Long before modern climate records began, a very different Earth existed - one where the icy edges of the Arctic were free of permafrost. This wasn't a minor shift. It was a Northern Hemisphere without frozen ground, stretching all the way to the Arctic Ocean. That past could be a preview of our future.



A new study shows that when Earth’s average temperature was just 4.5˚C warmer than it is today, the Asian continent had no permafrost - not even in its far north. This extent of climate warming is within the range we could reach again in the near future if emissions remain unchecked. 



Researchers from <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/">Northumbria University</a>, the University of Oxford, Bern University, and the Geological Surveys of Israel and the U.S. worked together to trace the ancient climate shift. They found their evidence in an unlikely place: inside caves beneath the Siberian tundra.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frozen-clues-hidden-underground">Frozen clues hidden underground</h2>



The team focused on cave formations known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-tipping-points-where-the-climate-changed-abruptly/">speleothems</a> - stalagmites and stalactites - which only grow when water can seep through the ground. In regions locked in permafrost, the soil stays frozen solid. That makes speleothem growth impossible. 



So, if these formations exist in caves beneath modern-day permafrost, it means the ground had to be thawed when they formed.



The researchers collected more than 60 mineral samples from caves in the Lena River delta, one of the coldest and most remote areas of northeastern Siberia. 



Using uranium-lead dating, a precise method for measuring tiny traces of radioactive decay, the team determined that the cave minerals had formed about 8.7 million years ago, during the late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-site-in-australia-indicates-abundant-life-during-the-miocene/">Miocene</a> period.



This means the ground in that region was thawed at the time. Existing global temperature records show that Earth was 4.5˚C warmer than it is today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-arctic-permafrost">The fate of Arctic permafrost</h2>



If Earth warms by that same amount again, the findings suggest that all but the deepest or highest-altitude permafrost would melt.



“Our findings provide direct quantitative evidence that if our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-to-earths-ancient-climate-to-predict-our-future/">climate</a> warms by 4.5˚C, the permafrost currently covering Canada, Siberia, Mongolia, America - in fact much of the Northern Hemisphere - would thaw. Only permafrost in high mountains and deep underground would survive," said Dr Sebastian Breitenbach of Northumbria University.



“This thaw would release billions of tonnes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-losing-their-ability-to-absorb-co2/">carbon</a> from the ground into the atmosphere, enhancing further warming. This finding is a real warning to us all. It shows how sensitive our climate system is and where we might be headed if we don't act to limit our climate emissions now.”



What makes this especially concerning is the sheer volume of carbon at risk. Scientists estimate that up to 130 billion tonnes are locked in today's permafrost. If that carbon is released as the ground thaws, it won't just add to the warming - it will accelerate it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-arctic-was-permafrost-free">When the Arctic was permafrost-free </h2>



“After much searching, we were fortunate to find well-preserved datable cave deposits in the heart of today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frozen-worm-comes-back-to-life-after-46000-years/">Siberian permafrost</a>,” said Dr Anton Vaks of the Geological Survey of Israel. 



“We can see that this present-day tundra region experienced a warmer climate, with mean annual global temperatures above 0°C and with permafrost-free conditions." 



According to Dr. Vaks, the evidence from the cave formations indicates that most of the Siberian landmass and likely similar regions in the Northern Hemisphere were permafrost-free when the deposits formed at Taba-Ba’astakh.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caves-as-climate-time-machines">Caves as climate time machines</h2>



Professor Gideon Henderson of the University of Oxford noted that caves are like time machines. 



“They capture a history of the climate and environment for millions of years of Earth history, which we can now read accurately using precise chemical analyses," said Henderson. 



"By doing so, we can predict the future, using past conditions as an analogue for the future to understand the impact of the warmer world we are heading into.



“This new study provides valuable new constraints on the magnitude of warming required to completely destroy permafrost in the northern hemisphere and remove one of the biggest continental stores of carbon.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60381-5">Nature Communications</a>.



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Arctic permafrost vanished in the past - will it happen again?

Long before modern climate records began, a very different Earth existed - one where the icy edges of the Arctic were free of permafrost. This wasn't a minor shift. It was a Northern Hemisphere without frozen ground, stretching all the way to the Arctic Ocean. That past could be a preview of our future. A new study shows that when Earth’s average temperature was just 4.5˚C warmer than it is today, the Asian continent had no permafrost - not even in its far north. This extent of...

In order to better understand how climate change will affect ecosystems, a team of 80 international scientists have recently performed an unprecedented <a href="https://www.laurameredith.com/?page_id=1293">experiment</a>: they forced the world’s only enclosed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-10-rainforests/">rainforest</a> (located in the University of Arizona's <a href="https://biosphere2.org/">Biosphere 2</a> research facility) through a four-month long controlled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europe-will-face-more-frequent-and-extreme-droughts/">drought</a> and recovery.



The researchers noted that, although there was a 70 percent drop in the rainforest’s carbon storage capacities during the drought period, an intricate web of water-use strategies and soil interactions emerged to support the forest’s resilience against severe drought.



"The forest was, in some ways, surprisingly resilient to the drought," said study lead author Laura Meredith, an assistant professor in the&nbsp;<a href="https://snre.arizona.edu/">School of Natural Resources and the Environment</a> at the University of Arizona.



"We used stable isotopes to trace the movement of carbon and water through the ecosystem under normal conditions and severe drought, which revealed surprising plant-ecosystem interactions," Professor Meredith explained.&nbsp;



"Importantly, individual plants did not all respond to drought in the same way. Some were highly drought sensitive and quickly slowed their critical carbon and water cycling to play it safe, while others were more tolerant of drought and maintained their function even under more risky drought conditions."



Large, drought-sensitive trees which generally consume the most water, suffered the fastest and most severely from the lack of water. However, they did not immediately tap into the water resources in the deep soil, as researchers expected.



“Instead, they drastically reduced their water consumption and only resorted to their deep-water reserves under very extreme drought," said another of the project leaders, Christiane Werner, a professor of Ecosystem Physiology at the <a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/">University of Freiburg</a>. "In this way, they conserved the deep-lying water reserves for as long as possible."



On the other hand, large, drought-tolerant trees held onto their canopy leaves the longest, providing shade to the undergrowth to protect it against further dehydration.



"Having a diversity of drought responses within the plants helped maintain greater carbon and water cycling functions of the entire ecosystem, both during the fullest extent of drought, as well as for quickly responding to the renewed availability of moisture with the arrival of rain," Meredith explained.



“Experimental ecosystems, like what we have at Biosphere 2, allow researchers to understand the holistic response of an entire ecosystem to stress. As we work to understand and predict ecosystem function in response to global change, we have to consider plant functional groups and their interactions with soils and the atmosphere, in both observational and modeling studies," she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Diverse water-use strategies help forests cope with drought

In order to better understand how climate change will affect...

According to a study published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, the Brazilian wildfires in the Pantanal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-wetlands-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-flooding/">wetland</a> in 2020 potentially killed almost 17 million vertebrates, including lizards, birds, and primates.



Wildfires blazed in the Pantanal Wetland from January to November 2020, wreaking havoc on the world's largest tropical wetland. Walfrido Moraes Tomas, Ronaldo Morato, and fellow researchers estimated the wildfire animal fatalities by counting carcasses in burned areas. In the early aftermath of the fire, the experts sampled corpses at intervals along tracts of the marsh (a total of 114.43 kilometers).



The researchers discovered 302 carcasses and were able to identify the species in the majority of cases, despite their poor state. The experts estimated the total number of animal deaths by multiplying their figures for small vertebrates (those weighing less than 2kg) and medium-to-large vertebrates (those weighing more than 2kg).



From January to November 2020, the authors estimate that between 13,206,700 and 18,811,300 small vertebrates were killed across the 39,030 km2 charred area of the Pantanal wetlands. Small lizards, birds, and rodents were among the small vertebrates that suffered fatalities.&nbsp;



The scientists also calculated that between 691,090 and 1,196,570 medium-to-large creatures, including ungulates and primates,&nbsp; perished instantly during the Brazilian wildfires. Overall, the study estimates that a total of 16,952,000 vertebrates were lost in the fires.



According to the study authors, some species known to have been killed by the fires, including&nbsp; jaguars, pumas, and tapirs, were likely overlooked in their survey. They also point out that their estimate does not take into account the whole impact of the flames, which would have resulted in animal mortality as a result of habitat destruction.



The researchers concluded that their study demonstrates the devastating impact of wildfires in the Pantanal wetlands in 2020, as well as the need of preventing similar calamities.



"Our estimates indicate that at least 16.952 million vertebrates were killed immediately by the fires in the Pantanal, demonstrating the impact of such an event in wet savanna ecosystems," wrote the study authors.



"The Pantanal case also reminds us that the cumulative impact of widespread burning would be catastrophic, as fire recurrence may lead to the impoverishment of ecosystems and the disruption of their functioning."&nbsp;



"To overcome this unsustainable scenario, it is necessary to establish proper biomass fuel management to avoid cumulative impacts caused by fire over biodiversity and ecosystem services."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02844-5">Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nearly 17 million animals perished in Brazilian wildfires

According to a study published in Scientific Reports, the Brazilian...

In cold temperatures, brown adipose tissue (BAT) or brown fat generates heat to keep the body warm, and has significantly more mitochondria (subcellular organelles that help producing energy) than white adipose tissue. Thus, it can burn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-who-are-obese-have-a-harder-time-burning-calories/">calories</a> and produce heat by activating the mitochondrial uncoupling protein 1 (Ucp-1). The stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) after exposure to cold, exercise, or calorie restriction induces white fat browning. BAT activation and fat browning are essential in the fight against cardiovascular conditions, as well as obesity.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.shibaura-it.ac.jp/en/">Shibaura Institute of Technology</a>, Japan, has discovered that the dietary administration of flavanols, chemical compounds with strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects that can be found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-can-help-people-live-longer-healthier-lives/">cocoa</a>, apples, grapeseed, and red wine, can also activate BAT and enhance browning of adipose tissue by activating the SNS. These findings show a direct connection between fat browning and flavanol consumption, which could help scientists develop new treatments for obesity-related disorders.



By administering both single and multiple doses of flavanols to mice, the researchers found that flavanols activate fat browning via the SNS, which secretes catecholamine neurotransmitters such as adrenaline and noradrenaline. The white fat cells of mice that were fed flavanols daily for two weeks eventually turned brown, exhibiting notable structural changes.



“Although the mechanism of adipose browning is not fully understood, it is possible that repeated administration of FLs may produce browning via catecholamines and its receptors,”&nbsp;explains study lead author Naomi Osakabe, a professor of Bioscience and Engineering at the Shibaura Institute. “Further studies will be required to understand how this process is induced by FL-rich foods.”



Previous findings have already proven the positive role of flavanols in improving glucose and insulin levels. According to Professor Osakabe and her colleagues, the results of this new study can significantly contribute to scientific advances in the prevention of lifestyle-related diseases, such as cardiovascular illness or obesity.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/13/12/4214">Nutrients</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Foods rich in flavanols can help burn excess fat

In cold temperatures, brown adipose tissue (BAT) or brown fat...

Our planet is experiencing massive losses in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-biodiversity-expected-to-shuffle-but-not-decline/">biodiversity</a> due to several factors, including climate change, diseases, pollution, invasive species, and habitat loss due to agriculture and industrialization. Around the globe, an estimated 25 percent of plant and animal species are considered vulnerable, meaning that over one million species could face extinction within decades.



This year, the United States <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">Fish and Wildlife Service</a> (FWS) has declared 23 species extinct. This marks the largest group of animals and plants to be formally deemed extinct at once under United States’ main wildlife protection law, the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/international/laws-treaties-agreements/us-conservation-laws/endangered-species-act.html">Endangered Species Act</a> (ESA), since it was passed in 1973. Previously, only 11 species have been classified as extinct.



The 23 species include 11 birds, eight freshwater mussels, two types of fish, a fruit bat, and a flowering plant from the mint family. Eleven of these species were native to the Pacific Islands and Hawaii, and fell victim to the risks posed by their very limited geographical distribution.



As this list suggests, birds are currently among the most endangered species. According to FWS, avian populations as a whole diminished by over three billion birds since 1970, mostly due to anthropogenic environmental changes.



Some species have probably been extinct for quite some time, even if they have just reached this list now. For instance, the ivory-billed woodpecker, America’s largest woodpecker known to bird watchers as the “Lord God Bird,” had last been seen in 1944 in northeastern Louisiana. Since then, deforestation in the U.S. South has destroyed its habitat, leading it to extinction. Similarly, Bachman’s warbler, one of America’s rarest songbirds has last been spotted in the wild in the United States in 1962.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



If actions to mitigate climate change and environmental destruction due to human expansion are not taken immediately, this list will grow significantly in the coming years, marking severe biodiversity losses.



"With climate change and natural area loss pushing more and more species to the brink, now is the time to lift up proactive, collaborative, and innovative efforts to save America's wildlife," urged U.S. Interior Secretary Deb Haaland.



A list and description of the 23 species can be found <a href="https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/animal-extinct-biodiversity-2021/">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The United States recently declared 23 species extinct

Our planet is experiencing massive losses in biodiversity due to...

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are a major factor impacting our climate. According to many scientists, a solution for diminishing the amount of CO2 from the atmosphere is to restore natural CO2 reservoirs on the coasts that have been destroyed in the past decades, including mangrove <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-data-reveals-vulnerable-tropical-forests-on-a-global-scale/">forests</a>, salt marshes, or seagrass meadows. However, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.hereon.de/">Helmholz-Zentrum Hereon</a> has found, in some cases, seagrass meadows absorb far less CO2 than previously thought.



Seagrasses are aquatic plants thriving in shallow, light-flooded water. They are anchored by their roots to the soft seabed and are vital grazing grounds and nurseries for many marine animal species. In order to develop their tissues, seagrasses absorb CO2, and when they ultimately die and become deposited in the sediment of the seabed, they act as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/">carbon sinks</a>.



Yet, according to recent findings, fighting climate change by recultivating seagrass meadows is not as simple as many scientists believed. In fact, some seagrass meadows appear to release even more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than they store.&nbsp;



“By taking measurements in seagrass meadows off the coast of Florida, we could show that some of these tropical seagrass meadows absorb considerably less carbon dioxide than has long been thought. In contrast, on some coasts, they even emit more CO2,” said study lead author Bryce Van Dam, a biochemist at the Helmholz-Zentrum.



Van Dam and his colleagues found that carbonates, substances winding up in the sea through the weathering of rocks, play a fundamental role in binding the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in the seawater. The more carbonate the water contains, the more CO2 it can ultimately absorb and store.



In the warm tropical waters, the metabolic processes of the seagrass plants convert the dissolved carbonates to lime, which trickles to the seafloor.&nbsp;“The result is that these seagrass meadows hardly bind any carbon dioxide. On the contrary, they tend to release carbon dioxide through various other biochemical processes,” explained study co-author Helmuth Thomas, a biochemist at&nbsp;the <a href="https://www.hereon.de/institutes/carbon_cycles/index.php.en">Hereon Institute of Carbon Cycles</a>.



“We cannot rely on blue carbon offsets to counteract the CO2&nbsp;that we put into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels. Rather, we must first reduce CO2&nbsp;emissions and then protect these coastal habitats for the many financial and environmental benefits they offer us, which may not always include CO2&nbsp;sequestration,” concluded Van Dam.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126.sciadv.abj1372">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seagrass meadows absorb less CO2 than previously thought

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are a major factor impacting our...

The Little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-climate-shift-a-million-years-ago-linked-to-ocean-currents/">Ice Age</a>, which set about 600 years ago, was one of the coldest periods during the past 10,000 years. It was responsible for crop failures, famines, and pandemics throughout Europe, resulting in the misery and death of millions of people. Until now, the causes of this cooling remained mysterious. 



New research led by the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> has found a rather paradoxical answer to the puzzle of the Little Ice Age: the cooling appeared to have been triggered by an unusually warm episode.



By analyzing a 3,000-year reconstruction of North Atlantic sea surface temperatures, the researchers noticed a sudden change from very warm temperatures in the late 1300s to unprecedented cold conditions only 20 years later, in the early 1400s. Apparently, there was an abnormally strong northward transfer of warm water in the late 1300s, which peaked around 1380, and resulted in the unusual warming of the waters south of Greenland and the Nordic Seas.



Usually, there is always a transfer of warm water from the tropics to the Arctic through a process called the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/oceans/amoc">Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation</a> (AMOC). However, in the late 1300s, AMOC strengthened significantly, moving north far more water than before, and causing rapid arctic ice loss. From the late 1300s to early 1400s, vast amounts of ice were flushed out into the North Atlantic, cooling its waters and diluting their saltiness, ultimately causing AMOC to collapse. According to the scientists, this collapse triggered a substantial global cooling.



One of the causes for the changes in atmospheric circulation affecting the AMOC has been the unusually high solar activity recorded in the late 1300s, which led to higher atmospheric pressure over Greenland. At the same time, fewer volcanic eruptions provided a cleaner atmosphere that was more responsive to changes in solar output.



In the wake of these discoveries, scientists are wondering whether out current climate change could cause such an abrupt cooling event. While the diminishing of artic ice due to global warming makes such a scenario rather unlikely, other climatic processes currently at play could have quite unpredictable results.



“Persistent periods of high pressure over Greenland in summer have been much more frequent over the past decade and are linked with record-breaking ice melt,” said study lead author François LaPointe, a postdoctoral fellow in Geosciences at UMass Amherst.&nbsp;



“Climate models do not capture these events reliably and so we may be underestimating future ice loss from the ice sheet, with more freshwater entering the North Atlantic, potentially leading to a weakening or collapse of the AMOC.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abi8230">Science Advances</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists reveal the surprising cause of the Little Ice Age

The Little Ice Age, which set about 600 years ago,...

A <a href="https://www.coastal.ca.gov/meetings/agenda/#/2021/12">virtual hearing</a> will take place on December 16 where the California Coastal Commission will decide whether or not to allow the US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service to poison Southeast Farallon Island. The island is part of the Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary.&nbsp;



The US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service (USFWS) is proposing a plan to distribute 1.5 tons of cereal bait laced with a powerful poison by helicopter on the island in an attempt to eradicate house mice. Unfortunately “non-target” animals will also be killed if the plan is carried out.&nbsp;



The USFWS estimates that as many as 1,050 Western Gulls could suffer poisoning under the plan. The agency claims that this amount of casualty would still allow recovery of the gulls within a couple of decades, but previous USFWS estimates suggest as many as 3,000 gulls could be killed.&nbsp;



“The proposed poison drop would wreak havoc on the delicate Farallon Island ecosystem," said Lisa Levinson, campaigns director of <a href="https://www.idausa.org/">In Defense of Animals</a>. "Scientific data indicates that Brodifacoum could remain in crabs and even the smallest living creatures. This deadly poison would become part of the food web, killing exponentially more animals than it could possibly save. We urge the California Coastal Commission to choose contraception over killing for the health and well-being of all Farallones animal residents.”&nbsp;



Indeed, brodifacoum is an anticoagulant poison that can spread through a food web, accumulating in greater concentrations in predators, it impacts mammals, birds and other animals. The poison also has a history of up to 38% failure rate in eradication efforts on other islands. Richard Charter of the <a href="https://oceanfdn.org/projects/coastal-coordination/">The Ocean Foundation</a> encouraged citizens to speak out against this plan.&nbsp;



“This is a unique chance for the public to speak for protection of their coast and its wildlife," said Charter. "I am confident that those who care about our coast will take this convenient opportunity to weigh in on the inappropriateness of this dangerous anticoagulant poison being so casually spread around such a sensitive place.”&nbsp;



---By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

US agency plans to drop poison in a marine sanctuary

A virtual hearing will take place on December 16 where...

Oceans are some of the largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/">carbon sinks</a> on our planet, due to the “biological carbon pump” represented by microorganism like algae and phytoplankton which absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. When these organisms sink at the bottom of the ocean, the carbon they contain often remains intact for millennia. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/">Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research</a> (AWI) has found that meltwater from sea ice floes can delay this process by up to four months.



Between 2016 and 2018, the scientists used the ocean observation system <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/expedition/observatories/ocean-fram.html">FRAM</a> (Frontiers in Arctic Marine Monitoring), to gather data about the coupled physical-biological processes taking place in the Fram strait, located between Greenland and Svalbard.&nbsp;&nbsp;



&nbsp;“For the first time, for two entire years we were able to comprehensively monitor not only the seasonal developments of microalgae and phytoplankton, but also the complete physical, chemical, and biological system in which these developments take place,” said study lead author Dr.&nbsp;Wilken-Jon von Appen, a climate researcher at the AWI.



While in the summer of 2017, a huge amount of ice was transported out of the Arctic through the Fram strait, producing a great deal of low-saline meltwater and a pronounced stratification of the water (“the meltwater regime”), in the summer of 2018 an uncharacteristically low amount of ice went out of the Arctic, producing thus very little meltwater and salinity-based stratification (“the mixed-layer regime”).



The scientists found that during the meltwater regime from 2017, very little carbon made its way to the seafloor, and although the algae and phytoplankton had already bloomed by mid-May, it took another four months for the carbon to reach the seafloor, with the microorganisms being able to fix up to 25 grams of carbon per square meter.



By contrast, during the mixed-layer regime from 2018, only two to three weeks after the algae and phytoplankton had started to bloom, organic carbon reached depths of up to 1,200 meters, and a few more weeks later, it reached the seafloor. Furthermore, the microorganisms were able to fix 50 grams of carbon per square meter, thus twice as much as in the meltwater regime.



“In the future, the mixed-layer regime could spread over larger regions of the Arctic,” Dr. von Appen explained. “The conditions in this regime are similar to those in lower latitudes, and the Arctic Ocean could increasingly behave more like oceans in southern regions.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26943-z">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Meltwater influences carbon storage in the Arctic

Oceans are some of the largest carbon sinks on our...

New research suggests that taking a long, deep breath of sea air while standing on the beach may not be such a good idea. When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-ocean-temperatures-lower-giant-kelps-nutritional-value/">ocean</a> waves break, they release not only aerosolized salts but also other "forever chemicals" that start off dissolved in the seawater and may be far more dangerous.&nbsp;



The study, published by the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a>, finds that perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in seawater could become airborne as bubbles pop at the water’s surface, enabling them to enter the atmosphere and travel inland.



PFASs, which include perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), are potentially harmful organic contaminants that were used in industrial processes, food packaging, personal care products and water-repellent coatings. Although their use has been banned in some countries, these compounds are now found worldwide in the atmosphere, in oceans and in living organisms, including humans. PFASs don’t break down easily, which is why they are often referred to as forever chemicals.



A previous study of the transport of PFAAs from seawater into the atmosphere showed that, when bubbles containing PFAAs burst at the surface of saltwater, these persistent compounds are ejected as aerosols – extremely small airborne particles. The study predicted that these contaminants could potentially be transported long distances inland via this process. However, there was no evidence of this from field studies.&nbsp;



This led the authors of the current study to conduct observations at two coastal locations in Norway, to determine whether PFASs originating in sea spray, were being transported inland.&nbsp;



They collected more than one hundred 48h aerosol samples between 2018 and 2020, and analyzed these for the presence of 11 different PFAAs, including the possible carcinogens perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid. They also tested the air samples for sodium ions (Na+) which are considered to originate in sea spray and therefore indicate that the PFAAs were indeed associated with sea spray aerosols.&nbsp;



The researchers detected the contaminants in all of the air samples collected. In addition, the levels of individual PFAAs were strongly correlated with the presence of tracer sodium ions, indicating that these organic contaminants were coming from coastal waters and were leaving the ocean with sea spray and travelling inland. The correlations were stronger in the samples from the site at Andøya than they were for Birkenes, which is located further away from the coast.&nbsp;



The researchers calculated, using their field measurements, that for eight of the PFAAs, there could be 284 to 756 U.S. tons of forever chemicals released globally from the oceans to the air each year, which is higher than previous estimates.&nbsp;



Based on their field measurements, the researchers conclude that sea spray is an important source of this class of PFASs to coastal communities. They add that because sea spray can travel far distances inland, this is also likely to be a route for PFASs to be transported, and potentially return, to terrestrial regions from the ocean.



The study is published in the ACS journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Forever chemicals are released from sea spray

New research suggests that taking a long, deep breath of...

New research led by the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a> has found that, when alien plants invade an existing ecosystem and successfully spread there, a homogenization of regional floras occurs along with the loss of global floristic uniqueness. The so-called “super-invaders,” plants that are highly effective at colonizing new territories and displacing local species, are causing flora in separated, distant geographical regions to become increasingly similar.



By using large global databases, the scientists compared the composition of 658 regional floras from all over the world. In order to assess the floristic uniqueness of particular regions, they took into account the number of plant species a region shares or does not share with other regions, as well as the degree to which species are related to one another. Moreover, they also investigated the influence of biogeographic and anthropogenic factors on the increased homogenization of floras.



An important biogeographic factor helping the spread of alien species is the similarity in climate between different regions. “The more similar two regions are in terms of climate, the more likely it is that a plant from one region will succeed in establishing itself as a naturalized species in the other region, once geographic barriers have been crossed. In a sense, plants from a region with short climatic distance to their new habitat are 'climatically pre-adapted,’" said study lead author Dr. Qiang Yang, an ecologist at the University of Konstanz.



However, anthropogenic factors are also crucial in driving the global homogenization of regional plant communities. Regions that are now or had been under the same political administration in the past show an increased level of homogenization.&nbsp;



"Between regions of the same national territory or regions with historical colonial ties, there is or at least was lively exchange in the past – in the form of both cargo and passenger traffic. This usually also increases the exchange of plants across geographical borders, be it intentionally, as trade goods or agricultural crops, or unintentionally," Dr. Yang explained.



According to study senior author Mark Van Kleunen, a professor of Ecology at the University of Konstanz, such effects are now evident “even in the most remote corners of the world.”



"Unless more effective protective measures are taken to counter the ongoing spread and naturalization of alien plants in the future, they will continue to destroy the uniqueness of our ecosystems – making the world a less diverse place," he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27603-y">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive plants cause a global loss of floristic uniqueness

New research led by the University of Konstanz has found...

The value of using whole-plant medicinal cannabis to treat children with intractable epileptic seizures has been known from anecdotal sources for more than 150 years. In 1843, an Irish physician noted that cannabis tinctures cured an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infants-have-surprisingly-strong-immune-systems/">infant</a>, and the doctor proclaimed that medicine had found a useful anticonvulsant mediation.&nbsp;



However, the recreational and medicinal use of cannabis was made illegal in the U.K. in 1971. Research into the efficacy of cannabis for treating epileptic seizures ceased.



More recently, however, the U.K.’s National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), which provides guidance on which treatments and therapies the health service in England should adopt, has reviewed this situation. They have decided to accept as valid the testimonies of parents and carers who report that children respond well to whole-plant medicinal cannabis in instances where other, conventional antiepileptic drugs or purified cannabidiol (CBD oil) have not brought relief.



In 2018, medicinal whole-plant cannabis was designated a prescription medicine for the treatment of severe childhood epilepsy in the U.K. However, doctors have been very hesitant to prescribe this medication due to the absence of clinical trial data.&nbsp;



Whole plant cannabis includes tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the molecular component responsible for the characteristic ‘high’ associated with recreational use, along with cannabidiol, other neuroactive cannabinoids, and molecules such as terpenes.



In a study published today in the open access journal&nbsp;<a href="https://bmjpaedsopen.bmj.com/">BMJ Paediatrics Open</a>, scientists report on the cases of ten severely epileptic children whose seizures had not responded to conventional treatment. Two of these children had also not responded to treatment with the only pharmaceutical grade, purified CBD oil licensed in the U.K. for treating the condition in children (Epidyolex). The scientists were interested in whether the use of whole-plant medicinal cannabis had reduced frequency of seizures in these children.



The researchers, from DrugScience (the UK-based drugs advisory committee), the Imperial College London, and the London School of Economics and Political Science, recruited participants from two charities representing children using medicinal cannabis to treat their severe epilepsy. The children’s average age was 6, but ranged from 1 to 13 years, and they all suffered from intractable forms of epilepsy.



Parents and carers reported their experiences to the researchers by means of phone or video calls between January and May 2021. The data relied on the subjective memories and evaluations of parents and carers, who assessed how children had responded while being treated with medicinal cannabis.



The results indicated an overall decrease of 86 percent in the frequency of seizures experienced by the ten children. In addition, while taking medicinal cannabis the children were able to dispense with the use of other, conventional epilepsy drugs. Whereas before treatment with medicinal cannabis the children used an average of seven different epilepsy drugs, afterwards they used an average of only one other drug. Furthermore, seven of the children were able to stop the use of all other drugs completely.&nbsp;



Parents and carers also reported significant and sustained improvements in the health and wellbeing of their children, including in sleep, eating, behavior and cognition, after they started to take whole-plant medicinal cannabis products. Only a few minor side effects, such as tiredness, were reported.&nbsp;



Combining the data from all ten children, the researchers calculated that the children used an average of 5.15 mg THC and 171.8 mg CBD every day. In addition, the average monthly cost of the medicinal cannabis products was £874. One child had obtained a prescription for free on the NHS.



The researchers acknowledge the small sample size for this research and the fact that it was an observational study that relied on parental recall and had no control group. They also recognize the possibility that only parents and carers whose children had responded positively to medicinal cannabis may have decided to take part in the study.



At the same time, the experts state their findings support several other observational and controlled interventional studies that show significant reductions in seizure frequency after treatment with medicinal cannabis.



Full chemical analysis of whole-plant medicinal cannabis products is ongoing, and research still needs to elucidate the mechanisms by which the constituents work to achieve the reported effects. In addition, the potential long-term negative effects of taking medicinal cannabis need to be weighed up against the effects of using other antiepileptic drugs, some of which have severe consequences for normal childhood development.



“We believe that our data on whole-plant medical cannabis in childhood-onset severe treatment-resistant epilepsy, provides evidence to support its introduction into the NHS within current NICE prescribing guidelines," concluded the researchers.



“Such a move would be hugely beneficial to the families, who in addition to having the psychological distress of looking after their chronically ill children, have also to cover the crippling financial burden of their medication.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Medicinal cannabis reduces epileptic seizures by 86 percent

The value of using whole-plant medicinal cannabis to treat children...

Global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/">climate</a> change is resulting in dramatic consequences for our planet, with one of the most significant issues being the increasing size of hunting grounds of various species. A prime example of this is the Beaufort Sea polar bears, whose hunting ground has increased in size by 64 percent within the last two decades.



New research from the <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> School of the Environment has found that the increase in polar bear hunting ground size is the result of their receding sea ice habitat, meaning they must travel further north in order to hunt for fish and seals. This has led to a decrease in the polar bear population within the Beaufort Sea of around 30 percent.



“Having to travel farther means these bears are expending more energy which can threaten their survival,” said study lead author Anthony Pagano. “If we want to preserve the habitat of these amazing mammals, then we need to focus on the root of the problem, which is slowing global climate change.”



The researchers used satellite tracking data to analyze the movement patterns of female polar bears between 1986 and 2016 across the North Alaskan Beaufort Sea.



“The combined impact of having to move farther and farther north with the ice in the summer and then having to move back in the fall and winter as the ice freezes is taking a major toll,” said Pagano. “Our work highlights the worrying impact of sea ice decline on polar bear movement patterns.”&nbsp;



In addition to traveling further for their favorite prey of seals and fish, the experts also discovered that around 20 percent of the Beaufort Sea polar bear population is coping by traveling across the Alaskan and Canadian coast in search of alternative food sources such as carrion, berries, and bowhead whale carcasses.



“Sometimes you’ll have 50 to 100 polar bears that congregate around these whale carcasses and compete with each other for food,” said Pagano. “As more and more bears move on land, I suspect there’ll be a lot more competition for these food resources and we’ll probably start seeing further decreases in abundance and survival.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The team aims to continue conducting similar studies to gain further insight into how the polar bears are coping with their changing habitat. Pagano and his colleagues have also urged for the curbing of global carbon emissions in order to protect the remaining Beaufort Sea polar bear population, which is only around 800. If global warming of more than 3.6°F can be avoided, recent models suggest that the polar bear population could survive.



“Coming across a polar bear while flying over the Arctic in a helicopter is a surreal experience,” said Pagano. “They are incredibly massive and impressive. It is amazing to observe this animal that is so uniquely adapted to exist in this harsh Arctic environment. They are worth the effort it will take to preserve them.”&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/21508925">Ecosphere</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Polar bears are forced to hunt for food on land

Global climate change is resulting in dramatic consequences for our...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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