When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography.



A new study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> and <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a> has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-hidden-beneath-forests">Fungi hidden beneath forests</h2>



Jingjing Liang, an associate professor of quantitative forest ecology at Purdue, co-led the study with Zhiheng Wang from Peking University.



“What we can see above ground is governed to a large extent by what is happening belowground,” said Liang.



The experts analyzed data from over 442,000 forest plots worldwide and focused on two main groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">mycorrhizal fungi</a>: ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. 



Both form partnerships with tree roots, trading nutrients for carbohydrates, but they do so in different ways that profoundly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">forest diversity</a>.



“The loss in tree species diversity may damage the ecosystem services provided by forests," Wang said. "Understanding the mechanisms driving the maintenance of tree species forest diversity is fundamental for the conservation of tree species diversity.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-forest-diversity-puzzle">Solving a forest diversity puzzle</h2>



For years, scientists have debated how fungal partnerships impact tree species diversity, proposing three competing hypotheses. This comprehensive global study found that all three are valid, depending on environmental context.



“Our findings reconcile inconsistencies regarding how mycorrhizal symbiosis influences tree species diversity,” Wang said.



Using precise forest inventory data collected worldwide, the team applied advanced statistical methods to filter noise from complex ecological data, revealing hidden patterns.



“With this data, we were able to very accurately capture this relationship between different types of mycorrhizal fungi and forest tree species diversity,” Liang explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-effects-shift-with-climate">Fungal effects shift with climate</h2>



<a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> ecologist Peter Reich, a senior co-author, highlighted the value of the study’s comprehensive approach. 



“This insight would have been impossible to detect without the comprehensiveness of this dataset, which allows us to test across large gradients of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-temperature-in-66-of-tropical-forests/">temperature</a>, moisture, and latitude,” he said.



Reich explained that ectomycorrhizal fungi often dominate in cold, nutrient-poor regions that naturally have fewer tree species. Without a broad dataset, this dominance could obscure the fungi’s more nuanced effects.



“But by being able to tease apart temperature and moisture, we can see that when conditions are generally good," he said. "The more abundant the ectomycorrhizal are, the more they do to reduce tree richness.”



The process is complex. While dominant tree species naturally suppress less competitive species, root <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/">pathogens</a> usually check the dominance, allowing diversity. 



Ectomycorrhizal fungi suppress these pathogens, enabling dominant trees to thrive unchecked, which can reduce species diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harder-climates-stronger-alliances">Harder climates, stronger alliances</h2>



The study also found that under stressful conditions - such as low moisture or cold climates - the combination of both fungal types fosters greater diversity.



In these environments, resource-sharing partnerships help more tree species survive, while pathogen suppression plays a smaller role.



“Both ways of influencing tree diversity are real, but their relative balance and magnitude of impacts vary with environmental context,” Reich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-forests-from-below">Healing forests from below</h2>



Liang emphasized that understanding the hidden fungal networks in forests is akin to treating a patient holistically. 



“We should not just look at the surface symptoms. We should look deep down, literally to the roots of the problems, and that is belowground mutualism,” he said.



This work, supported by the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a> and its Science-i platform, demonstrates how global collaborations can untangle complex ecological questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-conservation-and-fungal-networks">Forest conservation and fungal networks</h2>



The findings open pathways for further research: How do these underground alliances affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/">carbon storage</a> in forests? Can fostering specific fungal partnerships enhance forest resilience in a changing climate?



&nbsp;“And what can we do to enhance the health of our forest ecosystem by not just seeing what is on the surface, but what is belowground?” Liang asked.



By revealing the profound influence of underground fungal networks on forest diversity, this research underscores that the key to healthier forests - and perhaps a healthier planet - may lie hidden beneath our feet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt5743">Science Advances</a>.



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How an invisible fungal alliance helps forests thrive

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography. A new study led by researchers from Purdue University and Peking University has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress. Fungi hidden beneath forests Jingjing Liang, an associate...

A compound found in magic mushrooms may treat depression better than medication, according to a new study from the Centre for Psychedelic Research at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a>.

The study is the most meticulous of its kind to assess the therapeutic potential of a psychedelic compound. Psilocybin, the active compound in magic mushrooms, proved to be as effective in battling depression as a leading medication.

The experts compared the outcomes of two sessions of psilocybin therapy with six weeks of treatment with a common antidepressant among 59 people with moderate-to-severe depression.

The study revealed that while symptoms of depression were lowered in both groups, the reductions in the psilocybin group occurred more quickly and were greater in magnitude.

Patients treated with psilocybin exhibited noticeable improvements across a range of subjective measures, including their ability to feel pleasure and express emotions. The patients also experienced greater reductions in anxiety and increased feelings of well-being.

Dr Robin Carhart-Harris is the head of the Centre for Psychedelic Research at Imperial, who designed and led the study.

"These results comparing two doses of psilocybin therapy with 43 daily doses of one of the best performing SSRI antidepressants help contextualise psilocybin's promise as a potential mental health treatment. Remission rates were twice as high in the psilocybin group than the escitalopram group," explained Dr. Carhart-Harris.

"One of the most important aspects of this work is that people can clearly see the promise of properly delivered psilocybin therapy by viewing it compared with a more familiar, established treatment in the same study. Psilocybin performed very favourably in this head-to-head."

The psilocybin group reported fewer cases of dry mouth, anxiety, drowsiness and sexual dysfunction. The most common side effect of psilocybin was headaches experienced one day after dosing sessions 

"These findings provide further support for the growing evidence base that shows that in people with depression, psilocybin offers an alternative treatment to traditional antidepressants," said Professor David Nutt, the study's principal investigator.

"In our study, psilocybin worked faster than escitalopram and was well tolerated, with a very different adverse effects profile. We look forward to further trials, which if positive should lead to psilocybin becoming a licensed medicine.

The researchers emphasized that while the findings are generally positive, the absence of a straight placebo group and the small number of participants limits conclusions about the effect of either treatment. The experts also noted that patients with depression should not attempt to self-medicate with psilocybin.

 "These latest findings build on our previous research testing psilocybin therapy for treatment resistant depression, and offer the most compelling evidence yet to support efforts towards licensing psilocybin therapy as a regulated mental health intervention. I'm deeply grateful for the philanthropic support that made this trial possible," said Dr. Carhart-Harris.

"I strongly encourage both researchers and the public to delve deeply into our results, including those available as a published appendix to the main report."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.nejm.org/">New England Journal of Medicine</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Compound in magic mushrooms effectively treats depression

A compound found in magic mushrooms may treat depression better...

When trees die in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-memory-of-drought/">drought</a> conditions, the underlying cause is a rapid collapse in the hydraulic system, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/de">University of Basel</a>. The research suggests that trees die of thirst more quickly than previously realized. 

The extreme summer heatwave of 2018 was devastating for some forests, but also presented the experts with an opportunity to closely monitor the response of individual trees. The previous year, a team led by Professor Ansgar Kahmen had already set up a research area in Hölstein, Switzerland.

The experts randomly selected 10 Norway spruces, all more than 100 years old and about 30 meters tall, and set out to measure the seasonal fluctuations in the water balance in the canopy.

The goal of the study was to determine how the Norway spruce and other native tree species respond to climate change. Soon, the heatwave moved in. 

"This was a unique opportunity for us," said study lead author Dr. Matthias Arend. "It was the first time we were able to observe in nature what drought can do to large, old trees."

With its flat root system, the Norway spruce is particularly susceptible to collapse, explained Dr. Arend. "The tree dies because the hydraulic system that transports the water upwards from the soil collapses."

The researchers were surprised to find that the hydraulic system collapses very quickly. The experts believe that this critical point is reached when a large proportion of the roots lose contact with the moisture in the drying soil. 

"Forecasts are very difficult, because it is not a slow, linear process, but one that happens very suddenly, with the system of water uptake and transport failing in the space of just a few days," said Dr. Arend.

According to the researchers, the Norway spruce responds more sensitively to drought than previously assumed. 

"As we can expect extreme periods of drought to become increasingly common in future, we have to think about other tree species that may be able to deal better with the lack of water."

Dr. Arend and his team were able to observe their findings firsthand. The Norway spruce, which is the most important conifer in Switzerland and in central Europe, suffered the most from the heatwave of 2018. The results can be applied to other conifer species as well.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Drought kills trees faster than previously thought

When trees die in drought conditions, the underlying cause is...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>, experts have determined that adding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/potato-beans-could-become-the-next-big-superfood-in-the-uk/">beans</a> and other legumes to crop rotations could be key to more sustainable and nutritious food production.

The study provides some of the first evidence that complementing traditional crop rotations with legumes produces both environmental and nutritional benefits. 

"This strategy can contribute significantly to the specific European Union Green Deal Farm to Fork objectives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, chemical pesticide use and synthetic fertilizer use," said study first author Marcela Porto Costa of Bangor University. 

"For example, in Scotland, we've shown that the introduction of a legume crop into the typical rotation reduced external nitrogen requirements by almost half whilst maintaining the same output of food measured in terms of potential human nutrition."

Nitrogen is considered the most important nutrient for plant growth. For most crops, farmers use fertilizers to provide nitrogen. However, chemical fertilizers have harsh environmental consequences, polluting the surrounding water and air and depleting the soil of minerals. 

The European Union Green Deal Farm to Fork strategy aims to address the issue with a goal of cutting greenhouse emissions and chemical pesticide use by 50 percent, as well as reducing synthetic fertilizer use by at least 20 percent by 2030. 

Legumes are among the only crops that are capable of naturally absorbing all of the nitrogen they need. These crops have a symbiotic relationship with bacteria that transform atmospheric nitrogen into a form that can be accessed by plants.

Beans and other legume crops not only enrich the soil with nitrogen without the need for fertilizer, but also reduce the need for nitrogen fertilizers for future non-legume crops.

Overall, legumes are one of the most nutrient-rich crops, containing protein, fiber, folate, iron, potassium, magnesium and vitamins.

The researchers took a new approach to calculating the environmental footprint of crops by comparing 10 crop sequences using 16 different impact categories. The team assessed crops over three to five years in three European climates across Italy, Romania,  and Scotland.

"Our innovative approach goes beyond simple food footprints by looking at the footprint of delivering a specific quantity of human, or livestock, nutrition from all crops produced within representative crop rotations," said Dr. David Styles of the University of Limerick. "This provides a clearer picture of inter-crop effects and the overall efficiency of different cropping sequences in delivering nutritious food (or livestock feed)."

So far, the experts have only established the potential nutritional benefits of adding legumes to crop rotations. Ultimately, this will depend on how foods are processed and sold. 

"Our results strengthen evidence on the positive role that healthy diet transitions could make to environmental sustainability," said Styles. "Legumes provide a healthier balance of carbohydrates, protein and fiber compared with cereal crops, and could improve the nutritional profile of the food we eat."

"These results also highlight the need for whole-system (multi-crop, farm-to-fork) thinking when designing interventions to drive sustainable food systems so that we can deliver better nutrition whilst reducing environmental impacts," said Costa.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sustainable-food-systems">Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Legume crops boost nutrition while protecting the environment

In a new study published by Frontiers, experts have determined...

The way a tomato responds to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-genetic-mutations-can-turn-fins-into-limbs/">mutation</a> is influenced by the plant's unique genetic variations, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.cshl.edu/">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a> (CSHL).

Just like humans, each individual tomato has a unique set of genetic variations that affect gene expression. Millions of small genetic variations make it difficult to predict the effects that specific mutations will have on different types of tomatoes.

For the investigation, Professor Zach Lippman and his team used CRISPR, a highly accurate gene-editing technique, on two tomato genes that control fruit size. The researchers generated over 60 tomato mutants by removing little pieces of DNA in areas near the genes that control their expression.

While individual mutations did not change the size of the tomatoes at all, others slightly increased the size. Meanwhile, a few synergistic combinations of mutations caused a dramatic, unpredicted increase in fruit size. 

"The real Holy Grail in all this for crop breeding is predictability. If I mutate this sequence, I'm going to get this effect. Because there is this sea of other variants that nature has accumulated nearby the mutation that you're engineering, as well as scattered throughout the genome, many of which could be influencing the specific mutation that you're creating," said Professor Lippman.

The range of interactions for any two mutations represents the results of a single mutation occurring in different genetic backgrounds. This is comparable to what is found in some human diseases, where certain pre-existing mutations provide protection from disease-causing mutations.

The researchers will continue investigating how individual and combined mutations affect certain crop traits. 

Professor Lippman hopes to study enough measurable interactions to make breeding more predictable and efficient. He noted that his research could lead to the creation of new tomato varieties and the improvement of existing ones.

The study is published in the journal Nature Plants.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetic variations control how tomatoes respond to mutations

The way a tomato responds to a mutation is influenced...

In a new study published by the <a href="https://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/">British Ecological Society</a>, experts report that foxgloves rapidly changed the length of their flowers after arriving in North and South America. The researchers believe the foxgloves evolved to accommodate their new pollinators, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-hummingbirds-beaks-fighting/">hummingbirds</a>. 

The common foxglove, Digitalis purpurea, is native to Europe where it is pollinated by bumblebees. The researchers have shown, for the first time, how flowering plants can respond to a new environment - and the presence of a new pollinator - with rapid physical changes.

The experts compared foxgloves in the UK with foxgloves that were independently introduced to Costa Rica and Colombia around 200 years ago. In the Americas, the flowers are pollinated by both bumblebees and hummingbirds.

The study revealed that the base of the cone structure of the flowers, the proximal corolla tube, was up to 26 percent larger among foxgloves in Colombia and Costa Rica.

The long proximal corolla tubes found on foxgloves hold the nectar. Due to the narrow shape of the tubes, the only types of pollinators that have access are those with long mouthparts such as long-tongued bumblebees.

"We found foxglove populations in Costa Rica and Colombia now have flowers with longer tubes at the base, when compared to native populations. There is also substantial natural selection on this floral characteristic in the naturalized populations," said study co-author Dr. Maria Clara Castellanos at the University of Sussex.

"Long corollas are a common feature in many hummingbird-pollinated plants, likely because this improves the precision of pollen transfer during the pollination interaction. It is also possible that long corolla tubes exclude other pollinators that are less effective."

The experts confirmed that hummingbirds are effective foxglove pollinators. "We counted pollen grains deposited in flowers and found that after a single visit they can bring in more pollen than a bumblebee." said Dr. Castellanos.

The research also confirms that introducing plants to new environments is a good way to study the evolution of floral structures. Scenarios like this will occur more often as humans influence the range of plants and pollinators, noted the study authors. 

"Our research shows how rapid evolutionary change in a new environment can be an important force behind the extraordinary diversity of flowers," said Dr. Castellanos.

The researchers said that while the changes observed in foxgloves are consistent with changes that hummingbirds have imposed on the native plants they pollinate, the study does not prove that the birds directly caused the rapid changes found in the flowers. The experts emphasized the importance of studying other plants in this context. 

"Plants around the world are experiencing changes in their pollinators and it is important to understand the evolutionary implications of this," said Dr. Castellanos.

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652745">Journal of Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Foxgloves rapidly evolved in the presence of hummingbirds

In a new study published by the British Ecological Society,...

Rainbow Eucalyptus Trees, Maui, Hawaii, USA

Eucalyptus trees can be genetically modified to prevent them from reproducing and invading native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-ecosystems-are-needed-to-prevent-future-pandemics/">ecosystems</a>, according to a study from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>. 

The advanced gene editing technique used by the researchers was nearly 100 percent efficient in knocking out the master gene behind flower formation, known as LEAFY.

"The flowers never developed to the point where ovules, pollen or fertile seeds were observed," said Professor Steven Strauss. "And there was no detectable negative effect on tree growth or form." 

"A field study should be the next step to take a more careful look at stability of the vegetative and floral sterility traits, but with physical gene mutation we expect high reliability over the life of the trees."

There are more than 700 species of eucalyptus, and most of them are native to Australia. The study was focused on a hybrid of two species, Eucalyptus grandis and E. urophylla, that is commonly found in the Southern Hemisphere.

"Roughly 7% of the world's forests are plantations, and 25% of that plantation area contains non-native species and hybrids," said study lead author Estefania Elorriaga. 

"Eucalyptus is one of the most widely planted genera of forest trees, particularly the 5.7 million hectares of eucalyptus in Brazil, the 4.5 million hectares in China and 3.9 million hectares in India."

According to the researchers, these plantings can lead to undesirable mingling with native ecosystems. Therefore, eliminating the ability of eucalyptus trees to sexually reproduce would be an effective way to reduce the potential for invasive spreading.

"This was the first successful application of CRISPR to solve a commercial problem in forest trees," said Elorriaga. "Research with CRISPR in forest trees to modify different traits is ongoing in many laboratories around the world. Global warming is having large impacts on forests of all kinds, and gene editing may be an important new breeding tool to supplement conventional methods."

Strauss said that despite the promising findings, trees genetically modified as they were in this research could not legally be planted in Brazil, where the cultivation of eucalyptus trees is highly profitable.

"The trait could not be used there due to laws against modifying plant reproduction with recombinant DNA methods," explained Strauss. 

"It would also be disallowed for field research or commercial use under sustainable forest management certification in many parts of the world - something scientists have come together to severely criticize in recent years."

Strauss recently joined a coalition of forestry researchers to call for a review of what they see as overly restrictive policies regarding biotech research.

"Hopefully, studies like this one, that show how precise and safe the technology can be in modifying traits, and that help to promote ecological safety, will help to change regulations and certification rules. Happily, such discussions are well underway in many nations."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14677652">Plant Biotechnology Journal</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Eucalyptus trees can be modified to prevent invasive spreading

Eucalyptus trees can be genetically modified to prevent them from...

Rising temperatures are signalling crops to flower too early and become less productive. Global warming is expected to reduce crop yields by as much as one third in the next three decades. 

But now, experts at <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside</a> have identified two genes that help plants sense heat. The research may ultimately enable scientists to engineer heat-resistant crops that are able to thrive despite global warming.

"We need plants that can endure warmer temperatures, have a longer time to flower and a longer growth period," said Professor Meng Chen. "But, to be able to modify plants' temperature responses, you first have to understand how they work. So, that's why identifying this gene that enables heat response is so important."

The experts report that a shift in ambient growth temperature of only a few degrees can significantly alter the expression of hundreds of temperature-responsive genes, resulting in dramatic adaptive responses in plant development, growth, metabolism, and immunity.

"Because increases in global temperature are expected to drastically reduce crop productivity, understanding the mechanism of temperature signaling has become imminent to create a knowledge base for devising strategies to sustain crop production in a changing climate," wrote the study authors. 

Professor Chen and his colleagues identified the heat-sensing gene HEMERA two years ago. They used an experiment to search for other genes that may be involved in heat response.

The team engineered a mutant Arabidopsis plant so that it was completely insensitive to temperature, and then modified it once again to become reactive.

While examining the genes of this twice-mutated plant, the team discovered a second gene, RCB, which works closely with HEMERA to stabilize the heat-sensing function. "If you knock out either gene, your plant is no longer sensitive to temperature," said Professor Chen.

The two genes, HEMERA and RCB, are needed to control the abundance of a group of master regulatory genes that perform multiple functions, such as turning plants green and responding to light and temperature.

Going forward, Professor Chen says his laboratory will focus on understanding how these two parts of the cell communicate and work together to achieve growth, greening, flowering, and other functions.

"When you change light or temperature, genes in both the nucleus and chloroplasts change their expression. We think HEMERA and RCB are involved in coordinating gene expression between these two cell compartments," explained Professor Chen.

The ultimate goal is to achieve the ability to modify temperature response to secure the future of the global food supply.

"We were excited to find this second gene," said Professor Chen. "It's a new piece of the puzzle. Once we understand how it all works, we can modify it, and help crops cope better with climate change."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study identifies genes that control heat response in crops

Rising temperatures are signalling crops to flower too early and...

Climate change is creating agricultural challenges on a global scale. A new study from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a> reveals how climate change is impacting coffee production in Colombia, the third largest producer in the world. 

The experts report that the effects on Colombian coffee beans vary widely depending on where they are grown. 

"Colombia is a large country with a very distinct geography. The Andes Mountains cross the country from its southwest to northeast corner. Colombian coffee is currently growing in areas with different altitude levels, and climate impacts will likely be very different for low altitude and high altitude regions," said study co-author Professor Sandy Dall'Erba.

Previous studies that have investigated the effects of climate change on Colombian coffee production have focused on either the entire country, or on a few regions within the country. 

The current study accounted for the entire country broken down into 521 municipalities, which allowed the researchers to identify significant regional variations.

"Colombia is not going to experience reduced productivity overall. But when we look into the impact across municipalities, we see many differences that get lost in the national average. That has important implications for coffee growers who live in one municipality versus another," explained study lead author Federico Ceballos-Sierra.

"Low-altitude municipalities will be negatively affected by climate change, and thousands of growers and their families in these areas will see their livelihood jeopardized because productivity is likely to fall below their breakeven point by mid-century."

At the national level, the team estimates that coffee productivity will increase by 7.6 percent over the next four decades. This estimate covers a wide margin of spatial differences, including a 16 percent increase in high altitude regions at 5,000 feet above sea level and an 8.1 percent decrease in low altitude regions. 

The study shows that areas which are now marginal for coffee production will benefit from rising temperatures, while areas that are currently prime coffee growing locations will become too hot and dry.

Ceballos-Sierra grew up on a coffee farm in the Tolima district of Colombia and has seen firsthand how changing climate conditions affect production.

"My family's farm is about 1,900 meters above sea level. Twenty years ago, people would consider that an upper marginal coffee growing area. But now we're getting significant improvements in yield," said Ceballos-Sierra.

At the same time, coffee growers in lowland areas are experiencing decreasing yields. In these regions, pests such as the coffee bean borer are becoming more aggressive and prevalent.

"In the future it will be more beneficial to grow coffee higher up in the mountains. So for those who can afford it, buying land in those areas would be a good investment," said Professor Dall'Erba. 

"The government might want to consider building infrastructures such as roads, water systems, electricity, and communication towers that would allow farmers in more elevated places to easily access nearby hubs and cities where they can sell their crops. We would expect more settlements and an increasing need for public services in those locations."

Relocation is expensive, however, and will not be an option for most of Colombia's 550,000 smallholder coffee growers. These farmers will need to find other ways to adapt, including new strategies such as more frequent irrigation, increased use of forest shade, or shifting to different coffee varieties and additional crops.

"Our research presents what we anticipate will happen 20 to 40 years from now, given current conditions and practices," said Professor Dall'Erba.

"Future studies can look into different adaptation strategies and their costs, and evaluate which options are best. Beyond the 40-year horizon we focus on, the prospects might be grimmer without adaptation. Production cannot keep moving to higher levels. Indeed, no mountain top is above 5,800 meters (18,000 feet) in Colombia."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/agricultural-systems">Agricultural Systems</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Colombian coffee production will increase, but not at low altitudes

Climate change is creating agricultural challenges on a global scale....

A new study from the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> (STRI) reveals that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-dust-solves-the-mystery-of-what-killed-the-dinosaurs/">asteroid</a> impact that killed off the dinosaurs also wiped out almost half of the plants in modern day Colombia. According to the researchers, this series of events paved the way for flowering plants to become dominant in tropical rainforests.

"We wondered how tropical rainforests changed after a drastic ecological perturbation such as the Chicxulub impact, so we looked for tropical plant fossils," said study first author Mónica Carvalho. "Our team examined over 50,000 fossil pollen records and more than 6,000 leaf fossils from before and after the impact."

A team of experts led by STRI paleontologist Carlos Jaramillo studied pollen grains from 39 sites across Colombia, including rock outcrops and cores drilled for oil exploration. The goal of the research was to examine the regional composition of forests before and after the asteroid impact 66 million years ago. 

Evidence obtained from rocks older than the impact showed that rainforests were equally dominated by ferns and flowering plants. Conifers, such as relatives of the Kauri pine and Norfolk Island pine, were abundant at that time. 

After the impact, conifers disappeared almost completely from this region of the tropics and flowering plants took over. The experts report that plant diversity did not recover for around 10 million years after the asteroid collision.

The researchers determined that pre-impact tropical forest trees were spaced far apart, allowing light to reach the forest floor. Within 10 million years after the impact, some tropical forests had grown thick. Trees and vines blocked out most of the light from reaching the  smaller trees, bushes, and herbaceous plants below. 

There was no evidence of legume trees before the extinction event, but diverse and abundant legume leaves and pods emerged after the event. Today, legumes are a dominant family in tropical rainforests that have a big influence on nitrogen cycling. 

Carvalho also collaborated with Conrad Labandeira at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History to investigate insect damage on the leaf fossils.

"Insect damage on plants can reveal in the microcosm of a single leaf or the expanse of a plant community, the base of the trophic structure in a tropical forest," said Labandeira. 

"The energy residing in the mass of plant tissues that is transmitted up the food chain - ultimately to the boas, eagles and jaguars - starts with the insects that skeletonize, chew, pierce and suck, mine, gall and bore through plant tissues. The evidence for this consumer food chain begins with all the diverse, intensive and fascinating ways that insects consume plants."

"Before the impact, we see that different types of plants have different damage: feeding was host-specific," explained Carvalho. "After the impact, we find the same kinds of damage on almost every plant, meaning that feeding was much more generalistic."

Based on evidence from both pollen and leaves, the team proposes three possible explanations for the transformation of tropical forests from conifers to flowering plants: dinosaurs kept pre-impact forests open by feeding and moving through the landscape; falling ash from the impact enriched soils throughout the tropics, giving an advantage to the faster-growing flowering plants; or the extinction of conifer species created an opportunity for flowering plants to take over the tropics.

"Our study follows a simple question: How do tropical rainforests evolve?" said Carvalho. "The lesson learned here is that under rapid disturbances - geologically speaking - tropical ecosystems do not just bounce back; they are replaced, and the process takes a really long time."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Asteroid impact helped flowering plants take over rainforests

A new study from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI)...

In a new study from the <a href="https://btiscience.org/">Boyce Thompson Institute</a> (BTI), experts have identified a group of bacteria that appear to help fungi and their host plants gain access to soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-seafloor-nutrients-support-the-entire-food-chain/">nutrients</a>. The findings may ultimately lead to inexpensive and environmentally safe methods of enriching soil and improving crop yields.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi interact with the roots of 70 percent of all terrestrial plants to establish symbiotic relationships. The plants trade fatty acids for the fungi's nitrogen and phosphorus. However, AM fungi do not have the enzymes that are needed to release nitrogen and phosphorus from complex organic molecules in the soil. 

Led by Professor Maria Harrison, the BTI team speculated that other soil microbes may help the fungi gain access to soil nutrients. To investigate, the experts set out to determine whether AM fungi are linked to a specific community of bacteria. 

Fungi possess long filament-like structures called hyphae, which they extend into the soil to probe for nutrients. The researchers discovered highly similar bacterial communities on the hyphae of two species of fungi. The composition of these bacteria was distinct from those in the surrounding soil.

"This tells us that, just like the human gut or plant roots, the hyphae of AM fungi have their own unique microbiomes," said Professor Harrison. "We're already testing a few interesting predictions as to what these bacteria might do, such as helping with phosphate acquisition."

"If we're right, then enriching the soil for some of these bacteria could increase crop yields and, ultimately, reduce the need for conventional fertilizers along with their associated costs and environmental impacts."

The team found remarkable consistency in the makeup of bacterial communities from two species of AM fungi, Glomus versiforme and Rhizophagus irregularis. According to Professor Harrison, the function of these bacteria is not yet clear, but their composition has already sparked some interesting possibilities.

"We predict that some of these bacteria liberate phosphorus ions in the immediate vicinity of the filaments, giving the fungus the best chance to capture those ions." "Learning which bacteria have this function could be key to enhancing the fungi's phosphate acquisition process to benefit plants."

Professor Harrison believes the AM fungi may secrete molecules that attract the specialized bacteria, and in turn, the bacterial communities may influence which molecules the fungus secretes.

Some of the microbes present on the hyphae were "bacterial predators" that kill and eat other bacteria by causing them to burst and release their contents. The researchers plan to investigate why these particular types of bacteria assemble on the hyphae. 

"It's possible that the actions of predatory bacteria make mineral nutrients available to everyone in the surrounding soil - predators and fungi alike," said Professor Harrison.

The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ismej/">The ISME Journal</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fungi rely on bacteria to release nutrients for their host plants

In a new study from the Boyce Thompson Institute (BTI),...

Tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-with-short-lives-are-more-sensitive-to-climate-change/">plants</a> with thick leaves will likely respond very successfully to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a>.

The researchers found that competition between species, as well as multiple changes in the plant leaves, could preserve the ability of tropical forests to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. 

It is difficult for scientists to predict how various plant species will respond to rising levels of carbon dioxide, particularly in the tropics. There will be both advantages and disadvantages, and the resulting shifts in vegetation will have a big influence on the future direction of climate change.

The UW team analyzed how tropical forests, which absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide, will respond as atmospheric CO2 levels continue to rise. 

"Our findings suggest that plants with some types of responses, like making their leaves thicker, will ultimately grow better in tropical forests than their competitors," said study senior author Professor Abigail Swann. 

"If these better-growing plants become more common in the forest, the total rates of water and carbon exchange could stay closer to what they are now."

In previous work, Professor Swann and colleagues showed that the CO2-related thickening of tropical plant leaves could worsen climate change, considering that thicker leaves may also be smaller. 

As a result of smaller leaves, plants would capture less sunlight for photosynthesis, absorb less carbon dioxide, and emit less water vapor - factors that all promote global warming. 

The new study expands on the earlier research to account for competition between plant species, and the ratio of carbon and nitrogen in the plants' leaves. 

While more carbon dioxide makes photosynthesis easier, the plants become less efficient at producing energy if nitrogen cannot keep pace with their growth rates. 

Professor Swann said that the verdict is still out on why exactly plants grow thicker leaves under high CO2 levels. However, the results of the modeling study indicate that there may be a simple explanation..

"Thicker leaves can concentrate the nitrogen so that photosynthesis rates per area of leaf are high," explained Professor Swann.

The study authors ran simulations for broad-leaf evergreen tropical trees, such as wild cashew and Ecuador laurel. The trees were programmed to have various responses to the higher carbon dioxide levels, and could compete with one another for space.

The study revealed that trees which were simulated to have more carbon relative to nitrogen in their leaves became less efficient at photosynthesis and emitted less water vapor. 

On the other hand, tree species with leaves that also thickened during the simulations were better at absorbing carbon and producing water vapor, helping them grow tall and stay cool. These trees could also outcompete their neighbors.

"Our work suggests that by shifting which plants are growing in the forest there may be less dire consequences of higher CO2 than other studies have suggested," said Professor Swann. 

"There is a lot we still don't know about how plants are responding to climate change -- this work really sets up some best guesses about which plants will grow best in future tropical forests that we can test with more observations."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19449224">Global Biogeochemical Cycles</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical trees with thick leaves may thrive in higher CO2 conditions

Tropical plants with thick leaves will likely respond very successfully...

Despite claims that the negative impacts of pesticides are declining, researchers have discovered that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-pays-off-to-read-labels-and-avoid-products-with-harmful-chemicals/">chemicals</a> have become even more damaging over the past 25 years. 

Experts at the <a href="https://www.uni-koblenz-landau.de/en">University of Koblenz-Landau</a> report that while there has been a decrease in the amount of pesticides used, they have become increasingly toxic to plants and insects. 

The team demonstrated that the applied pesticide toxicity in agriculture increased substantially between 2004 and 2016. The researchers even found this pattern in genetically modified crops that were designed to reduce the environmental impacts of pesticides.

The results of the study clearly show that even in the two most important genetically modified crops in the U. S. - corn and soybean - the applied toxicity increases at the same rates as conventional crops.

"We have taken a large body of pesticide use data from the U.S. and have expressed changes of amounts applied in agriculture over time as changes in total applied pesticide toxicity," said study lead author Professor Ralf Schulz. "This provides a new view on the potential consequences that pesticide use in agriculture has on biodiversity and ecosystems".

The amount of insecticides used for agricultural activities in the United States decreased by more than 40 percent between 1992 and 2016. As a result, fish, mammals, and birds face lower applied toxicities compared to the 1990s.

Meanwhile, pollinators and other insects experienced double the toxicity between 2005 and 2015, as pesticide use shifted toward pyrethroid and neonicotinoid insecticides. 

According to the study authors, their findings likely apply to many other regions dominated by modern agriculture, though often the data for a thorough evaluation of trends in applied toxicity are not publicly available.

"These results challenge the claims of decreasing environmental impact of chemical pesticides in both conventional and GM crops and call for action to reduce the pesticide toxicity applied in agriculture worldwide," said Professor Schulz.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pesticides have become increasingly toxic to insects

Despite claims that the negative impacts of pesticides are declining,...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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