing how we understand evolution, possibly proving Darwin wrong

In 1859, Darwin proposed that evolution worked slowly - even...

Female honey bees inherit genes from their father and mother (the queen), but they don't all end up playing the same role. 



Some female bees end up becoming queens that reproduce, while others become workers that never lay eggs, and spend their lives caring for their sisters. What causes this dramatic difference?



New research points to a tug-of-war between parental genes, with mother's and father's genes pulling the developing bee larva in different directions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-parental-genes-in-a-bee-s-fate">The role of parental genes in a bee's fate</h2>



Scientists at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> have identified the molecular mechanism that tips the balance between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-queen-honey-bees-failing-faster/">queen</a> and worker. The study reveals how the bee’s parents’ genes literally compete during a critical window of development.



“Imagine if your mother's genes and your father's genes were in constant disagreement about how you should develop - that is essentially what genomic imprinting is, and we see that it happens across the tree of life: from honey bees to humans,” explained Sean Bresnahan, lead author of the study.



“We found that this genetic ‘argument’ can be detected during a critical developmental window where a honey bee larva becomes either a queen or a worker.”



That window slams shut just 192 hours after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/">egg</a> is laid. By then, the bee's genes lock it into its destiny.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-differences-in-bee-genes">Exploring differences in bee genes</h2>



To study the differences between the genes inherited from the mother bee (matrigenes) and those from the father bee (patrigenes), the researchers used a technique called instrumental insemination. It allowed them to control which queen mated with which drone.



The team then tracked how gene expression varied in the resulting bee larvae by analyzing RNA - the molecules that carry instructions from DNA to make proteins - and comparing gene activity based on whether it came from mother or father.



“We found patrigenes were expressed at higher levels in queen-destined larvae, and matrigenes were expressed at higher levels in worker-destined larvae,” Bresnahan said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tug-of-war-between-bee-genes">A tug-of-war between bee genes</h2>



The team didn’t stop there. They wanted to know what these parent-specific genes were actually doing. By analyzing the cellular pathways that the genes influenced, they spotted a clear pattern.



“We saw a striking match between the expression of matrigenes and patrigenes in the same pathway,” noted Bresnahan.



“If a matrigene had increased expression then a patrigene would have decreased expression in the same pathway, or vice versa, showing that the two genes were working against each other."



"If one gene showed parent-specific expression, another gene in the same pathway showed parent-specific expression from the opposite parent.”



So it wasn’t just random. The maternal and paternal genes seemed to be locked in direct opposition, battling over the bee’s fate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-dna-methylation-this-time">Not DNA methylation this time</h2>



In many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-mammals-live-depends-more-on-climate-than-human-activities/">animals</a> and plants, the mechanism that drives this kind of genetic conflict is a process called DNA methylation. It adds chemical tags to DNA that affect whether genes are turned on or off. 



But in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/">honey bees</a>, previous research had shown that methylation doesn’t play this role. So the team looked at another possibility: histones. 



DNA isn’t just floating around loose in cells. It’s wound tightly around proteins called histones, forming a structure known as chromatin. The shape and structure of chromatin help regulate which genes are accessible and active.



Changes to histone proteins - through chemical tags placed on them - can also affect gene expression without altering the DNA itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-genes-are-affected-by-histones">Bee genes are affected by histones</h2>



Using a technique developed by study co-author Shaun Mahony, the researchers targeted histone-bound DNA. They isolated and analyzed the tagged histone proteins and the DNA they interacted with.



“We found that, in honey bees, parent-of-origin expression is regulated by histone modifications,” Bresnahan said.



This means chemical changes to histones - not the DNA itself - help determine which parental genes are active. And those gene activities ultimately decide if a larva will become a queen or a worker.



“What we're seeing in honey bees isn't actually that unusual when you take a step back - histone-based mechanisms for parent-of-origin effects are more widely utilized across the tree of life than DNA methylation-based systems,” explained Bresnahan.



“We see these chromatin-mediated imprinting mechanisms in flowering plants and in placental mammals as well. So, honey bees, and maybe other social insects, might be using the more ancestral toolkit for mediating these genetic conflicts,” he stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-research-matters">Why this research matters</h2>



Understanding how this parental conflict works could have real-world implications. For example, it might lead to new ways to breed bees with desired traits, such as resilience or productivity.



Christina Grozinger, co-author on the study, said her lab plans to explore how these genetic dynamics affect behaviors like nursing, where some worker bees specialize in caring for young.



The project also has reach beyond insects. Bresnahan now studies how genetic conflict shapes traits in humans - especially those related to maternal-child health during pregnancy.



“The skills I developed studying parent-of-origin effects translate directly to my current studies of maternal-child health mediated through the placenta,” Bresnahan said. 



“I am particularly interested in parent-of-origin gene expression associated with placenta-mediated traits, like early-life programming of metabolic and neuropsychiatric disease risk, that could help us better understand pregnancy complications and offspring health outcomes.”



This study peels back another layer in the mystery of how similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-detect-insect-dna-in-air-samples/">DNA</a> can lead to dramatically different lives - whether in bees, humans, or plants. And it reminds us that the story of inheritance is not just about what genes we get, but also about which ones win the argument.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-025-03628-0">Genome Biology</a>.



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Parental genes affect whether a bee becomes a queen or a worker

Female honey bees inherit genes from their father and mother...

At first glance, sea cucumbers seem like passive creatures. They sift along the ocean floor, slow-moving and peaceful. Much like sea snails, they tend to keep to themselves. 



But unlike sea cucumbers, some species of tiny sea snails aren't so harmless. These snails aren’t just bottom-feeders - they’re parasites. And for sea cucumbers, that makes them a serious nuisance. 



In Japan, where sea cucumbers are prized as seafood, scientists have spent years cataloging the various species of parasites that live on or inside them. 



But there's been a gap in the research: one species, Holothuria leucospilota, has been tough to study. Researchers at <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en">Kyoto University</a> decided it was time to change that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-snails-inside-a-sea-cucumber">Identifying snails inside a sea cucumber</h2>



Holothuria leucospilota defends itself by ejecting sticky threads known as Cuvierian tubules when it’s stressed. 



These threads can make dissection nearly impossible. So, to avoid triggering the defense, the team used menthol to gently anesthetize the animals before studying them.



The goal was to identify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-snails-evolved-defenses-against-invasive-predators/">snails</a> from the genus Melanella that parasitize these sea cucumbers. They did this work in Shirahama, a popular beach area in Wakayama prefecture. 



After anesthetizing the sea cucumbers, the scientists examined both the outside and the inside of the animals. They identified the snails by looking at their shell shape and analyzing their mitochondrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airborne-dna-can-track-wildlife-diseases-and-even-drugs/">DNA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-snails-one-sea-cucumber">Four snails, one sea cucumber</h2>



The team discovered four species of Melanella <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-parasites-are-vulnerable-to-warming-oceans/">parasites</a>. Two lived on the outside of the sea cucumber, and two more were found deep inside the body cavity. 



One of the external parasites was identified as Melanella spina - the first time this species has ever been recorded in Japan. The two internal parasites couldn’t be definitively identified yet.



"Our results represent the first record of eulimids exploiting the internal habitat of H. leucospilota," said study co-author Tomoyuki Nakano. 



"To the best of our knowledge, it is also the first record of a single holothurian species, like sea cucumbers, being utilized by both external and internal Melanella parasites."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-the-snails-get-in">How do the snails get in? </h2>



The researchers noted that these internal parasites are extremely rare - at least in Shirahama. They found two in 2022, but none in the following two years. That suggests the infection rate is low.



How these tiny snails manage to get inside the sea cucumbers is still unclear, but the team has a few leads. 



Both internal snails were found near the host’s mouth. Previous studies suggest that Melanella species often attach around this area. It's possible that the sea cucumbers accidentally ingest the snails while feeding, along with bits of sediment.



That’s one theory. Another possibility is more direct. One of the snails was found with part of its shell embedded in the sea cucumber’s body wall. That could mean it forced its way in by boring through tissue.



The invasion route is still a mystery - and that’s what the researchers want to investigate next.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parasitism-across-the-animal-kingdom">Parasitism across the animal kingdom </h2>



What the researchers observed in sea cucumbers isn’t unique. Nature is full of strange and sometimes unsettling examples of animals parasitizing others - both in the ocean and on land.



One well-known ocean example is the tongue-eating louse (Cymothoa exigua), a parasite that enters a fish’s mouth, attaches to its tongue, and eventually replaces it. The fish continues to live and eat, even as the louse occupies a central role in its body.



On land, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-wasp-had-a-flytrap-for-snatching-its-victims/">parasitic wasps</a> are notorious for their ruthless tactics. Some species lay their eggs inside caterpillars, and when the larvae hatch, they feed on the host from the inside out. In many cases, the host stays alive until the wasps are fully developed and ready to emerge.



Even in mammals, parasites play a role. Botflies, for instance, lay their eggs on animals like rodents or livestock, and the larvae burrow into the skin to grow.



These examples show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-parasitism-balanophora-convinces-a-host-to-grow-into-its-tissue/">parasitism</a> is a successful - if grisly - survival strategy across the animal kingdom. What makes the Melanella-sea cucumber relationship fascinating is how subtle and understudied it remains. 



Scientists are only just beginning to understand how complex these interactions can be, especially when the host makes access so difficult.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/zoological-science/volume-42/issue-4/zs250003/Co-Occurrence-of-Gastropods-of-the-Genus-Melanella-Mollusca/10.2108/zs250003.short">ZOOLOGICAL SCIENCE</a>.



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Parasitic snails are sneaking inside sea cucumbers

At first glance, sea cucumbers seem like passive creatures. They...

As birth rates continue to decline across the United States, a new study reveals a key insight. About half of women who say they want children aren't confident they'll actually have them.



That uncertainty, researchers say, shows how complex and personal the decision to have kids has become.



The study was conducted by scientists at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a> and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wanting-children-vs-having-them">Wanting children vs. having them</h2>



The research team analyzed data from the National Survey of Family Growth, which surveyed 41,492 women aged 15 to 44 between 2002 and 2019. 



The survey, managed by the National Center for Health Statistics, asked a wide range of questions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-current-fertility-rate-isnt-enough-for-human-survival/">fertility</a> intentions, plans, and attitudes. What stood out was the lack of certainty, even among those who expressed a desire to become parents.



“People’s feelings about having children are complicated, and we found there are a lot of nuances. It suggests that there is no simple answer to the declining birth rate in the United States," noted study co-author Professor Sarah Hayford.



Over the years studied, the proportion of women saying they intended to have children remained fairly stable - about 62%. About 35% said they didn’t intend to, and only a small fraction were unsure. 



But among the women who did intend to have children, nearly half said they were only “somewhat sure” or “not at all sure” they would actually follow through.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confidence-is-falling">Confidence is falling</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluctuating-income-is-detrimental-to-health/">Income</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/education-and-lifespan-college-graduates-live-an-average-of-11-years-longer/">education</a> had some influence. Women with higher education and income were more likely to say they were “very sure” they’d have children. Still, even in that group, certainty dropped. 



Among college-educated women who said they were “very sure” they would have children, the percentage fell from 65% in 2014 to 54% in 2018. And certainty wasn’t the only issue.



The intensity of the desire mattered too. Up to 25% of childless women who said they wanted kids also said they wouldn’t be particularly bothered if they didn’t have them.



“This not being bothered was especially high among younger women, and it increased over time among those who were younger,” Hayford said. 



“They are open to different pathways and different kinds of lives. If they don’t become parents for whatever reason, it doesn’t seem that upsetting to many of them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-surprising-cause-of-uncertainty">The surprising cause of uncertainty </h2>



One common theory is that young people today are hesitant to have kids because they’re unsure about the future - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-takes-a-major-toll-on-childrens-health/">climate change</a>, political instability, the cost of living. But a related study suggests that might not be the main factor.



In collaboration with Karen Benjamin Guzzo of UNC Chapel Hill, Professor Hayford analyzed survey data from the American Trends Panel. That survey asked 3,696 people about their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creativity-improves-life-satisfaction-and-overall-well-being/">life satisfaction</a> and concerns for the future.



Instead of being influenced by big-picture issues, people’s decisions about having children seemed to hinge more on their own personal happiness and stability.



“It was a bit of a surprise to us, but it was only their personal situation that mattered to whether they expected to have children,” Hayford said. “It wasn’t so much what was going on in society that predicted their fertility goals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-views-about-wanting-children">Changing views about wanting children </h2>



The U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fertility-rates-are-quickly-declining-and-little-is-being-done-about-it/">fertility rate</a> peaked at 2.12 children per woman in 2007. Since then, it has steadily fallen, reaching 1.62 in 2023. That drop has sparked concern and debate about what’s behind it - and what it means for the country’s future.



But the findings from this research suggest there’s no simple fix. People still express a desire to have children, but uncertainty and ambivalence are more common than ever.



“On the one hand there is a lot of latent desire and intentions to have children. But people have a lot of uncertainty about whether they will meet those goals, and many don’t seem to worry that much if they do or don’t have children,” Hayford said.



“It is hard to predict what will happen next.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://genus.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41118-025-00251-6">Genus</a>.



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Half of women who want children aren't sure they'll have them

As birth rates continue to decline across the United States,...

Clouds help cool the Earth by reflecting sunlight. But now, storm cloud zones are shrinking. This shrinkage is letting in more solar radiation. 



A new study, led by NASA and including Monash researchers, shows that this is the biggest reason for Earth's recent heat rise. The study appears in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.



Storm cloud zones in the tropics and midlatitudes have contracted by 1.5% to 3% per decade. These zones used to reflect a lot of sunlight back into space. Their disappearance is allowing more heat to reach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fading-clouds-are-accelerating-climate-change/">surface</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-clouds-let-earth-absorb-more-heat">Shrinking clouds let earth absorb more heat</h2>



Christian Jakob, a professor at <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a>, noted that this finding clarifies how much extra solar energy Earth now absorbs. “We’ve long known that changes in atmospheric circulation are affecting clouds,” he said.



“For the first time, we now have research showing those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-forming-hydrogen-cloud-discovered-surprisingly-close-to-earth-eos/">shifts</a> are already driving major changes in how much energy the Earth absorbs.”



This research helps explain the heat anomalies of recent years, including the extreme warmth of 2023.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellite-clues-from-decades-of-data">Satellite clues from decades of data</h2>



The experts used satellite data from 2001 to 2023. They measured two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthcare-satellite-will-reveal-the-climate-effects-of-clouds/">cloud</a> features: total cloud cover (TCC) and shortwave cloud radiative effect (SWCRE). SWCRE measures how much sunlight clouds bounce back. 



A more negative number means more sunlight is being reflected. But scientists found that zones of strong SWCRE are shrinking. 



In high latitudes, these zones contracted by up to 1.32% per decade. In the tropics, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) narrowed. Stratocumulus cloud regions also shrank.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-cloud-retreat-to-heat-gain">From cloud retreat to heat gain</h2>



The result of all this: more warming. The total increase in absorbed solar energy was about 0.45 W/m² per decade. Of this, 0.37 W/m² comes from the shrinking cloud zones. 



The changes were strongest in high-latitude storm tracks and the tropical ITCZ. Even small reductions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-and-ice-volcanic-ash-plays-a-surprising-role-in-cloud-formation/">cloudy</a> area had large effects on Earth's heat budget. 



The study shows most warming came from cloud area loss, not changes within the clouds themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-winds-make-storm-clouds-shrink">Winds make storm clouds shrink</h2>



Why are storm clouds shrinking? It’s mostly due to global wind pattern changes. The Hadley cell is widening. Jet streams are shifting toward the poles. The ITCZ is narrowing. These trends match what climate models predict for a warming planet.



The researchers also found that high-latitude storm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clouds-also-fuel-arctic-warming-not-just-carbon-emissions/">clouds</a> are retreating because of the warming-driven shift in jet streams. This creates fewer clouds in key cooling zones. 



“It’s an important piece in the puzzle of understanding the extraordinary recent warming we observed, and a wake-up call for urgent climate action,” Jakob notes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-factors-also-shrink-clouds">Local factors also shrink clouds</h2>



Besides circulation shifts, cloud changes also arise from local factors. These include fewer aerosols from ships, which once helped clouds reflect more sunlight. 



Changes in cloud types and altitudes also matter. In the tropics, these effects added 0.21 W/m² per decade to the warming.



In contrast, polar regions showed some minor cooling due to increased cloud reflection in cold clouds. But the big picture is clear: cloud zone shrinkage is doing most of the damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-cooperation-and-local-weather-shifts">Global cooperation and local weather shifts</h2>



Professor Jakob warned about the dangers of reducing science funding. “If you want to understand the climate crisis, and prepare for its impacts, you need this kind of data and this kind of analysis,” he said.



Jakob urged a shift in focus - from climate change averages to daily weather impacts. “Our mission is to understand how Australia and the world’s weather is being reshaped by a warming climate,” he said.



“Our goal is to provide the knowledge and tools needed to help governments, businesses and communities prepare for what lies ahead.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clouds-are-changing-fast">Clouds are changing fast</h2>



Earth is losing some of its protective cloud shield. The shrinking of storm cloud zones is now the top driver of increased solar heat absorption. 



This change isn’t gradual. It’s already happening. And it’s amplifying warming faster than expected.



That means climate action must respond not only to emissions, but also to how weather patterns are shifting around the globe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025GL114882" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Clouds are shrinking and making the Earth hotter

Clouds help cool the Earth by reflecting sunlight. But now,...

For years, people have chosen glass bottles for their beverages, believing them to be safer and more environmentally friendly than plastic. The clink of glass often feels more trustworthy than the crinkle of plastic. 



But a new study has revealed something unexpected: drinks stored in glass bottles may contain more microplastics than those in plastic or metal containers. 



This finding flips our assumptions about packaging safety and highlights a surprising source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-spread-deep-into-the-ocean-far-below-the-surface/">contamination</a>, bottle caps.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.anses.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANSES</a> examined various beverages sold in France. They analyzed water, colas, lemonades, iced tea, wine, and beer. The results challenge the common belief that glass is always the cleaner, safer option.



Guillaume Duflos of ANSES said the goal was to investigate the quantity of microplastics in different types of drinks sold in France and examine the impact different containers can have.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glass-bottles-leak-microplastics">Glass bottles leak microplastics </h2>



Glass bottles were the worst offenders, with an average of 100 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-in-human-brains-may-affect-mental-health/">microplastic</a> particles per liter. Plastic bottles and cans held far fewer - ranging between 2 and 30 particles per liter depending on the drink.



“We expected the opposite result,” said Iseline Chaib, who led the research.



The team identified the source: paint from the caps on glass bottles. Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), they matched particles found in the drinks to the same polymer and color as cap coatings.



Further experiments confirmed that cap paint flakes off during storage. The scratches are too small to see, but they shed particles that enter the liquid when sealed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beer-bottles-among-the-most-contaminated">Beer bottles among the most contaminated</h2>



Among beverages, beer was the most contaminated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airborne-microplastics-where-they-come-from-and-where-they-go/">microplastics</a> - especially when sold in small glass bottles. On average, beer contained 82.9 particles per liter, but small glass bottles reached 133.7 particles per liter.



Lemonades also had high contamination: 111.6 particles per liter in glass, compared to just 1.5 in plastic. Colas followed a similar pattern, showing 103.4 in glass versus 2.1 in plastic.



Iced teas in glass averaged 86.3 particles per liter. Plastic containers had just 2.2 particles. In every case except wine, glass led to higher contamination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-and-wine-still-relatively-safe">Water and wine still relatively safe</h2>



Water fared the best. Across all types, it averaged 2.9 particles per liter. Glass bottles held slightly more (4.5), while plastic bottles had less (1.6).



Wine remained a mystery. Even in glass bottles, contamination was low. That’s because wine bottles often use corks, not painted caps. Brick-packaged wine had the highest wine-related levels: up to 30 particles per liter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaning-bottle-caps-cuts-microplastics">Cleaning bottle caps cuts microplastics</h2>



Researchers wanted to see if they could stop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-in-the-brain-alarming-new-details-revealed/">microplastics</a> from getting into drinks. So, they looked at the caps.



The team took clean bottles and sealed them with new caps. Then they measured how many microplastics ended up inside. With no cleaning, the number was high - about 287 particles in just one liter of water.



The experts blew air through the caps to shake off loose paint. That helped as count dropped to 105 particles per liter.



Next, the researchers went one step further. They rinsed the caps with water and ethanol before sealing. This dropped the number even more - to just 86 particles per liter. 



That’s nearly a 70 percent drop. No complicated machines or big changes - just air and a rinse. Manufacturers could start doing this right now and make their drinks cleaner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-polyester-more-trouble">More polyester, more trouble</h2>



The study also revealed that polyester was the most common polymer in microplastics. This was especially true for glass-stored drinks, reinforcing the cap-paint link.



Across all beverages stored in glass bottles, most microplastics were fragments (not fibers), and ranged in size from 30 to 500 micrometers.



While the study confirms their presence, it doesn’t prove harm. No standard exists yet for a “safe” level of microplastics in food or drink.



“There is no reference level for a potentially toxic amount of microplastics,” noted the study authors. Until toxicology research catches up, consumers remain in the dark about long-term health effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glass-bottles-have-their-own-risks">Glass bottles have their own risks</h2>



The findings challenge how we think about glass packaging. Though glass avoids chemical leaching from plastics, it can introduce more microplastics due to its metal caps.



Cleaning those caps can cut contamination. But even then, some particles remain. This study, published in the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889157525005344?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Food Composition and Analysis</a>, is the first of its kind in France.



The message is clear: packaging choices matter - and sometimes the “greener” option comes with its own set of invisible risks.



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Glass bottles contain more microplastics than plastic containers

For years, people have chosen glass bottles for their beverages,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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