A recent study comparing how mothers in the U.K. and Uganda soothe their crying babies found something surprising: Ugandan babies calm down faster, even though their moms take longer to respond.



On the surface, this flips the script on common Western parenting advice. We often hear that faster is better when it comes to calming a crying infant. But this research suggests that the manner in which a mother comforts her baby matters more than how quickly she does it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-touch-versus-talk-to-calm-babies">Touch versus talk to calm babies</h2>



Researchers observed 147 real-life moments of distress in 82 infants across both countries. They focused on what mothers did in those moments, not just how quickly they reacted.



In both places, faster responses did help babies settle down. But here’s the twist: even though U.K. mothers typically responded more quickly, Ugandan babies calmed faster overall. That wasn’t random. The difference came down to the way mothers soothed their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a>.



In Uganda, moms often used touch - holding, carrying, or <a href="https://www.afro.who.int/countries/uganda/news/safe-space-nourish-who-uganda-champions-breastfeeding-workplace" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breastfeeding</a> - as their main method of comfort, even with older babies. In the U.K., mothers started with physical comfort when babies were young, but switched to using more words and less touch as their infants grew.



That shift in strategy seems to make a difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culture-shapes-our-parenting">Culture shapes our parenting</h2>



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.dipf.de/en/frontpage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DIPF Leibniz Institute</a> in Germany, and Durham University in the U.K.. They wanted to understand how caregiving works in real life - outside of labs or parenting books - and across very different environments.



“Our findings show that maternal responsiveness is universally important. But how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-can-use-singing-to-engage-with-infants/">mothers</a> respond, and the effectiveness of their strategies, varies in meaningful ways between cultures,” said Dr. Carlo Vreden of the DIPF Leibniz Institute for Research and Information in Education.



“Importantly, we are not making value judgments about which approach is better. Rather, we are highlighting that caregiving strategies are shaped by culture. It is not just about how quickly the mothers respond to their babies, but also the type of maternal soothing response which plays a crucial role in infant emotion regulation.”



In the U.K., many parenting norms are based on studies done in Western countries, often under very controlled conditions. But this doesn’t reflect the full picture of how most babies are raised around the world.



Professor Zanna Clay explained, “Most of what we know about babies’ early emotional development is based on studies conducted in Europe and North America. But of course, these Western settings don’t reflect the caregiving environments experienced by the majority of infants around the world, nor how they may have been historically.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-babies-stay-calm-despite-slower-responses">Babies stay calm despite slower responses</h2>



One principal reason why Ugandan mothers would take longer to reply is plain: they’re frequently engaged in manual labor, such as working in the fields or taking care of household chores outside. In contrast to high-income environments, mothers in rural Uganda typically cannot abandon everything the instant their baby begins crying.



“Uganda is an interesting place to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/child-care-quality-has-direct-impact-on-later-success-in-science-and-math/">caregiving</a>,” Clay said, “as infants are typically cared for by multiple different caregivers and their styles of caregiving culturally differ, such as prioritising more physical contact with their babies.”



Even with slower response times, Ugandan mothers’ reliance on touch - especially breastfeeding - seemed to have a calming effect. The babies got comforted in a way that worked well for them, even if it wasn’t immediate.



Professor Clay added, “Our study also highlights the balance between responding to your baby while also having to manage daily tasks, which can be more challenging in rural low-resource settings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-parenting-advice">Rethinking parenting advice</h2>



This research challenges the idea that there’s only one right way to raise emotionally healthy kids. It shows that parenting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parenting-may-help-keep-the-brain-younger/">strategies</a> can look different in different places - and still be effective.



“We’ve shown that Western ideas about optimal parenting don’t always apply in other settings,” said Dr. Vreden. “Even though the U.K. mums do seem to follow this sort of gold standard of responding as soon as possible, it's the Ugandan children, who don't get that quicker response, who actually recovered faster.”



“This emphasises the complexity of different strategies working in different ways and in different settings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calm-babies-in-real-life">Calm babies in real life</h2>



By watching what happens in real-life settings - not just in labs - researchers can get a clearer picture of what helps babies <a href="https://www.eccpct.com/Resources/Child/Tips-for-Tots/Help-Young-Children-Regulate-Their-Emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulate</a> their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/">emotions</a>. This matters for building parenting support programs that fit the realities of people’s lives, no matter where they live.



Future research may explore how these early caregiving approaches affect children as they grow and how parenting differs across even more cultures.



In the end, it’s not just about being fast - it’s about being effective. And effectiveness can look very different, depending on where you are.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2026-56898-001.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Developmental Psychology</a>.



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How, or how fast? Study examines fascinating cultural differences in how babies are calmed

A recent study comparing how mothers in the U.K. and Uganda soothe their crying babies found something surprising: Ugandan babies calm down faster, even though their moms take longer to respond. On the surface, this flips the script on common Western parenting advice. We often hear that faster is better when it comes to calming a crying infant. But this research suggests that the manner in which a mother comforts her baby matters more than how quickly she does it. Touch versus talk to calm babies Researchers...

Middle-aged mice lived 33% longer when they cut back on one particular dietary building block. This finding has grabbed attention because it suggests a simple strategy that may support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leg-balance-is-a-key-indicator-of-healthy-aging/">healthy aging</a>.



This work comes from research teams who tracked how limiting the isoleucine in rodent meals boosted their longevity. 



This approach was led by metabolism researcher <a href="https://www.medicine.wisc.edu/directory/lamming_dudley" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dudley Lamming</a> from the University of Wisconsin, US, and colleagues who also observed improved blood sugar control and leaner physiques among the animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isoleucine-s-role-in-healthy-aging">Isoleucine’s role in healthy aging</h2>



“Different components of your diet have value and impact beyond their function as a calorie, and we've been digging in on one component that many people may be eating too much of,” explained Lamming, who was involved in these mouse experiments, in 2023. Isoleucine is an essential part of our diet, yet some people consume too much of it.&nbsp;



Too much of this amino acid has been linked to unhealthy weight gain. The mix of amino acids in a person’s diet is now seen as an important factor in metabolic health. 



Higher intake of the branched-chain amino acid isoleucine has been <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11185563/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">linked</a> to increased body mass index in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isoleucine-restriction-extends-lifespan">Isoleucine restriction extends lifespan</h2>



Male mice on reduced-isoleucine chow experienced lifespan increases of about a third. They also handled glucose better and stayed slimmer even while allowed to eat more total calories.



Restricting isoleucine did not require complicated food measurements. It simply involved changing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/">protein</a> proportions in their daily ration so that isoleucine was the limiting factor. The mice were allowed to eat freely, which makes the results even more surprising.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-male-female-variation-in-isoleucine-restriction">Male-female variation in isoleucine restriction</h2>



In this study, male mice showed a 33% boost in lifespan, while females only gained about 7%. This big gap raises questions about how sex hormones, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-metabolism-has-evolved-to-become-energetically-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, and body composition may influence how the body responds to amino acid changes.



Researchers have seen similar patterns before with other nutrient-based interventions. Hormonal differences can affect fat storage, muscle metabolism, and how energy is used, which may explain why the same diet creates different results depending on sex.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-gains-from-limiting-isoleucine-intake">Health gains from limiting isoleucine intake</h2>



“It's interesting and encouraging to think a dietary change could still make such a big difference,” said Lamming. Such results spark optimism for ways to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-say-this-is-the-best-fruit-to-eat-for-a-healthier-liver/">healthier</a> aging.&nbsp;



Scientists believe that trimming isoleucine intake helps the body regulate insulin activity, which in turn aids energy balance and metabolic stability. The 2021 study in mice supports the idea that altered amino acid levels can reprogram liver function and fat storage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-and-rewards-of-isoleucine-reduction">Risks and rewards of isoleucine reduction</h2>



Experts note that isoleucine is one of three branched-chain amino acids needed for survival, so eliminating it is not an option. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hemp-seeds-could-be-a-game-changer-as-an-alternative-protein-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Higher-protein foods</a> like eggs, dairy, soy, and meats typically provide ample amounts of it, which can be troublesome for those at risk of excessive intake.



Lifestyle adjustments must be approached carefully, because going too low in protein can also cause problems. “We can't just switch everyone to a low-isoleucine diet,” Lamming said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incorporating-isoleucine-limited-foods-into-daily-meals">Incorporating isoleucine-limited foods into daily meals</h2>



People who eat mostly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-protein-boosts-survival-but-plants-boost-longevity/">animal-based foods</a> may be getting more isoleucine than they realize. Meats, dairy, and eggs are especially rich in branched-chain amino acids, including isoleucine. 



Swapping some of these foods for plant-based proteins - like beans, lentils, or tofu - could be a practical way to bring levels down without under-eating protein altogether.



This isn't about extreme dieting. It’s more about tweaking food choices to reduce excess. Since isoleucine is just one of many amino acids, small shifts in dietary sources might be enough to improve long-term health without sacrificing nutrition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-isoleucine-focused-research-and-treatment">Next steps in isoleucine-focused research and treatment</h2>



Researchers believe more targeted changes, including drugs that block how the body processes isoleucine, may one day be explored. 



Some observers hope physicians and dietitians might soon personalize amino acid profiles for specific health needs.



A short-term trial <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27346343/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">indicated</a> that low-protein diets can reduce weight and improve metabolic markers even without cutting overall calories. Such findings hint that translating the rodent results to human benefits is not far-fetched.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-prospects-for-isoleucine-and-healthy-aging">Future prospects for isoleucine and healthy aging</h2>



Many see this approach as a clue about the intricate links between diet and aging. These rodent models give reason to think that certain dietary tweaks could support longevity in people too.



The investigators emphasize that fine-tuning is key. They plan to keep studying how these food-based strategies could be adapted into safe recommendations for adults. 



Any future guidance will need to balance nutrient needs, metabolic responses, and practical eating habits across different age groups and lifestyles. The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550413121001662" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Metabolism</a>.



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Reducing isoleucine is the key to a 33% longer life

Middle-aged mice lived 33% longer when they cut back on...

Conspiracy theories often seem bizarre or extreme to some people, but they can take root in something very human - the desire to feel that our lives have meaning. This basic need for purpose drives many of our decisions - both good and bad. 



For some people, it can even lead down dangerous paths. In a new book titled The Quest for Significance, social psychologist Arie Kruglanski and journalist Dan Raviv have explored this idea in depth.



Their research is backed by extensive psychological studies and their own personal experiences, including childhood memories shaped by historical trauma. The book is the product of work conducted at the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-significance-matters">Why significance matters</h2>



“Experts on human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-regulates-both-learning-and-motivation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motivation</a> contend that all people share the same set of basic needs, and everything people do, try to attain, or avoid is in the service of satisfying one or more of those basic needs,” explained the researchers.



“The need for significance and mattering is one such pre-eminent basic need that all people have.”



This need, they argue, often flies under the radar of conscious thought. Yet it plays a powerful role in shaping our emotions, behaviors, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conversations-with-ai-chatbots-can-reverse-reduce-conspiracy-theory-beliefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beliefs</a>. 



When people feel they’ve lost their sense of importance or dignity, they may seek it out in extreme places - sometimes believing false narratives that make them feel special or give them a sense of control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-link-between-uncertainty-and-belief">The link between uncertainty and belief</h2>



Today’s world is filled with unpredictability. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/financial-losses-during-the-pandemic-took-a-toll-on-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Financial instability</a>, political unrest, war, and global health crises create an environment where people feel vulnerable. 



“But it is not the uncertainty alone that has been so troubling to so many,” the authors noted. “It is a loss of significance that the uncertainty connotes.”



When life feels unstable, people often imagine worst-case scenarios. They worry about losing their homes, their jobs, or their cultural identity. This fear creates a gap, and conspiracy theories step in to fill it - offering easy answers and a sense of direction.



“The loss of significance that people around the globe have been experiencing makes them vulnerable to a particular brand of narratives; ones that acknowledge their fears and anxieties and blame some agent or entity for nefarious plots and actions aimed at humiliating and diminishing them,” explained the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-appeal-of-conspiracy-theories">The appeal of conspiracy theories</h2>



The authors show how conspiracy theories gain traction by assigning blame and calling for action. They note that these stories often center on a common enemy, suggesting that violence or resistance is the only way to reclaim lost dignity.



“An important aspect of those narratives has been a call to arms against the party or parties allegedly responsible for these evil machinations. In recent years, there has been a proliferation of conspiracy theories identifying an assortment of culprits as the enemy that must be violently confronted and whose satanic plans must be aggressively thwarted.”



A well-known example is the theory promoted by David Icke, who claims that a race of interdimensional reptilians disguised as humans - including world leaders - are secretly trying to control the world.



“From a psychological perspective, the real question is what do these theories offer Icke’s audiences that motivates them to take the claims seriously? In fact, they offer quite a lot. First, to be privy to a truth so scandalous and shocking makes a person feel very special, one of a select few ‘in the know,'” the experts wrote. 



Conspiracy theories make people feel seen and valued. They can offer a sense of belonging and even hope. This makes them especially attractive to people who feel sidelined or powerless in society.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conspiracy-theories-fill-an-emotional-void">Conspiracy theories fill an emotional void</h2>



Research in psychology has long shown that motivations shape belief. When someone’s sense of importance is low, they’re more likely to believe stories that make them feel elevated or heroic.



“Disseminated by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-covid-conspiracy-theories-persist-on-social-media/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social media</a> at lightning speed, conspiracy narratives purport to identify the alleged culprits responsible for proliferating misery,” explained the researchers.



“In our private lives, and on the world stage, the challenge is to find ways that can enhance our significance as a win-win project, rather than through a bitter, competitive zero-sum game.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-self-awareness">The power of self-awareness</h2>



The book doesn’t just outline the problem of people believing conspiracy theories. It also offers a way forward. The authors argue that self-awareness is key. 



Many people don’t fully understand what drives them. This lack of insight makes them more vulnerable to manipulation and harmful narratives.



“People are often blissfully unaware of why they do what they do, and what basic motives underlie their choices, decisions, and actions. Despite these misgivings, it may be better to face the truth about ourselves and navigate it, rather than bury our head in the proverbial sand."



Knowing your needs can lead to better decisions, stronger relationships, and a greater sense of purpose. It can also help protect against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brains-may-be-hardwired-to-believe-lies-and-conspiracy-theories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">false beliefs</a> that offer a quick - but misleading - sense of significance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-yourself-from-conspiracy-theories">Protecting yourself from conspiracy theories</h2>



Most people don’t realize what shapes even their everyday choices, let alone their core beliefs. The authors suggest paying attention to what affects you emotionally - things such as pride, envy, admiration, or shame.



“If you can somehow quantify how important significance is to you, how strongly you react to challenges to your dignity, how badly you feel when ‘put down’ by others, and what arouses your envy, empathy, or admiration, then you might identify guidelines for navigating your life more successfully,” the researchers wrote.



“This part of ‘knowing thyself’ may suggest to you which situations could be beneficial and which ones to avoid, which invitations to accept and which to turn down, which friends to choose or to eschew, and which goals to commit to or reject.”



Understanding what makes you tick is not just self-help advice. It’s a form of defense - against manipulation, against harmful ideologies, and against losing touch with what truly matters.



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Why some people believe conspiracy theories

Conspiracy theories often seem bizarre or extreme to some people,...

Many people go through upsetting events that leave them stuck with a lingering sense of panic, nightmares, or restlessness. These signs often point toward post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a condition that can damage relationships, block progress at work, and disrupt sleep - though meditation may offer a path toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-meditation-and-critical-thinking-matter-in-the-age-of-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing</a>.



After repeated evidence that certain mind-based practices can soothe distressed veterans, college students, and others, experts at <a href="https://www.miu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maharishi International University</a> have stepped forward to share their findings.



“I’ve served in war zones and seen how PTSD ravages lives long after the battle ends. This research shows transcendental meditation (TM) offers a safe, scalable, and profoundly effective solution - often with results in just a few weeks,” noted Dr. Brian Rees, a co-author of the study and former U.S. Army Medical Corps officer. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-danger-ends-ptsd-lingers">When the danger ends, PTSD lingers</h2>



Most health professionals recognize that PTSD <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26741477/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">starts</a> when people experience or see dangerous events, including assaults, accidents, or other shocks. The brain often stays in a fight-or-flight mode, which can make day-to-day life hard to bear.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meditation-rewires-the-emotional-centers-of-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Therapeutic</a> methods commonly rely on talking about past traumas or reliving them under guided conditions. While these approaches can help some people, they may feel unsettling to others who prefer gentler methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quick-relief-for-ptsd">Quick relief for PTSD</h2>



The new meta-analysis reviewed 15 separate investigations involving over 1,200 subjects. In each study, <a href="https://www.tm.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transcendental meditation</a> led to a noticeable drop in PTSD symptoms faster than inactive comparisons or standard support programs.



“I have 13 years of experience teaching TM in an army hospital to over 300 active-duty soldiers with PTSD and traumatic brain injury issues,” said Dr. Vernon Barnes, an expert in the Georgia Prevention Institute at Augusta University.



”The experience of providers I have worked with is that patients who get TM after therapy recover faster and more completely than those who do not.”



Studies suggest that TM addresses deep-rooted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meditation-slows-biological-aging-at-the-molecular-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tension</a> without forcing someone to relive disturbing moments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-matters-in-recovery">Speed matters in recovery</h2>



In many of the reviewed studies, results showed up fast - sometimes within days or weeks.



South African college students, for example, experienced a 14-point drop in PTSD symptoms in just two weeks, a change large enough to be clinically significant.



Rapid progress matters because people suffering from PTSD often struggle with motivation, consistency, or even the hope that things can improve. Seeing early success can encourage them to stick with the practice long enough to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-deep-meditation-experiences-feel-timeless-no-past-no-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experience</a> more lasting relief.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-ptsd-without-reliving-trauma">Healing PTSD without reliving trauma</h2>



Transcendental meditation uses a simple technique of settling into quieter levels of thought for a short period, twice a day.



This can produce calm breathing, lower heart rate, and reduce emotional flare-ups. People of varying backgrounds and ages appear to benefit, whether they’ve witnessed combat, faced severe physical harm, or endured natural catastrophes.&nbsp;



“I saw people burst into tears of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relief</a> during their very first meditation. One man I taught was so traumatized from war - and then the earthquake - that he did not speak,” said Dr. David Orme-Johnson, professor of psychology at Maharishi International University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-impact-on-health">Broader impact on health</h2>



Long-term <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33334335/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> can magnify the odds of heart complications, immune system problems, and emotional burnout. By easing tension and jumpiness, transcendental meditation may indirectly help other areas of well-being.



Along with professional counseling, TM adds another tool for those wishing to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27537781/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reduce dependence on medications</a> or talk-focused therapies. Some clinicians regard it as an additional support to standard treatments, especially when patients feel overwhelmed by repeated trauma recollections.



Research <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0081246314547124" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a> note the need for longer studies that follow participants beyond just a few months. Scientists want to confirm that any relief holds steady over time and across different populations.



They also suggest scaling meditation alongside existing medical care. This may include more training in community centers, hospitals, and universities, where people can maintain regular sessions without financial hurdles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meditation-could-reshape-ptsd-care">Meditation could reshape PTSD care</h2>



These projects highlight a new option that doesn’t demand rehashing frightening experiences. They point to a technique that goes easy on the nervous system and often produces improvements in less than a month.



Experts believe that future research with bigger volunteer pools will confirm the potential of transcendental meditation as a widely accepted practice. They say that combining it with other counseling methods may make a difference for those whose PTSD has not responded to established approaches.



Transcendental meditation may also reduce the burden on overloaded mental health systems by offering a self-managed option that doesn’t require licensed clinicians for every session. That could make it easier for communities with limited access to therapy to still receive meaningful support.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/61/4/659" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medicina</a>.



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Meditation can rapidly reduce PTSD without revisiting trauma

Many people go through upsetting events that leave them stuck...

Alzheimer’s disease and related dementia conditions do not simply rob individuals of memory; they also exact an extraordinary cost on families and on the nation as a whole.



A newly released estimate from researchers at the <a href="https://usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern California</a> (USC) concludes that the total monetary burden of dementia in the United States will reach roughly&nbsp;$781 billion in 2024.



That figure surpasses the annual revenues of many Fortune 500 companies and amounts to more than three percent of the nation’s gross domestic product.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-pays-and-how-much">Who pays, and how much?</h2>



Although various organizations have attempted to calculate dementia costs in past years, the USC‐led project aims to be the most comprehensive to date. 



The effort, supported by a multi‐year cooperative agreement with the <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/">National Institute on Aging</a>, combines detailed medical claims with large, nationally representative surveys and then applies a sophisticated simulation technique known as dynamic microsimulation.



The result is not only a single headline statistic but also a granular picture of who shoulders which costs, how those burdens change as patients age, and how new treatments or policies might shift the outlook over time.



Julie Zissimopoulos co-directs the <a href="https://schaeffer.usc.edu/programs/center-for-health-policy-and-economics/aging-and-cognition/">Aging and Cognition program</a> at the USC Schaeffer Center for Health Policy &amp; Economics and serves as principal investigator of the U.S. Cost of Dementia project. She noted that the goal is to give decision makers the kind of data they need to design smarter interventions.



“Having a better understanding of who bears these costs and how they change over time can inform evidence-based policies that may ultimately reduce the financial impact of dementia,” explained Zissimopoulos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-the-dementia-model">Building the dementia model</h2>



The research rests on several interlocking data sets. One is the <a href="https://hrs.isr.umich.edu/about">Health and Retirement Study</a>, a biennial survey of more than 20,000 Americans over age fifty that collects information on income, wealth, health status, and family structure.



Another is de-identified administrative data from the <a href="https://www.cms.gov/">Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services</a>, which capture hospitalizations, physician visits, prescription drug use, and long-term‐care claims.



By merging these resources and running them through dynamic microsimulation, the team can project how a representative cohort of older Americans will move through different health states, how their care needs will evolve, and how each phase translates into dollars.



The headline number of $781 billion covers several major domains of expense. Direct medical and long-term‐care cost for dementia patients - hospital stays, outpatient visits, skilled nursing facilities, home health aides, and other services - adds up to approximately $232 billion in 2024.



Out-of-pocket payments by patients and their families account for 22% of that sum, or about $52 billion. 



Medicare remains the single largest payer at $106 billion, while Medicaid, which picks up many nursing-home charges for low-income or exhausted‐asset households, spends about $58 billion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dementia-cost-beyond-medical-bills">Dementia cost beyond medical bills</h2>



Yet medical bills, staggering as they are, represent only the visible part of the iceberg. The USC model attaches a monetary value to <a href="https://www.cms.gov/">quality-of-life</a> losses for both patients and caregivers. 



Economists do this by using survey data on health-related quality of life and applying standard “willingness‐to‐pay” techniques to convert utility losses into dollar terms.



By that yardstick, patients with dementia together lose an estimated $302 billion worth of well-being this year, while family caregivers forfeit an additional $6 billion.



Caregivers also surrender work hours. The model finds that friends and relatives will provide roughly 6.8 billion hours of unpaid care in 2024 - time that could otherwise be spent in the labor force or on personal pursuits. Using average wages to monetize that devotion yields an additional $233 billion. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enormous-economic-toll">Enormous economic toll </h2>



On top of those unpaid hours are lost wages from people who reduce their schedules or quit altogether to look after loved ones; those forfeited earnings amount to $8.2 billion.



Dana Goldman, founding director of the <a href="https://schaeffer.usc.edu/">USC Schaeffer Institute for Public Policy &amp; Government Service</a> and co-principal investigator on the study, emphasized the stakes. 



“This research demonstrates the enormous toll dementia places on patients, their families, and care partners," she said. "But it also points to the potential value of developing ways to prevent and treat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-a-brain-disease/">Alzheimer’s</a> and related diseases that cause dementia.” 



Goldman noted that even modest delays in disease progression could yield huge economic dividends, not to mention immeasurable relief for families.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-dementia-dashboard">Dynamic dementia dashboard</h2>



The study arrives at a moment of rapid change in dementia care. <a href="https://www.fda.gov/">The Food and Drug Administration</a> has recently approved anti-amyloid drugs that, for the first time, appear to slow cognitive decline in certain patients with early-stage Alzheimer’s. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-blood-test-can-track-the-progression-of-alzheimers/">Blood-based biomarkers</a> promise cheaper and earlier detection, potentially moving diagnosis up by years.



Policymakers, insurers, and pharmaceutical companies are grappling with how to pay for these innovations and how to ensure equitable access. By updating the cost model annually, the experts hope to provide a real-time dashboard that will let stakeholders see how emerging therapies or policy reforms shift both costs and benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planning-for-dementia-costs">Planning for dementia costs </h2>



Future reports will incorporate additional cost categories - legal fees, home modifications, transportation expenses, and mental-health impacts - aiming for the most exhaustive ledger yet of dementia’s drain on society. 



For now, the $781 billion estimate stands as a stark reminder that the disease is not just a clinical challenge but an economic tsunami, already cresting and bound to grow as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-25-years-of-research-revealed-about-brain-aging/">aging</a> population swells. 



Evidence-based planning, the researchers argue, is the only way to blunt the tide.



More information about the costs of dementia in the U.S. can be found <a href="https://schaeffer.usc.edu/research/the-cost-of-dementia-in-2025/">here</a>.



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Dementia is a growing global health crisis with a staggering cost

Alzheimer’s disease and related dementia conditions do not simply rob...

Over the past few years, more people across the United States have been experimenting with psilocybin, a hallucinogen found in “magic mushrooms.” 



This increase in psilocybin use has drawn attention from health experts, who note that many users face challenges such as mental illness or chronic pain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharp-rise-in-psilocybin-use">Sharp rise in psilocybin use </h2>



Some U.S. states have started softening their policies around the use of psilocybin, which appears to match the timing of its recent surge in popularity. This increase also coincides with a jump in poison center calls, suggesting that not everyone understands the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-are-the-most-popular-psychedelic-drug/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substance</a> or its risks.



“We found that, since 2019, the number of people using psilocybin has gone up sharply,” said Dr. Karilynn Rockhill, a researcher at the <a href="https://coloradosph.cuanschutz.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado School of Public Health</a>. 



Dr. Rockhill led a project that tracked psilocybin use patterns across several age groups and geographic areas.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-use-across-all-ages">Psilocybin use across all ages</h2>



Young adults show the largest expansion in psilocybin experimentation. Older adults are not too far behind. 



Looser restrictions and rising social acceptance might encourage some to view psilocybin as a quick fix for depression or anxiety. 



Experts note that certain individuals appear to be self-treating serious conditions. They worry that casual use without medical guidance can create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complications</a>. 



These worries become more pressing when poison center data reveal an uptick in calls from across the age spectrum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-and-psilocybin-use">Mental health and psilocybin use</h2>



Psilocybin has drawn attention for potential <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909165/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benefits</a> in addressing PTSD, substance use disorders, and other challenges. Medical providers, however, warn that its use in these circumstances remains investigational.



People experiencing depression or anxiety sometimes turn to magic mushrooms if they lack immediate professional support.



“Public views on psilocybin are shifting. However, that means we also need to make sure people understand the risks, know how to use it safely if they choose to, and that health care systems are prepared,” said Dr. Joshua Black, a senior scientist at Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, which is a division of Denver Health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-people-are-calling-poison-centers">More people are calling poison centers</h2>



The steep increase in poison center calls, signals that many users do not fully grasp the substance’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confirmed-magic-mushrooms-can-effectively-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>. Some calls involve disorientation or panic, which can be risky in certain settings.



Others reflect confusion about dosage or harmful interactions with existing prescriptions. Researchers suggest that hospitals and emergency departments might be under-reporting these cases. 



A gap in hospital coding means psilocybin-related visits can slip by unnoticed. That hampers public health agencies that are trying to gauge what’s really happening.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poor-tracking-hides-health-impacts">Poor tracking hides health impacts</h2>



Officials have discovered that current systems for recording hallucinogen-related issues are not keeping up with the changing landscape. Inaccurate data collection may keep local clinics in the dark about how often patients arrive in crisis. 



Health systems need reliable metrics for policy decisions. Some <a href="https://psychedelicalpha.com/data/psychedelic-laws" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">states</a> have already drafted policies allowing controlled use of psilocybin for medical study.



Others weigh more permissive models. Researchers stress that consistent tracking and standard coding practices can help officials measure any shifts in harm or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-magic-mushrooms-evolve-to-contain-psilocybin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">misuse</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-for-better-outcomes">Education for better outcomes</h2>



Experts call for straightforward educational materials about psilocybin. Too many new users jump in without guidance, and that raises the risk of harmful experiences. 



Medical offices, online platforms, and community centers could play a role in distributing simple facts. A deeper conversation among doctors, public health leaders, and policymakers might also help. 



If people choose to explore psilocybin, they should know its possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-magic-new-species-discovered-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>. Broad awareness can reduce unintentional injuries and keep poison centers from bearing the brunt of emergencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-responsible-research">Importance of responsible research</h2>



Scientific studies on psilocybin are expanding, driven by interest in its potential therapeutic use. A handful of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clinical trials</a> suggest it can relieve specific mental health symptoms under controlled conditions.



Still, experts advise caution until results are replicated and reviewed. Researchers hope to see more large-scale trials in the near future.



Trials help to confirm safety profiles, determine effective doses, and better understand who could benefit most. Once there is enough valid evidence, health authorities can make informed decisions about approving psilocybin-related therapies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-hope-and-risks">Balancing hope and risks</h2>



Fans of magic mushrooms highlight experiences of spiritual or introspective growth. Others cite anecdotal relief from depression or chronic pain. 



Medical professionals respond that each user brings a unique history, including mental health factors, that might heighten risks. Some also worry that blanket decriminalization could send the wrong message.



Substance misuse can surface if people jump into using potent compounds without a plan or supervision. Encouraging responsible decisions goes hand in hand with exploring psilocybin’s possible upsides.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-psilocybin-safety">The future of psilocybin safety</h2>



A lack of comprehensive tracking tools prevents health facilities from planning for potential surges in psilocybin-related visits. Researchers urge policy revisions that integrate consistent psilocybin coding. Clear codes would allow doctors to pinpoint frequent complications and stock resources accordingly.



Hospitals operating in regions where psilocybin use is on the rise might train staff to handle its distinct side effects. This includes mental health professionals equipped with therapy insights, and emergency teams ready for psychedelic crises.



Supporters of psilocybin believe momentum will continue as studies gain traction and more states debate legalization. Experts will watch these policy shifts in real time.



Community programs or peer education campaigns may help encourage careful exploration of psilocybin rather than spur-of-the-moment decisions.



The study was published in the <a href="https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/ANNALS-24-03145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Internal Medicine</a>.



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Increased use of psilocybin in U.S. raises health concerns

Over the past few years, more people across the United...

Men and women can both be head-over-heels in love at different stages, yet a new investigation suggests that males might plunge into love’s emotional deep end just a little sooner than females do. Researchers say that while both sexes share the intense emotional highs of romance, each group has its own habits and quirks.



The study was led by Adam Bode, a Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a>. He and his colleagues gathered data on early-stage relationships to clarify how biological sex might influence the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-are-falling-in-love-with-ai-companions-and-it-could-be-dangerous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pattern</a> of falling in love.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-men-fall-in-love-faster">Men fall in love faster</h2>



Some scholars <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2006.1938" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">argue</a> that humans have long relied on strong mutual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-love-live-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attachments</a> to strengthen relationships and raise families effectively. Love can spark vital changes in behavior, prompting people to prioritize a partner or invest resources in a shared future.



Men’s inclination to leap in quickly may come from a desire to signal commitment and availability. They sense that early displays of fondness can create trust and lower doubts about their intentions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-women-love-deeply-once-they-commit">Women love deeply once they commit</h2>



Females often report deeper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-our-relationships-with-dogs-matter-so-much/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional</a> facets when they commit to loving someone. They also seem to think about their beloved more frequently.



“It is the first convincing evidence that women and men differ in some aspects of romantic love,” said Bode. He credits evolutionary processes for shaping these differences, although social and cultural factors may play a role, too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-equality-may-reduce-emotional-intensity">Gender equality may reduce emotional intensity</h2>



“Our study suggests that people from more gender-equal countries experience a lower intensity of romantic love, obsessive thinking, and maybe even commitment,” said Bode. 



That might happen because both men and women in those places face fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parent-children-relationships-are-key-to-lifelong-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> pressures that drive them to sink into love’s emotional whirlwind.



Worldwide variations in education, family structures, or relationship norms may mold how each sex behaves. Many <a href="https://repub.eur.nl/pub/16743/Langeslag%202007%20Biological%20Psychology.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialists</a> believe that the interplay between biology and environment offers the most complete picture of why love unfolds the way it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-s-timing-and-emotional-triggers">Love’s timing and emotional triggers</h2>



Relationship <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00287.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> point out that recognizing slight differences in men’s and women’s early love experiences doesn’t imply any one method of bonding is superior. Instead, these insights underscore the significance of understanding individual romantic triggers.



Scientists continue to explore how hormones, family upbringing, and cultural standards guide the way people fall in love. Researchers predict that future findings will address both interpersonal differences and how outside factors, such as gender equality, can reshape relationship outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expectations-of-men-and-women">Expectations of men and women</h2>



Friends, family, and therapists often encourage couples to be open and clear about their expectations. This approach might be especially relevant to those who feel like they are fast-tracking an emotional bond.



Some experts have noted that while men might act quickly, that swiftness doesn’t guarantee less intensity down the road. 



Others maintain that once women embrace strong affection, they can become even more focused, devoting time and mental space to cherish their partner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-makes-it-work">Empathy makes it work</h2>



Healthy relationships may result from understanding these small but fascinating differences. While romantic attachment is unique to each individual, common trends offer suggestions for better communication and empathy.



Love is still influenced by social factors, such as shifting marriage norms or changing personal goals. What remains consistent is the powerful urge to find meaningful closeness, regardless of whether it emerges in a burst of spontaneity or arrives after careful reflection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-speeds-help-love-grow">Different speeds help love grow</h2>



Men’s faster declarations of love might be an attempt to show seriousness and lower the possibility of rejection. Women’s strong fixation on their partner could reflect a deeper mental focus that arises once trust and reassurance appear.



Both tendencies hint at love’s core function: to help two people commit enough energy and emotion to build something lasting. This motivation, shaped by biology and steered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-drive-learning-in-monkeys-and-humans-alike/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social factors</a>, may let relationships thrive in different cultures and eras.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-doesn-t-follow-a-fixed-timeline">Love doesn't follow a fixed timeline </h2>



While simple stereotypes about men rushing forward and women hesitating might not capture everyone’s experience, these findings show that each sex can have distinct concerns and benefits. 



Couples can support each other by acknowledging that love doesn’t always follow a fixed timeline.



Staying aware of fast emotional bonds can help partners decide if they’re ready for a milestone, like moving in together or meeting each other’s families. Those who prefer a gentler pace might want to voice that need to avoid feeling overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-relationship-has-its-own-pace">Every relationship has its own pace</h2>



Communities and health professionals often look for ways to help couples handle potential misalignments in how they experience early-stage romance. Suggesting open dialogue and shared decision-making can avoid misunderstandings about pace and depth.



People who feel they’ve fallen for someone almost overnight may benefit from self-reflection before acting on that emotion. That short gap can avoid conflicts and ensure a steadier foundation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-prevents-mismatched-love">Communication prevents mismatched love</h2>



Men’s rush to say “I love you” might be a spontaneous statement of genuine devotion. At the same time, women’s lingering approach could reflect a thorough emotional check-in.



Ultimately, this study’s results highlight the idea that no two hearts beat exactly alike. Practical advice involves respectful communication, realistic expectations, and empathy for differing emotional speeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-or-fast-love-needs-trust">Slow or fast, love needs trust</h2>



The quest to understand romance blends biology, anthropology, and psychology. Each discipline adds fresh ideas about how men and women bond and commit their attention.



Couples who celebrate each other’s natural pace or intensity may see improved trust. Small gestures like simple check-ins, thoughtful messages, or shared decisions can support stronger connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-comes-from-culture">Love comes from culture</h2>



This growing body of research has real-world implications for relationship counseling and personal growth. Keeping an open mind about alternate approaches to expressing passion can reduce friction and build more rewarding bonds.



The observations contribute to an ongoing effort by social scientists and mental health practitioners to identify healthy relationship practices.



Knowing that men and women may vary in how they spark or maintain romance can remove confusion and encourage consideration of each partner’s perspective.



The study is published in <a href="https://bsd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13293-025-00698-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology of Sex Differences</a>.



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Men might say 'I love you' first to show they care

Men and women can both be head-over-heels in love at...

If you’ve ever wondered whether your post-workout protein shake needs to come from chicken or chickpeas, you’re not alone. There’s a lot of talk about which type of protein is best for building muscle - plant-based or animal-based.



And does it help to space out your protein intake throughout the day? Or get a bigger serving at dinner? A new study has tackled these questions head-on and the answers may surprise you.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assumptions-about-muscle-protein-synthesis">Assumptions about muscle protein synthesis </h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> designed a nine-day clinical trial to test three common assumptions about muscle protein synthesis. 



The experts wanted to know: Does the protein source - plant versus animal - impact muscle building? Does timing throughout the day affect how your body uses protein? And is there any real benefit to moderately high protein intake for muscle growth?



According to the study, the answer to all three questions is no.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-what-builds-muscle">Rethinking what builds muscle</h2>



“The longstanding belief or the current dogma was that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-humans-need-to-eat-animal-protein-to-build-muscle-science-has-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal-based protein</a> sources were better, particularly for the muscle-building response,” said Nicholas Burd, one of the lead researchers. 



This belief was based on previous studies showing that animal protein led to a stronger muscle-building response after a single meal. “And so, our general hypothesis, based on these previous studies, was that the animal-based eating pattern would be more effective at supporting the muscle-building response," said Burd.



But there's a catch. Many of those older studies were based on a single meal, not what happens over the course of a whole diet. The new study aimed to better reflect how people actually eat - whether they follow a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-foods-promote-weight-loss-regardless-of-processing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based</a> or omnivorous diet over time.



Burd pointed out that a previous 10-week trial found similar muscle synthesis in vegans and omnivores, but those participants consumed high levels of protein (1.6 to 1.8 grams per kilogram of body weight per day), which goes beyond what most people need to gain muscle. That earlier study also relied heavily on plant protein supplements, which doesn’t mirror how real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegan-diet-improves-heart-health-in-a-matter-of-weeks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegans</a> eat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-choices-put-to-the-test">Protein choices put to the test</h2>



To explore this further, the team recruited 40 healthy adults between age 20 and 40. For seven days, everyone ate a standardized diet to normalize their nutrition. Then they were randomly assigned to either a vegan or an omnivorous diet for the trial. All meals were provided by the researchers, with most eaten at home and some in the lab.



For the omnivorous group, about 70% of the protein came from animal sources like beef, chicken, pork, eggs, and dairy. The vegan diet used whole plant-based foods, carefully combined to provide complete proteins with all the essential amino acids.



Each dietary group was split again. Some participants had their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-too-much-protein-greatly-increases-heart-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protein intake</a> spread evenly across three meals. Others ate five meals per day with the majority of their protein at the end of the day. Everyone did muscle-strengthening workouts every three days and wore accelerometers to track physical activity outside the lab.



To measure muscle protein synthesis, participants drank deuterium-labeled “heavy water.” This allowed researchers to trace the incorporation of amino acids into muscle tissue over time. Muscle biopsies were taken before and after the trial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-post-workout-protein-is-key">Post-workout protein is key</h2>



The results showed no difference in muscle protein synthesis between the vegan and omnivorous diets. Timing of protein intake didn’t matter either.



“It was thought that it was better to get a steady-state delivery of nutrients throughout the day,” Burd said. “I also thought that if you’re getting a lower-quality protein - in terms of its digestibility and amino acid content - that perhaps distribution would make a difference. And surprisingly, we showed it doesn’t matter.”



The findings build on earlier work from Burd’s lab that suggested consuming more than 1.1 grams of protein per kilogram per day doesn’t lead to greater muscle gains. That’s in line with what many Americans eat naturally.



Now, Burd has a simple answer when people ask him what to eat to build <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-molecule-that-helps-grow-stronger-and-bigger-muscles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle</a>: “It’s the kind you put in your mouth after exercise. As long as you’re getting sufficient high-quality protein from your food, then it really doesn’t make a difference.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/abstract/9900/impact_of_vegan_diets_on_resistance.771.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medicine &amp; Science in Sports &amp; Exercise</a>.



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What’s the best protein for muscle gain? it might not matter

If you’ve ever wondered whether your post-workout protein shake needs...

Most parents agree that puberty is an important topic to cover with their kids. But when is the right time to start? And what’s the best way to approach it? These are questions many parents still struggle with.



A recent national poll by researchers at the <a href="https://www.mottchildren.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan Health C.S. Mott Children’s Hospital</a> sheds light on how families are handling this crucial stage of childhood. 



The poll highlights some common uncertainties, such as the best age to start the conversation and whether to include topics like sex and reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-to-begin-the-puberty-talk">When to begin the puberty talk</h2>



The results show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-often-feel-lonely-burnt-out-parenting-demands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parents</a> are split on when to begin the puberty talk. About one-third say it’s best to start before age 10. Others prefer to wait until their kids are 10 or older. This uncertainty can make it tough to know when to speak up.



“It’s easy to assume a child is too young for conversations about puberty, but many parents are surprised to find their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tweens-used-media-more-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tween</a> already showing signs of puberty or asking unexpected questions about body changes,” said Mott Poll Co-Director Sarah Clark.



“Starting the conversation early gives parents a chance to shape the message in an age-appropriate way and help kids know what to expect, so they’re not confused or anxious. If parents don’t open the door to these talks, kids may get their information elsewhere, like from classmates, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goldilocks-amount-of-social-media-time-may-protect-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social media</a>, or what they see on TV.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-talking-about-puberty-can-be-hard">Talking about puberty can be hard</h2>



Parents take different approaches to discussing puberty. Around half say they’re proactive. Two in five wait for their child to ask questions. A small group - about 5% - avoid the topic entirely.



There are also emotional hurdles. One in five parents say they worry about feeling embarrassed. Others fear saying the wrong thing. 



Some parents of 10- to 12-year-olds say their child avoids the subject. Meanwhile, nearly a third of parents with 7- to 9-year-olds think their child is too young to understand. Clark suggests some of that hesitation might come from parents' own childhoods.



While nearly half have shared their personal puberty experiences with their kids, fewer than one in three say they learned about puberty from their own parents. Over a third note that it wasn’t discussed at all in their home growing up.



“Whether they realize it or not parents may bring their own experiences into their parenting approach,” Clark said. “Many parents said they had little or no discussion of puberty when they were young. If puberty was treated as an awkward or embarrassing subject growing up, that can make it harder to know how to begin.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-question-of-sex">The question of sex</h2>



One of the biggest challenges for parents is knowing how and when to talk about sex and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lunar-cycles-have-a-secret-influence-on-human-reproduction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproduction</a>. For some, this part of the conversation can feel even more overwhelming.



“Early conversations should focus on making kids aware that they will experience physical and emotional changes, and reassuring them that those changes are normal. Discussions about sex can occur over time,” Clark said.



She also points out that parents don’t have to do it all alone. Resources like parenting books, educational videos, and school health programs can help start the conversation or reinforce the message. Annual doctor visits may also provide a comfortable setting to bring up puberty-related topics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spotting-the-signs">Spotting the signs</h2>



About half of parents say they feel very confident in recognizing signs of puberty. Among parents of kids aged 10 to 12, that number jumps to 60 percent. 



For younger kids, only 17% of parents say they’ve noticed changes. And fewer than one in three say they know what signs to look for.



Many parents also report that their children have brought up questions about their own bodies, their parents' bodies, or puberty in general. These moments, Clark says, are great chances to open up the discussion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keep-the-conversation-going">Keep the conversation going</h2>



Puberty isn’t just a physical transition. It can also bring emotional changes that make open conversations harder. But that makes the need for communication even more important.



“Puberty isn’t just about physical changes - it’s also a time of emotional disruption, which can make open communication challenging,” Clark said. “Many tweens feel embarrassed or uncomfortable talking with their parents about these changes.”



“To help ease the discomfort, some parents may give their child an age-appropriate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">book</a> or video about puberty and allow the child to explore the topic privately. Often, that leads to additional discussion with parents.”



In the end, the key is to make room for these conversations early - and to keep them going. By doing so, parents can support their kids through one of the most confusing and important transitions of their lives.



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Talking to kids about puberty: Why sooner may be better than later

Most parents agree that puberty is an important topic to...

Our inner emotions don’t always match what we show on the outside. People often say they’re fine while feeling overwhelmed inside - a common habit that can lead to mental health struggles like anxiety or panic attacks. 



Spotting these hidden emotions isn’t always easy, especially for health care providers who are trying to help.



In a breakthrough study, researchers have created a stretchable, rechargeable sticker that senses the body’s emotional signals, including changes in heart rate and skin temperature.



Developed by scientists at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>, the device offers a way to see beyond facial expressions and get a more accurate read on how someone is really feeling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-emotions-beneath-the-surface">Tracking emotions beneath the surface</h2>



“This is a new and improved way to understand our emotions by looking at multiple body signals at once,” said Huanyu “Larry” Cheng, a professor of engineering science and mechanics at Penn State.



“Relying only on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">facial expressions</a> to understand emotions can be misleading. People often don't visibly show how they truly feel, so that’s why we’re combining facial expression analysis with other important physiological signals, which will ultimately lead to better mental health monitoring and support.”



The sticker tracks several indicators that are tied to emotional states. These include skin temperature, heart rate, humidity, and blood oxygen levels. 



The emotion sensors are carefully designed to work independently, which means each variable reading stays accurate and does not interfere with the measurement of the others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensor-identifies-emotional-reactions">Sensor identifies emotional reactions</h2>



The patch also uses facial expression data and compares it with body signals to tell the difference between a real emotional reaction and a faked one.



The data is then sent wirelessly to mobile devices or the Cloud, where it could help doctors assess patients remotely. Importantly, the device doesn’t collect personal data - just the signals - to protect user privacy.



“This technology has the potential to help people who are struggling with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-apps-to-practice-mindfulness-improves-mental-health-of-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a>, but maybe aren’t being fully honest with others or even themselves about how much they are struggling,” explained Yangbo Yuan, who is a co-author on the paper, and a doctoral student studying engineering science and mechanics at Penn State.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-device-understands-context">The device understands context</h2>



Some people may seem calm when they’re actually overwhelmed. Others might appear visibly distressed more easily. 



According to Cheng, these differences - often shaped by culture or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-traits-are-not-strongly-inherited-from-parents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personalit</a>y - could be better understood using this tool.



“By keeping track of these signals, it could be possible to detect problems like anxiety or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-and-depression-study-challenges-self-medication-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a> earlier in its progression,” said Cheng.



The patch is about the size of a Band-Aid and can bend and stretch without breaking. The team used thin layers of flexible metals like platinum and gold, cut into wavy patterns to maintain flexibility. 



Materials that react to temperature changes were added, along with carbon nanotube tubes to detect humidity.



Each sensor was placed with care to ensure one didn’t disrupt another. For example, the temperature and humidity sensors were protected by a stiff backing to prevent stretching, while waterproof layers shielded them from outside moisture.



“We've engineered this device to measure these different signals independently, without them interfering with each other, providing a much clearer and more accurate picture of what's happening beneath the surface,” said study co-author Libo Gao, an associate professor at Xiamen University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fake-feelings-versus-real-emotions">Fake feelings versus real emotions</h2>



The team also trained artificial intelligence to discriminate between real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/words-shape-how-our-brains-process-feelings-and-guide-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feelings</a> and fake ones. They asked eight participants to make six common facial expressions - joy, surprise, fear, sadness, anger, and disgust - one hundred times each. 



The device recorded their movements, and the data was used to teach the AI to spot emotional cues. Then, three new participants joined to test the system. The AI identified the posed emotions with over 96% accuracy.



To test for genuine emotion, the same participants watched videos meant to stir feelings. The device picked up on the emotional shifts with nearly 89% accuracy. 



The sensors confirmed that things like rising heart rate and skin temperature matched expected reactions, such as during anger or surprise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sensor-to-monitor-human-emotions">A sensor to monitor human emotions</h2>



The emotion sensor could become a valuable tool in virtual healthcare. Since it sends data wirelessly, doctors could one day use it to check in on patients from afar.



“This sensor can serve a vital function in bridging gaps in access to care,” Cheng said. “Given the rising stress levels in modern society, the ability to monitor emotions can provide early indicators of debilitating conditions and allow for proactive support.”



There may be other uses, too. The team believes the same technology could help understand emotional responses in non-verbal patients, identify early signs of dementia, and even track athletic performance or wound healing. 



Ultimately, the emotion sensors may be able to assist in detecting overdoses or following the course of neurodegenerative diseases.



“While still in the research and development phase, this device is a significant step forward in our ability to monitor and understand human emotions, potentially paving the way for more proactive and personalized approaches to mental health care,” concluded Cheng.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c06392" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nano Letters</a>.



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New sensor reveals your true emotions, even when you're faking it

Our inner emotions don’t always match what we show on...

In a world shaped by virtual interactions, avatars are now the new face of communication. In games, work, shopping, or therapy, they act like real people - showing expressions and emotions, and even changing how we feel about taking risks.



But what happens when our brains start treating these digital stand-ins differently than real humans?



A study by Toshiko Tanaka and Masahiko Haruno of the National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (<a href="https://www.nict.go.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NICT</a>) in Japan has brought this question into sharp focus.



The research explores how avatars influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-vision-the-brain-sees-what-it-wants-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human behavior</a>, particularly when it comes to taking risks, and it offers a deeper look at the neural mechanics behind this shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-risks-with-avatar-feedback">More risks with avatar feedback</h2>



Tanaka and Haruno designed a study that places human decision-making under the microscope in virtual environments. 



Participants engaged in a gambling task, where they had to choose between a guaranteed small reward and a risky option with a larger potential payout. Their choices were followed by dynamic facial feedback from either a real human face or an avatar presenting the same expressions.



What the researchers found was striking: people made more risky <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">choices</a> when they expected to receive feedback from an avatar rather than a real face. 



The difference was not subtle. It persisted across both behavioral and neuroimaging experiments, revealing that avatar interactions fundamentally altered the way people assessed the value of risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-reaction-to-avatars">The brain’s reaction to avatars</h2>



The answer lies in how our brain interprets uncertainty, especially in social situations. The researchers discovered that avatars shift our emotional processing of risk. 



Participants perceived facial feedback from avatars - be it admiring or contemptuous - as less emotionally charged than the same expressions from real humans. This led to a more favorable valuation of feedback uncertainty.



That means when participants weren’t quite sure what kind of response they’d receive, the ambiguity felt less threatening if it came from an avatar. This change in emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-human-brain-create-retrieve-memories-engram-cells-connections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processing</a> allowed them to focus more on potential gains, encouraging riskier choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quieting-the-brain-s-emotional-alarm">Quieting the brain’s emotional alarm</h2>



To understand the brain’s role in this behavior, the researchers used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans. 



The experts found that a key emotional processing center in the brain - the amygdala - was deeply involved. Specifically, activity in the central amygdala (CM) decreased when feedback uncertainty was delivered through avatars.



This reduction in amygdala response reflected a lower emotional cost attached to avatar feedback. In essence, avatars made the stakes feel lower, even when the actual risk remained the same. 



This neural response was not random. It tracked closely with how individuals evaluated feedback uncertainty and how often they chose the risky option.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathetic-people-are-more-affected">Empathetic people are more affected</h2>



Not everyone responded the same way to avatar feedback. The researchers included psychological assessments that measured traits like empathy and anxiety. 



They found that people who scored high on empathetic concern - those more emotionally attuned to others - were especially likely to show reduced amygdala responses and increased risk-taking in the avatar condition.



The central amygdala response to feedback uncertainty also correlated specifically with these empathy scores. It wasn’t general anxiety or social avoidance that shaped the brain’s behavior - it was the emotional consideration of others’ internal states.



According to the study, this pattern was not observed in participants with higher scores for social anxiety. That distinction suggests that avatars reduce emotional burden without diminishing the social component of the interaction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-brain-areas-that-responded">Other brain areas that responded</h2>



Though the amygdala played the primary role, other brain regions also responded. The ventral striatum (vSTR) and ventral anterior cingulate cortex (vACC) showed activity linked to feedback uncertainty, though their involvement was less direct. 



These areas processed reward-related and emotional information, but they didn’t show the same predictive power as the amygdala when it came to actual behavior changes.



Participants who took more risks with avatars had amygdala activity patterns that clearly differed from those who remained cautious. The vSTR and vACC supported these shifts but did not appear to drive them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-avatar-influence-was-measured">How avatar influence was measured </h2>



The strength of these conclusions rests in a meticulous experimental design. Participants interacted with a same-gender observer whom they believed was monitoring and evaluating their gambling behavior.



Unbeknownst to them, feedback expressions were pre-recorded, and observer appearances alternated between avatar and real-face conditions.



Each trial in the experiment involved choosing between a safe and risky option, followed by feedback in the form of facial expressions. The researchers recorded behavioral data and brain activity, allowing them to model the valuation process mathematically and neurologically.



Computational modeling confirmed that feedback uncertainty carried more weight in decision-making under avatar conditions. The best-fitting models showed that only this parameter needed to vary between avatar and human feedback to explain participants' risk behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tests-confirm-risk-taking-boost">Tests confirm risk-taking boost</h2>



To ensure their findings were not due to a simple lack of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-misinformation-rumors-spread-like-nuclear-reactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engagement</a>, the team ran pilot tests. These included a no-observer condition, in which participants received no feedback at all. 



Risk-taking rates in this condition were significantly lower than those seen with avatar feedback. This helped eliminate the possibility that participants were simply ignoring avatar responses.



Even when compared to human feedback, avatars elicited more risk-taking. This demonstrated that it wasn’t just the presence of feedback but the form of the feedback that mattered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-implications">Real-world implications</h2>



“We found that people tend to take more risks when their partner responds through an avatar rather than showing their real face. This seems to be driven by a change in how they process uncertainty - and interestingly, that change is reflected in the amygdala," said Haruno.



“Using the same confederate and having them pass as just another participant every time wasn’t easy - it took a lot of effort to keep things feeling real for each new person,” added Tanaka.



These findings extend far beyond the lab. In virtual workspaces, therapy sessions, and customer service interactions, avatars may unintentionally nudge users toward riskier behavior. This could be a double-edged sword - boosting confidence in some cases while increasing impulsivity in others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-avatar-research">Next steps in avatar research</h2>



Future investigations will likely explore how avatar characteristics - age, gender, realism - affect user responses.



Researchers are also interested in whether these findings apply to other kinds of decision-making, such as moral choices or long-term planning.



The study suggests that more human-like avatars could deepen emotional engagement, potentially altering the balance between empathy and risk even further. As avatar technology becomes more lifelike and widespread, these questions will become increasingly important.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-virtual-world-risk">New era of virtual world risk</h2>



Tanaka and Haruno’s study offers a timely look at how digital interactions shape human behavior. By revealing that avatars influence our emotional evaluation of uncertainty, they uncover a hidden driver of risk in the virtual world.



The amygdala, a structure tied to emotional memory and fear, emerges as a key player in how we navigate the unfamiliar terrain of avatar communication. 



As we spend more time in these environments, we must learn how these subtle shifts in perception can shape the choices we make - online and off.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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How avatars are making people take more risks

In a world shaped by virtual interactions, avatars are now...

Ask any parent of a teenager, and they will confirm that young people rarely go to bed early. Smartphones glow into the night, homework drags past midnight, and weekend sleep-ins feel like catch-up sessions rather than luxury.&nbsp;



Yet a large international study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> and <a href="https://www.fudan.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fudan University</a> suggests that even small shifts toward longer, earlier sleep may deliver measurable benefits for adolescents’ brains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-patterns-and-adolescent-brains">Sleep patterns and adolescent brains </h2>



The investigation is one of the most comprehensive attempts to link real-world <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep patterns</a> with brain imaging and cognitive testing in early adolescence. 



Drawing on data from the <a href="https://abcdstudy.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study</a> in the United States, the research tracked nightly rest in more than 3,200 children aged 11–12 by using Fitbit wearables rather than relying on self-reported bedtimes. The scientists then compared those objective sleep metrics with MRI scans, heart-rate data, and a battery of tasks that measure attention, vocabulary, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-rewires-the-brain-to-strengthen-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a>, and reasoning.



“Regularly getting a good night’s sleep is important in helping us function properly, but while we know a lot about sleep in adulthood and later life, we know surprisingly little about sleep in adolescence, even though this is a crucial time in our development,” said Professor Barbara Sahakian of Cambridge’s Department of Psychiatry, one of the senior authors.&nbsp;



“How long do young people sleep for, for example, and what impact does this have on their brain function and cognitive performance?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-distinct-sleep-profiles">Three distinct sleep profiles</h2>



When the team clustered the teenagers’ nightly patterns, three broad groups emerged.&nbsp;



The first group, labeled "late-to-bed, early-to-rise sleepers," made up about 39 percent of the sample. These adolescents started their slumber the latest and woke the earliest, averaging just seven hours and ten minutes of sleep - the least rest of all.&nbsp;



The second group, comprising just under a quarter of the participants, were considered "average sleepers." They managed roughly seven hours and twenty-one minutes, with bedtimes, wake times, and sleep efficiency all falling in the mid-range.&nbsp;



The final group, the "early-to-bed sleepers," accounted for the remaining 37 percent. These teens consistently shut down earlier in the evening and clocked in at about seven hours and twenty-five minutes of sleep. Notably, they exhibited the lowest overnight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-more-on-weekends-can-reduce-heart-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart</a> rates - a well-known marker of deeper, more restorative sleep.



At first glance, the difference between the most-rested and least-rested teens seems negligible: barely fifteen minutes. Yet those extra minutes translated into meaningful neurological and cognitive distinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adolescent-brains-built-on-sleep">Adolescent brains built on sleep</h2>



MRI scans revealed that Group Three, the earliest and longest sleepers, possessed the greatest overall brain volume and showed healthier patterns of functional connectivity - the way distinct neural hubs communicate. Group One, in contrast, had the smallest volumes and weakest functional links.



Cognitive testing echoed the brain-imaging results. In tasks involving reading comprehension, vocabulary recognition, sustained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-stops-paying-attention-to-repeated-distractions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attention</a>, and problem-solving speed, Group Three consistently outperformed Group Two, which in turn outperformed Group One.&nbsp;



No significant gaps appeared in standard school grades, perhaps because grades involve numerous external factors such as teacher support or parental involvement. Nevertheless, the neuro-cognitive edge associated with slightly better sleep was unmistakable.



“Even though the differences in the amount of sleep that each group got was relatively small, at just over a quarter-of-an-hour between the best and worst sleepers, we could still see differences in brain structure and activity and in how well they did at tasks,” Sahakian noted. “This drives home to us just how important it is to have a good night’s sleep at this important time in life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reinforcing-the-link-over-time">Reinforcing the link over time</h2>



Because the ABCD project is longitudinal, following participants for a decade or more, the team could examine sleep and brain metrics two years earlier and two years later for overlapping subsets of youths.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that sleep habits and associated cognitive advantages or disadvantages tended to persist. Children who were short sleepers at nine and ten were likely still short sleepers at thirteen and fourteen. Likewise, the adolescents' relative brain volumes and task scores stayed aligned with sleep duration.



First author Qing Ma of Fudan University emphasized that the study cannot prove unequivocally that longer sleep causes enhanced cognition, but it dovetails with a broad literature.



“Although our study can’t answer conclusively whether young people have better brain function and perform better at tests because they sleep better, there are a number of studies that would support this idea,” Ma said.&nbsp;



“For example, research has shown the benefits of sleep on memory, especially on memory consolidation, which is important for learning.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aren-t-teens-sleeping-enough">Why aren’t teens sleeping enough?</h2>



Despite the brighter outlook for early-to-bed sleepers, none of the groups met the <a href="https://aasm.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Academy of Sleep Medicine</a>’s recommendation that adolescents log eight to ten hours nightly. On average the entire sample fell short by at least forty-five minutes, highlighting a systemic sleep deficit.



Senior author Wei Cheng of Fudan University believes the next challenge is diagnosing the reasons. 



“Given the importance of sleep, we now need to look at why some children go to bed later and sleep less than others. Is it because of playing videogames or smartphones, for example, or is [it] just that their body clocks do not tell them it’s time to sleep until later?”



Biological shifts during puberty cause a natural delay in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colors-of-sunset-and-sunrise-reset-our-circadian-rhythms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circadian rhythm</a> - essentially rewiring teens to feel sleepy later - but social factors exacerbate the problem. Homework loads, extracurricular activities, social media, and screen glare all encroach on bedtime.&nbsp;



Some school districts have responded by pushing start times later, aligning schedules more closely with adolescent biology. Evidence from this large-scale study lends weight to such policy interventions and to household rules that prioritize sleep hygiene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-lasting-gains">Small changes, lasting gains</h2>



While eight to ten hours may remain a lofty goal, the study indicates that trimming bedtimes even by fifteen or twenty minutes could yield tangible brain benefits.&nbsp;



Modest shifts toward earlier lights-out routines, consistent wake-up times, and device curfews might help teens move from the most deprived category to the middle or top tier.



Ma, Sahakian, Cheng, and colleagues plan further analyses as the ABCD Study matures, including investigations into emotional regulation, mental-health trajectories, and risk-taking behavior.&nbsp;



For now, their findings deliver a clear message to parents, educators, and policymakers alike: sleep matters - not just by the hour but by the minute - and adolescence is no time to skimp on it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/fulltext/S2211-1247(25)00336-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports</a>.



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Sleeping smarter: Just 15 extra minutes can boost adolescent brains

Ask any parent of a teenager, and they will confirm...

In many households today, dogs hold a place of deep affection. Some are treated like children, others like confidants or even life partners. This emotional closeness reflects a massive shift from their original role as workers and guards. 



In Western societies, dogs now often serve as companions - sometimes even as stand-ins for human children. But how accurate is this comparison? Can our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-were-bonding-much-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships</a> with dogs really be equated to the ties we have with our family or friends?



To explore this, researchers from <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELTE Eötvös Loránd University</a> conducted a deep study. They compared human-dog relationships to human relationships using a robust, multi-scale psychological tool. Their findings offer a complex picture of how dogs fit into our social fabric.



These bonds are not only real and profound - they may, in some ways, be even more satisfying than the ones we form with other people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-immense-love-for-dogs">Our immense love for dogs</h2>



Instead of relying on vague labels like “pet” or “family member,” the study used 13 distinct relationship traits. These included measures of companionship, nurturance, intimacy, affection, support, satisfaction, and conflict. 



Over 700 participants assessed their relationships with their favorite dog and four key human figures: a child, romantic partner, best friend, and closest relative.



The results showed that owners often rated their relationships with dogs as more satisfying than those with human partners. Dogs came close to children in nurturance and support and outscored all other human categories in companionship and low conflict.



They were seen as highly affectionate, deeply trusted, and emotionally reliable. One important factor, though, was the power dynamic - humans hold total control in the dog-owner relationship.



“Unlike in human relationships, dog owners maintain full control over their dogs, as they make most of the decisions,” said Enikő Kubinyi, senior author of the study and head of the Department of Ethology at ELTE.



“The results highlight that dogs occupy a unique place in our social world - offering the emotional closeness of a child, the ease of a best friend, and the predictability of a relationship shaped by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human control</a> - revealing why our bonds with them are often so deeply fulfilling.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-love-dogs-like-kids">We love dogs like kids</h2>



The study’s comparison was both qualitative and quantitative. On the emotional side, dogs combined the comfort of a child-like bond with the harmony of a best friendship. 



Unlike humans, dogs didn’t trigger intense conflicts or bring emotional drama into the mix. Owners felt more admired, supported, and secure in these relationships.



In a measure of overall similarity, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships</a> with dogs were most like those with children. The researchers calculated a distance index using all 13 traits.



They found that while the dog-child connection was closest, it still had distinct differences. Romantic partners and best friends followed, with closest kin relationships being least similar in emotional pattern to relationships with dogs.



This adds nuance to our understanding of the roles that dogs play. They aren't mere substitutes for humans, nor are they emotional fillers. Dogs inhabit a social role of their own, crafted through daily life, dependence, and the unique structure of human-animal communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dynamics-of-dog-ownership">The dynamics of dog ownership</h2>



The satisfaction owners feel in their dog <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dogs-say-goodbye-before-they-die-these-signs-will-tell-you-if-your-friend-is-leaving-soon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships</a> may partly arise from predictability. 



Dogs cannot question us, leave us, or demand equality. The power imbalance is significant. Owners make the decisions, choose when and how interactions happen, and set the limits of affection and discipline.



This aspect contributes to the lower levels of conflict reported in the study. Dogs were seen as less antagonistic than children, romantic partners, or kin. Only best friends came close to matching dogs in the domain of peaceful coexistence.



Still, the researchers emphasized that this is not about domination. It is about emotional simplicity. Dogs provide support without the complicated layers that often arise in human relationships. They meet social needs with remarkable consistency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-age-influences-relationships">How age influences relationships</h2>



The study also examined how life circumstances influence dog relationships. Owners without children reported stronger bonds with their dogs. They scored higher in affection, intimacy, and companionship. For these individuals, dogs may serve as emotional stand-ins or trusted confidants.



Puppies evoked more child-like feelings. Owners reported more care-taking behavior, stronger affection, and greater emotional dependence. 



Adult dogs, on the other hand, were rated more like friends - reliable, emotionally steady, and low in conflict. Still, these differences were modest. The essential shape of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-understand-words-even-in-monotone-speech/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog-human relationship</a> remained stable across ages.



Age of the owner also played a role. Younger people tended to form more intimate and expressive relationships with their dogs. Yet again, this did not shift the overall pattern too much. The dog-human bond was remarkably resilient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-needs-and-the-myth-of-substitution">Social needs and the myth of substitution</h2>



One of the most powerful findings was that dog relationships do not compensate for failed human bonds. Instead, they complement them. 



Strong relationships with dogs were positively correlated with strong human ties. This goes against the stereotype that people with few friends turn to animals for solace.



“We expected that people with weak human relationships would rely more on their dogs for support, but our results contradict this,” said co-author Dorottya Ujfalussy.



What this means is that dogs are woven into a larger social network. They aren’t a fallback plan - they’re a chosen addition. They provide a kind of support that blends loyalty, affection, and daily routine, all on terms largely defined by the owner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-dogs-defy-categorization">Why dogs defy categorization</h2>



The research highlights the limitations of how we traditionally classify our pets. 



Calling a dog a “family member” or “child” may reflect emotional closeness, but it oversimplifies a far more layered bond. These labels are shaped by culture, social media, and shifting norms - not by any precise understanding of what dogs mean to us.



Instead, the researchers proposed viewing dogs as sources of “social provisions.” This model maps the relationship using established psychological traits. It helps clarify how dogs provide companionship, relieve stress, support autonomy, and offer comfort during hard times.



“Dogs offer different kinds of emotional and social support depending on the needs of their owners,” explained Borbála Turcsán, first author of the study. 



“Some people seek companionship and fun, others need trust and stability, and some simply enjoy having someone to care for.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-create-emotionally-stable-relationships">Dogs create emotionally stable relationships</h2>



The human-dog relationship is one of the most stable and rewarding social ties that people experience. It has elements of parenting, friendship, mentorship, and guardianship. It thrives on shared routines, mutual affection, and emotional simplicity.



Despite cultural shifts, changing family structures, and technological distractions, dogs remain close to our hearts. They don’t just fit into our lives - they reshape our emotional landscape. This study reveals why.



By rethinking dogs not just as pets, but as emotionally intelligent partners in our social world, we gain a better grasp of why our love for them runs so deep. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-95515-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Why our relationships with dogs matter so much

In many households today, dogs hold a place of deep...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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