High in the Dolomites of northern Italy, a quiet forest of spruce trees witnessed a cosmic event. As the moon began its slow passage across the face of the sun, these trees did something extraordinary. They didn’t just react to the solar eclipse - they prepared for it. 



Hours before the eclipse unfolded, the inner signals of the trees began to shift in synchrony, echoing across the forest like an invisible wave.



What if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-losing-the-battle-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> could think? What if they didn’t just survive but sensed, remembered, and collectively adapted? These questions are no longer the domain of poetic speculation. A new international study has brought scientific weight to these ideas, revealing a forest’s capacity for anticipation and communication.



Led by Professor Alessandro Chiolerio of the Italian Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.iit.it" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IIT</a>) and the University of the West of England (<a href="https://www.uwe.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UWE</a>), and Professor Monica Gagliano of <a href="https://www.scu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Cross University</a>, the research shows how spruce trees behave not just as individuals but as members of a responsive, interconnected ecosystem.



The trees began altering their bioelectrical rhythms well before the eclipse. This wasn’t passive reaction - it was a coordinated prelude.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-trees-sense-eclipse-first">Older trees sense eclipse first</h2>



The researchers placed specialized sensors on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-new-trees-brings-hope-for-healthier-babies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> ranging from decades-old elders to young saplings. The trees’ bioelectrical signals - minute voltage changes across their tissues - began shifting as early as 14 hours before the solar eclipse occurred.



Remarkably, older trees were the first to display these changes. They exhibited increased entropy and bioelectrical complexity long before the event, suggesting deep memory rooted in past experiences. 



These ancient trees acted as environmental archives, holding clues from previous eclipses and perhaps other rare events that have repeated over their long lives.



“The fact that older trees respond first - potentially guiding the collective response of the forest - speaks volumes about their role as memory banks of past environmental events,” said Professor Gagliano.



This age-based hierarchy of response shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-trees-are-reaching-new-heights-in-the-mountains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> are not just passive organisms. Instead, they may actively use memory to shape real-time responses to future events. The old trees don’t simply endure - they teach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-signals-sync-before-an-eclipse">Tree signals sync before an eclipse</h2>



Custom-built CyberTree sensors recorded data from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-and-steady-tree-growth-wins-the-race-for-carbon-capture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> at four distinct forest sites. Trees of different ages and light exposure were included. Some trees were healthy and tall, others young and shaded, and several were even stumps from felled trees.



In one 20-year-old tree, researchers noticed sharp, square-wave-like bioelectrical spikes hours before the eclipse. These signals vanished immediately after the event, creating a clear boundary in the data. 



Older trees showed broader but more persistent fluctuations. During the eclipse itself, bioelectrical activity became less chaotic and more ordered.



“This study illustrates the anticipatory and synchronized responses we observed are key to understanding how forests communicate and adapt, revealing a new layer of complexity in plant behavior,” explained Professor Gagliano.



This coordination wasn’t superficial. It ran deep through the trees’ vascular systems - through xylem and phloem - recorded using electrodes both within trunks and around their circumference. The result was a living, electrical map of the forest’s inner state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whole-forest-acts-as-one-system">Whole forest acts as one system</h2>



The synchrony wasn’t limited to isolated trees. Researchers applied cross-correlation analysis to examine relationships among signals from different trees. What they found was striking. As the eclipse approached, trees didn’t just change individually. They aligned with each other.



Compared to normal days, during the eclipse the trees exhibited larger deviations in signal symmetry. This meant the forest wasn’t operating randomly. Each tree’s electrical behavior influenced - and was influenced by - others. These shifts showed signs of communication and responsiveness beyond traditional ecological models.



“We now see the forest not as a mere collection of individuals, but as an orchestra of phase correlated plants,” said Professor Chiolerio.



Especially strong synchrony occurred between the oldest trees, suggesting that longevity also brings a central role in networked behaviors. Their signals moved together like synchronized swimmers, responding as one to the cosmic shift overhead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-trees-align-their-behavior">How trees align their behavior</h2>



To make sense of this synchrony, the team turned to an unlikely ally - quantum field theory (QFT). Trees, they argued, are open, dissipative systems. They constantly exchange energy with their environment, and classical physics falls short in describing their complex coordination.



By using thermal QFT models, the researchers could describe the trees' behavior at both molecular and systemic levels. They showed how microscopic structures like ion channels and water molecules aligned their activity, giving rise to coherent macroscopic behavior.



In this framework, the forest’s response becomes a form of spontaneous symmetry breaking. That is, a small environmental trigger - in this case, the eclipse - produces a large-scale shift in system organization.



During the eclipse, the system’s entropy dropped, coherence increased, and the forest appeared to enter a new state - like an orchestra locking into tempo after tuning their instruments. The forest was not only alive. It was aware.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gravity-may-cue-the-response">Gravity may cue the response</h2>



A mystery remained: how could trees begin responding before the eclipse even started? The usual suspects - light, temperature, and humidity - couldn’t explain it. Trees began shifting their signals when it was still daylight and warm, and the Moon was far from their sky.



The authors propose another trigger: gravimetric tides. These are subtle shifts in Earth’s gravitational field caused by the alignment of the Moon and Sun. During a solar eclipse, especially one aligned with a Saros cycle, these tides peak.



Such gravimetric cues are hard for humans to detect, but not for trees. Their deep-rooted structure and fluid dynamics make them excellent sensors. Older trees, which have lived through several Saros cycles, may recognize this pattern and respond early.



“This discovery underscores the critical importance of protecting older forests, which serve as pillars of ecosystem resilience by preserving and transmitting invaluable ecological knowledge,” said Professor Gagliano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-science">Implications for conservation science</h2>



This research expands our understanding of what a forest is. No longer can we see it as a collection of competing individuals. The trees synchronize their internal processes, align responses to stimuli, and likely share information across time and space.



This makes old-growth forests irreplaceable. Logging them erases not just biomass, but knowledge - decades or centuries of stored information that newer trees have not yet acquired.



From the lens of ecological stability, these forests act like community elders. They modulate, anticipate, and respond, ensuring the forest survives sudden changes. Protecting them becomes not only an act of conservation, but an act of safeguarding planetary memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-intelligence-of-forests">The hidden intelligence of forests</h2>



To share this finding with a wider audience, the research team collaborated on a documentary. Il Codice del Bosco (The Forest Code) is scheduled for release in Italy in May 2025. It brings the forest’s hidden world to life, showing trees as responsive and intelligent beings.



“Basically, we are watching the famous ‘wood wide web’ in action!” said Professor Gagliano.



The documentary will visualize the forest’s electrical signals, offering viewers a glimpse into a world usually invisible. It represents a step toward redefining how we relate to nature - not as masters, but as fellow participants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-remember-eclipses-and-adapt">Trees remember eclipses and adapt</h2>



The study of spruce trees during a solar eclipse has revealed something profound. Trees do not simply endure. They anticipate, adapt, and align with each other through non-verbal, bioelectrical communication. They exhibit behaviors long thought reserved for animals - coordination, memory, and possibly a form of decision-making.



As we understand this hidden intelligence, our approach to ecology must evolve. Forests are not just lungs of the planet. They are its silent minds - thinking slowly, speaking in signals, and remembering events we cannot see.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241786" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Trees sync up their communication signals before a solar eclipse

High in the Dolomites of northern Italy, a quiet forest of spruce trees witnessed a cosmic event. As the moon began its slow passage across the face of the sun, these trees did something extraordinary. They didn’t just react to the solar eclipse - they prepared for it. Hours before the eclipse unfolded, the inner signals of the trees began to shift in synchrony, echoing across the forest like an invisible wave. What if forests could think? What if they didn’t just survive but sensed, remembered, and...

With carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere rising sharply over recent decades, scientists and policymakers alike are becoming increasingly concerned about the long-term impact on global climate patterns. 



As the effects of climate change become more pronounced, there is a growing urgency to develop effective strategies for capturing and holding carbon. 



One promising approach focuses on the role of soil in carbon sequestration, where innovative farming practices can help reduce atmospheric CO2 by trapping it within the earth’s natural processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-practices-and-soil-carbon-storage">Farming practices and soil carbon storage</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.k-state.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kansas State University</a> (K-State) are investigating how various farming practices can influence the amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-can-store-the-most-soil-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon stored in soil</a>, a crucial factor in mitigating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survey-mother-nature-is-more-likely-to-solve-climate-change-than-geoengineering/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



The study seeks to uncover how long-term agricultural techniques, particularly in no-till farming systems, impact the soil's ability to capture and retain carbon over time.



To gain deeper insights, the team utilized advanced imaging technologies at two of the world’s most cutting-edge research facilities: the Canadian Light Source (CLS) at the University of Saskatchewan (USask) and the Advanced Light Source in Berkeley, California. 



By analyzing soil from a Kansas cornfield that has been farmed using no-till methods for 22 years, they aimed to determine how different nitrogen management strategies influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fertilizers-and-long-term-study-results">Fertilizers and long-term study results</h2>



During the 22-year period, the farm employed a range of soil nitrogen management practices, each with distinct impacts on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-adopt-regenerative-agriculture-better-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil health</a> and carbon storage. 



These practices included the use of no fertilizer, chemical fertilizers, and organic options like manure or compost fertilizers. 



By comparing these different methods, the researchers aimed to identify which practices are most effective in enhancing soil quality and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-food-systems-are-gaining-momentum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainability in agricultural systems</a>.



The findings, published in the Soil Science Society of America Journal, offer valuable insights into the mechanisms of soil enrichment, providing a clearer picture of how specific farming practices can enhance the soil's ability to act as a carbon sink.



“We were trying to understand what the mechanisms are behind increasing soil carbon storage using certain management practices,” said Dr. Ganga Hettiarachchi, professor of soil and environmental chemistry. “We were looking at not just soil carbon, but other soil minerals that are going to help store carbon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-sequestration-and-imaging-insights">Carbon sequestration and imaging insights</h2>



Consistent with findings from previous research, the K-State team discovered that soil treated with organic matter, such as manure or compost fertilizer, demonstrated significantly higher carbon storage than soil treated with either chemical fertilizers or none at all. 



This highlights the potential of organic fertilizers not only to improve soil health but also to play a critical role in capturing and storing atmospheric carbon.



What sets this study apart is the use of ultrabright synchrotron light, a powerful tool that enabled the researchers to examine the soil structure at a microscopic level. 



This advanced technology allowed the team to visualize precisely how carbon molecules interact with the soil, revealing that much of the carbon was preserved in small pores and had bonded with minerals - an important factor in long-term carbon sequestration.



“It was preserved in pores, and some carbon had attached itself to minerals in the soil," noted Dr. Hettiarachchi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-diversity-and-carbon-storage">Microbial diversity and carbon storage</h2>



The experts also uncovered another important benefit of using manure or compost as a soil treatment: it led to higher levels of microbial carbon compared to soil treated with chemical fertilizers or left untreated.



This increase in microbial carbon is a clear indicator of greater microbial diversity and activity within the soil. 



A thriving microbial community is essential for soil health, as these microorganisms play a critical role in nutrient cycling, decomposition, and overall soil structure, all of which contribute to enhanced carbon storage and long-term soil fertility.



“To my knowledge, this is the first direct evidence of mechanisms through which organic enhancements improve soil health, microbial diversity, and carbon sequestration,” said Dr. Hettiarachchi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-sustainable-agriculture">Implications for sustainable agriculture</h2>



Because synchrotron imaging is non-destructive, the team could observe soil aggregate (clumps) in its natural state, without needing to disrupt the soil structure. This allowed them to look at the carbon chemistry in situ.



“Collectively, studies like this are going to help us move forward to more sustainable, regenerative agriculture practices that will protect our soils and environment while helping to feed growing populations,” concluded Dr. Hettiarachchi. 



“Understanding the role of different minerals, chemicals, and microbes will also help improve models for predicting how various farming practices affect soil carbon storage.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/saj2.20701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Soil Science Society of America Journal</a>.



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Organic farming practices boost soil carbon storage

With carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere rising sharply over...

We've all had that refreshing gulp of beer on a warm summer night or after a long, tiring day at work, but seldom do we associate beer with gut health. 



After all, it's usually the star of social gatherings, not dietary plans. But raise your glasses high and toast to this new and thought-provoking research from Dalian Medical University that reveals beer as not just a social lubricant, but potentially a gut-health enhancer.



The research's beacon, Dr. Jianxin Li, presents beer as more than just a frothy indulgence. He suggests that this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/no-evidence-that-beer-goggles-are-real-but-liquid-courage-is-definitely-a-thing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age-old beverage</a>, often referred to as 'liquid bread', could be providing more than just a welcome chill on a balmy evening.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beer-as-a-historical-delight">Beer as a historical delight</h2>



It's pretty hard to imagine a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brewing-beer-in-space-the-future-of-fermentation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world without beer</a>, and history confirms its long-standing relationship with humanity. Traces of beer consumption date back to around 9,000 years ago in China. 



From ancient Babylonian feasts to present-day festivities, beer's cultural significance is underscores its pivotal role in human civilization. 



It holds an unshakable position as the most consumed alcoholic beverage globally -- only water and tea surpass it.



Interestingly, beer wasn't solely a source of joy as early as the third millennium BC; Babylonians were recording beer recipes on clay tablets. 



The narrative that beer functioned as 'liquid bread' might have more depth than previously thought, with recent research suggesting health benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-beer-the-key-gut-healthy-ingredients">Making beer: The key gut-healthy ingredients</h2>



Making beer starts with four main ingredients: water, malt, hops, and yeast. First, you soak malted barley in hot water to get those sugars out, which is called mashing. 



Then, you boil the sugary liquid -- known as wort -- and toss in some hops to give the beer its unique flavor and aroma. 



After boiling, cool down the wort and move it to a fermenter, where you'll add the yeast. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/old-trick-turns-plant-based-cheese-into-something-that-actually-tastes-good/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The yeast will munch on the sugars</a>, turning them into alcohol and carbon dioxide, which creates those nice bubbles in the beer.



Once fermentation wraps up, let the beer settle and mature so the flavors can develop and any unwanted bits can drop out.



Finally, you bottle or keg the beer, adding a little extra sugar for natural carbonation, or you can use CO2 for a quicker method. 



The whole journey from grain to glass can take anywhere from a few weeks to several months, depending on the beer style and the brewer's vibe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-gut-health-connects-to-beer">How gut health connects to beer</h2>



The question on everyone's lips: What makes beer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a potential ally</a> for gut health? 



Dr. Li's research reveals that beer, rich in vital amino acids, vitamins, trace elements, and bioactive substances, can benefit our gut when consumed in moderation. 



These nutrients, broken down and fermented by our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-detects-changes-in-gut-health-to-help-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut's microbial community</a>, can regulate immunity and overall gut health.



Intriguingly, the study suggests that beer's bacteria can enhance arterial function and immune response, especially in healthy, non-smoking adults. 



So, while you're relishing that cold pint, you might be boosting your body's defenses. Cheers to that!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microecological-magic-of-beer">Microecological magic of beer</h2>



The blessings of beer aren't limited to boosting the health of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">your gut bacteria</a>. The research advances the concept of beer as a 'microecological modulator.' 



This refers to its capacity to minimize cancer risk, ease <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular issues</a>, and manage metabolic syndrome. 



Several studies confirm these claims, showing that moderate beer consumption can lower heart disease risk, improve circulation, and even help fend off upper respiratory infections.



From heart health to bone health, beer seems to be a gift that keeps on giving. Beer is rich in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) -- <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-cholesterol-may-increase-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the 'good' cholesterol</a>, and polyphenols, which protect the heart. 



It also contains dietary silicon, supporting bone growth and strength. Some studies even suggest that moderate beer consumption can enhance bone density in older women and lower the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beer-and-your-microbiome">Beer and your microbiome</h2>



Beer does wonders for your gut's microbiome. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trouble-brewing-for-beer-decline-in-hop-production-causes-beer-shortages-and-bad-taste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Loaded with dietary fiber</a> and some probiotics, it helps maintain your gut's healthy microbial balance. By promoting beneficial bacteria's growth, beer might support overall gut health.



Beyond gut health, beer potentially offers several unexpected health benefits. Compounds in beer, like xanthohumol, have neuroprotective properties that might help preserve cognitive function and lower the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beer-could-help-protect-against-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia and Alzheimer’s disease</a>. 



Beer's high water content makes it a diuretic, helping in kidney function and reducing kidney stones risk. 



In addition, beer contains several B vitamins, including B2, B3, B5, B6, and folate. These are essential for cellular function and energy metabolism, adding another layer to beer’s potential health benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-beer-and-gut-health">Future of beer and gut health</h2>



In sum, the study from <a href="https://english.dmu.edu.cn/Admissions1/International_Student.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dalian Medical University</a> opens up an intriguing dialogue about beer's role in our diets. Could beer become a regular player in discussions on gut health and immune function? 



Dr. Li and his team believe it's a possibility worth exploring. 



Needless to say, moderation is key. While beer offers several health benefits, over-consumption can have negative impact on health.



Always remember, not all beers are created equal. Low or non-alcoholic beers fortified with bioactive substances, like fiber or antioxidants, might provide the most significant health benefits.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2023.1186927/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.



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Beer vs. probiotics: How drinking a pint is great for gut health

We've all had that refreshing gulp of beer on a...

It seems that the realm of dreams is not an exclusive human privilege. Incredible as it may sound, a certain kind of mushrooms -- the king oyster mushrooms or Pleurotus eryngii -- might be indulging in their own version of REM sleep, more like a dreaming robot.



When their sprawling mycelial networks flicker and pulse, their electrochemical responses mimic the activity of our brain cells. But what happens when we let these impulses run free for a while?



Here's where an inspiring collaboration between researchers from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> and the <a href="https://www.unifi.it/it" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florence</a> kicks in. 



The experts set a culture of king oyster mushrooms in control of a pair of tiny vehicles. What followed was almost surreal - these vehicles began to twitch and move across a flat surface!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-roadways">Fungal roadways</h2>



A series of meticulously planned experiments shed light on the surprising fact that we could use the mushroom's electrophysiological activity to transform environmental cues into instructions. These instructions, in turn, could command <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dancing-robots-the-future-of-human-robot-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mechanical devices to move</a>.



"As we grew the mycelium into the electronics of a robot, the biohybrid machine began to sense and respond to the environment," explained Rob Shepherd, a materials scientist at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell</a> and the chief researcher for this project.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="9IjHNznxhv-3836479-12187" type="single"]</div>



Is this the first time we've toyed with machines using organic matter? Certainly not. Evolution has had a head start of hundreds of millions of years to perfect organic machines that can sense, think, and move as we desire.&nbsp;



But the intriguing part is that the fungi kingdom remains an untapped treasure trove for cybernetic technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mushroom-with-a-robot-body">Mushroom with a robot body</h2>



Fungi are remarkably resilient; they can be easily cultured, have simple requirements, and can survive in environments that many other organisms can't. These traits make molds and mushrooms incredibly enticing to engineers searching for robust living components for a wide range of needs, from sensory to computational.



Fungal threads, normally hidden from view, respond to changes in their surroundings as they navigate through soil in search of resources. Some species exhibit transmembrane activity that resembles our neural responses, providing researchers a possible way to tap into their enigmatic exchanges.



To harness this potential, the researchers fed algorithms based on the extracellular electrophysiology of P. eryngii mycelia into a microcontroller unit. They used spikes of activity triggered by a stimulus (UV light, in this case) to prompt mechanical responses in two types of mobile device.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wheeling-dealing-mushroom">A wheeling, dealing mushroom?</h2>



In controlled experiments, the team relied on signals from a fungal culture to direct the movements of a five-limbed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-soft-robot-crawls-moves-like-origami-folds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soft robot</a> and a four-wheeled untethered vehicle.&nbsp;



Remarkably, they were not only able to influence but also override the natural impulses produced by the fungi. The researchers had an impressive ability to harness the system's sensory abilities to reach a particular goal.



"It is also about creating a true connection with the living system. Because once you hear the signal, you also understand what's going on. Maybe that signal is coming from some kind of stresses. So you're seeing the physical response, because those signals we can't visualize, but the robot is making a visualization," explained study lead author Anand Mishra.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-biology-and-technology">Bridging biology and technology</h2>



The melding of natural organisms with technology poses fascinating questions about the future of robotics and bioengineering. 



As we consider the potential applications of fungal-based systems, it becomes clear that such innovations could transcend conventional robot design, leading to creations that are not merely machines but rather living entities. 



These biohybrids could exhibit adaptive behaviors, respond to environmental stimuli, and operate more efficiently in unpredictable conditions.



The fusion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-robots-now-with-added-common-sense-and-ability-to-self-correct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology and technology</a> could revolutionize fields such as environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics, and even search-and-rescue operations, allowing us to employ living organisms in ways that enhance their inherent capabilities and versatility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethical-considerations-in-biohybrid-research">Ethical considerations in biohybrid research</h2>



As we venture deeper into this exciting intersection of fungi and robotics, it is crucial to engage in thoughtful discourse regarding the ethical implications of biohybrid technology. 



With the power to create living machines that can perceive and interact with their surroundings, we must consider the responsibilities associated with such innovations. What rights, if any, should these biohybrids possess? 



How do we regulate the use of organic materials in our pursuit of technological advancement? Moreover, fostering public understanding and ensuring transparent communication about the potential risks and benefits will be pivotal in gaining societal support. 



Addressing these questions from the outset will help establish a framework that guides our exploration of this burgeoning field in a manner that respects both scientific progress and ethical integrity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mushrooms-moving-robot-wheels">Mushrooms moving robot wheels</h2>



While a mushroom-driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origami-inspired-robots-mimic-the-behavior-of-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robot</a> might appear far-fetched, the true value of the system could be more mundane yet especially crucial.&nbsp;



Imagine simpler mechanical setups interpreting complex changes in environmental cues to release precise amounts of nutrient or pesticide in soil, or responding to rising levels of pollutants and even reacting to changes in our own bodies.



There's a profound wisdom hidden in the whispers of mushrooms that we're yet to fully grasp. Given an opportunity, they might even break their silence and tell us what they're dreaming about. After all, if mushrooms can move wheels, there's not much they can't do.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.adk8019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Robotics</a>.



Video/Image Credit: Robert Sheperd



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Mushroom is given a robot body and runs wild in fascinating video

It seems that the realm of dreams is not an...

Aspergillus fumigatus is a not-so-friendly mold that has secured a spot in every nook and corner of our world. While it may be just another mold species to some, it holds a rather notorious distinction for us humans - Aspergillus fumigatus is capable of causing grave and often fatal infections.



The culprit behind the lethal prowess of this particular mold? A unique enzyme on the surface of its spores known as glycosylasparaginase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangers-of-the-aspergillus-fumigatus-mold">Dangers of the Aspergillus fumigatus mold</h2>



The risky business of dealing with A. fumigatus is part of daily life for an international research team headed by Gustavo Goldman from the University of São Paulo in Brazil. 



Their mission? Uncovering the secrets that make this mold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mold-burgers-fungi-aims-to-become-the-smart-food-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> deadly. Goldman's research primarily revolves around the surface proteins of these spores - the defense front that first encounters our immune system, usually through inhalation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spore-secrets-of-the-deadly-mold">Spore secrets of the deadly mold</h2>



What do these surface proteins reveal? Olaf Kniemeyer, a proteomics expert from the Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute (<a href="https://www.leibniz-hki.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz-HKI</a>), shed some light on this question.



Kniemeyer's proficiency in mapping and assigning functions to all proteins in a cell have led to the identification of potential targets for new therapeutic substances.



With Kniemeyer and his team's expertise in phagocytosis - the process by which our immune cells engulf foreign invaders - the research team was able to closely observe the mold.



"Gustavo Goldman's group was particularly interested in the surface proteins on the spores, as these are the first to come into contact with the immune system - usually through inhalation," noted Kniemeyer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research </h2>



To crack open the spore mysteries, the team employed a rather innovative approach known as trypsin shaving. 



This involved using trypsin, a protein-cleaving enzyme, to purge all proteins from the spore surface - think of it as exfoliating the surface of the spores. After this rigorous "cleanup," the team analyzed the protein fragments left behind using a mass spectrometer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mold-and-the-immune-system">Mold and the immune system</h2>



Upon comparing their findings to existing databases, the researchers discovered 62 proteins that were exclusively present on A. fumigatus spores and absent in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-fungi-diversity-can-be-pulled-out-of-thin-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">closely related species</a>. This hinted at some of these proteins' potential involvement in the infection process. 



The experts then created a library of 42 fungus mutants, with each mutant lacking a gene responsible for one of these proteins.



It was found that the mutant lacking glycosylasparaginase triggered an increased release of interleukin-1β - an ultra-potent protein that incites fever, inflammation, and an assortment of other immune responses - in immune cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taming-the-body-s-immune-response">Taming the body's immune response</h2>



The absence of glycosylasparaginase on the fungal spores allows the immune system to release more of this pro-inflammatory substance, thereby ramping up the body's defense against the pathogen. 



This suggests that the fungus normally produces glycosylasparaginase to tame the immune response, enabling it to infiltrate the body nearly unchecked. 



A study in mice supports this theory, showing that mice with an intact immune system launched a more vigorous attack against the fungus when the gene for glycosylasparaginase was switched off.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-research">Implications for future research</h2>



The insights gained from the study of glycosylasparaginase and its role in mediating immune responses opens a plethora of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-fusion-turning-food-waste-into-culinary-delights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">avenues for future exploration</a>. 



Understanding how A. fumigatus manipulates host defenses equips researchers with the foundational knowledge needed to design effective therapeutic interventions. 



By identifying the specific interactions between this mold and the immune system, scientists can develop targeted drugs or vaccines that enhance immune recognition and response, potentially leading to breakthroughs in treating or preventing infections caused by this mold.



Indeed, the elusive glycosylasparaginase on A. fumigatus spores seems to play a key part in the fungus's standoff with our immune system. 



However, the exact workings of this mechanism remain wrapped in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mycocrete-new-material-made-of-fungi-hopes-to-replace-concrete-in-construction-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mystery</a>. Still, these findings open up avenues for developing new treatments for infections caused by A. fumigatus - an urgent need given the limited number of effective drugs currently available and the steadily spreading resistance to them.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-024-01782-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Microbiology</a>.&nbsp;



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How do deadly molds attack the immune system of humans?

Aspergillus fumigatus is a not-so-friendly mold that has secured a...

Thermogenesis, the ability of plants to generate their own heat, is a remarkable survival tool that has evolved in certain plant species. 



While commonly associated with animals, this process plays a crucial role in helping plants like cycads and select flowering varieties attract pollinators. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-heat-attracts-pollinators">Plant heat attracts pollinators</h2>



By producing heat, these plants can volatilize their fragrances more effectively, dispersing chemical compounds that enhance their chances of attracting a wide variety of pollinators, including beetles, flies, and thrips. 



This thermal boost not only makes the plants more appealing to insects but also plays a crucial role in the timing and success of pollination.



Additionally, this internal heat supports the development and growth of reproductive organs, such as flowers and pollen tubes, especially in cooler climates where warmth is scarce, giving thermogenic plants a distinct evolutionary advantage over non-thermogenic species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thermogenesis-and-plant-evolution">Thermogenesis and plant evolution</h2>



Tracking heat generation in plants is challenging because thermogenesis cannot be directly preserved in the fossil record. This forces scientists to rely on indirect evidence, such as fossilized anatomical structures that may have supported heat production. 



Without physical traces of heat itself, researchers must study plant morphology and compare ancient plants with modern thermogenic species to infer how this process may have operated in the past. 



By examining anatomical similarities between ancient and present-day thermogenic plants, scientists can better understand how thermogenesis played a role in plant evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-heat-and-evolutionary-success">Plant heat and evolutionary success</h2>



An intriguing study was recently conducted by a group of researchers at the Botanical Institute of Barcelona (IBB), in a collaborative effort with several esteemed institutions including the <a href="https://www.ucm.es/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complutense University of Madrid</a>, the Geological and Mining Institute of Spain (IGME–CSIC), the <a href="https://www.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Institution</a>, the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/web/ub/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Barcelona</a>, and the Royal Botanic Gardens of Sydney.



The experts diligently examined the characteristics of present-day thermogenic plants and compared them with fossil plant lineages.



The research led to a surprising conclusion. "Our findings suggest that thermogenesis in plants is an older phenomenon than previously thought," said David Peris, a researcher at the IBB.



According to Peris, thermogenesis may have played a pivotal role in the evolutionary success of seed and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a>, as well as their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hornets-are-the-most-important-pollinators-for-some-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>, as far back as 200 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-evolutionary-edge">An evolutionary edge</h2>



The presence of female structures maturing before male structures in thermogenic plants to prevent self-fertilization is a fascinating trait that is closely associated with early lines of divergence among flowering plants.



In fact, evidence of independent closing of stamens and carpels in floral chambers exists in fossil plants that could have trapped pollinating insects, hinting at their thermogenic past.



The researchers discovered that large reproductive structures, such as perianths or cones, could also indicate thermogenesis, thanks to their heat-retaining abilities.



These structures suggest that thermogenesis could have given certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-survived-the-dinosaur-extinction-by-pulling-nitrogen-from-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesozoic plants</a> a competitive edge over non-thermogenic equivalents more than 200 million years ago. 



This heat-generating capacity, coupled with other attractive traits like flower color and fragrance emission, could have been instrumental in their reproductive success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversification-of-plants-and-pollinators">Diversification of plants and pollinators </h2>



"Thermogenesis in plants is not just a botanical curiosity," said study co-author Iván Pérez-Lorenzo. He noted that this unique ability has strongly influenced the success of two diverse and populated groups: insects and flowering plants.



The findings open up exciting avenues for further inquiry into how such interactions may have influenced the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-evolved-in-two-dramatic-bursts-250-million-years-apart/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversification of plants</a> and their pollinators throughout evolutionary history.



There is much more to learn from the world of plants, and this study has provided us with a fascinating glimpse into the world of thermogenesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-in-a-changing-climate">Plants in a changing climate</h2>



The discovery of thermogenesis as a key factor in early plant survival offers exciting insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-evolution-drastically-changed-earths-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary journey of plants</a>. 



As scientists continue to investigate how heat generation has shaped plant-pollinator relationships over millions of years, new questions arise about its role in future evolutionary pathways. 



Could thermogenesis have been a pivotal trait that allowed certain species to outcompete others in harsh environments? 



Understanding this process may reveal how plants have adapted and diversified in response to changing climates and ecological pressures throughout history, and how they may continue to evolve in the face of future environmental shifts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-024-01775-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Some plants generate heat to attract pollinators

Thermogenesis, the ability of plants to generate their own heat,...

Starchy foods have played a pivotal role in human evolution, influencing not only our diets but also our genetic makeup. 



A recent study has revealed that the rise of agriculture - around 12,000 years ago - and the subsequent increase in starchy staples like wheat and grains, significantly impacted the human genome.



Researchers from the United States, Italy, and the United Kingdom found that our ability to digest carbohydrates has significantly evolved over time. This is closely linked to the rise of agriculture and the increase of starchy foods in our diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolutionary-power-of-starchy-foods">The evolutionary power of starchy foods</h2>



The ability to extract energy from starchy foods has increased remarkably during this period, as shown by an expansion in the number of genes encoding enzymes that break down starch - jumping from an average of eight to over 11.



"The copy number of amylase genes had increased in Europeans since the dawn of agriculture, but we had never been able to sequence this locus fully before. It is extremely repetitive and complex," said Peter Sudmant, assistant professor of integrative biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and one of the lead authors of the study. 



This increase in amylase genes closely matched the rise and spread of agriculture across Europe from the Middle East, aligning with changes in dietary patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-amylase-locus">Decoding the amylase locus</h2>



The researchers meticulously examined the genome's amylase locus, where the salivary amylase gene (AMY1) and two pancreatic amylase genes (AMY2A and AMY2B) reside. 



"If you take a piece of dry pasta and put it in your mouth, eventually it'll get a little bit sweet. That's your salivary amylase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enzyme-produced-during-exercise-protects-against-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enzyme</a> breaking the starches down into sugars," explained Sudmant.



While this happens in all humans and other primates, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complete-sequencing-of-the-human-genome-reveals-new-findings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human genome</a> contains a significantly higher number of amylase gene copies compared to our primate relatives, such as chimpanzees and Neanderthals, who possess only a single copy of AMY1.



UC Berkeley postdoctoral fellow Runyang Nicolas Lou, one of the study's co-authors, elaborated: "Our study found that each copy of the human genome harbors one to 11 copies of AMY1, zero to three copies of AMY2A, and one to four copies of AMY2B. Copy number is correlated with gene expression and protein level and thus the ability to digest starch."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-advantage-and-global-adaptation">Survival advantage and global adaptation</h2>



The presence of multiple amylase genes provided a survival advantage, with the incidence of chromosomes carrying multiple copies increasing sevenfold over the last 12,000 years. 



This evolution was not confined to Europe. The researchers found evidence of similar patterns in other agricultural populations globally, regardless of which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-of-the-future-breadfruit-is-resistant-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">starchy plant</a> was domesticated.



Erik Garrison, a co-lead author from the <a href="https://www.uthsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee Health Science Center</a>, highlighted the broader implications of the findings: "One of the exciting things we were able to do here is probe both modern and ancient genomes to dissect the history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-habits-shaped-the-skulls-of-humans-and-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structural evolution</a> at this locus."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dawn-of-a-new-method">The dawn of a new method</h2>



Another breakthrough in the study was the development of a new method for identifying diseases involving genes with multiple copies, like amylase. 



This method also opens doors to exploring rapidly duplicating genes related to the immune system, skin pigmentation, and mucus production. 



The research hints at a potential link between higher AMY1 copies and increased tooth decay, though further investigation is needed.



Joana Rocha, a co-author from UC Berkeley, compared the genomic structure of the amylase locus to “sculptures made of different Lego bricks." 



Long-read sequencing techniques allowed the team to reconstruct these complex genetic structures with unprecedented accuracy, shedding light on human evolutionary history and its genetic diversity.



This research, funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, is part of an expanding effort to better understand how genetic adaptations have shaped human health and disease through our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing diets</a> over millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starchy-foods-and-human-health">Starchy foods and human health</h2>



The evolutionary relationship between starchy foods and human genetics continues to shape modern health. 



As our ancestors adapted to carbohydrate-rich diets, today's populations still show varying abilities to digest starch, potentially influencing susceptibility to conditions such as obesity and diabetes. 



Understanding this genetic adaptation to starchy foods not only offers insights into our past but also provides valuable information for addressing contemporary health challenges linked to diet and metabolism.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07911-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How starchy foods shaped human genomes

Starchy foods have played a pivotal role in human evolution,...

Can you imagine thriving in darkness? Humans certainly can't, but some tiny organisms in the Arctic do just that. Organisms like microalgae can exist under the thick ice and snow cover of the icy Arctic Ocean. 



These microscopic plant-like organisms defy our understanding of life as they carry out photosynthesis, a light-dependent process, in almost total darkness. It's as fascinating as it sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-microalgae-survival">Arctic microalgae survival</h2>



The ability of the pint-sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-turning-green-thanks-to-climate-change-algae-blooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> microalgae to carry out photosynthesis under minuscule light conditions has been the focus of a recent international study. 



The researchers found that, contrary to prior belief, photosynthesis in oceans can occur under significantly reduced light conditions and at much deeper depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magic-of-photosynthesis">Magic of photosynthesis</h2>



Photosynthesis is the process <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> use to convert sunlight into a form of energy that sustains life. This vital process is fundamental to all life on earth. 



Previous studies suggested that a certain amount of light was required for photosynthesis - significantly more than what is theoretically the bare minimum. Well, it turns out that we may have been selling photosynthesis short.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosaic-expedition-and-arctic-microalgae">MOSAiC expedition and Arctic microalgae</h2>



The data for this study came from the <a href="https://mosaic-expedition.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MOSAiC research project</a>. This is the same project that froze the German research icebreaker Polarstern into the Arctic ice for a year in 2019.



Its aim was to study the Arctic climate and ecosystem through the severities of each season. Working under the leadership of Dr. Clara Hoppe from the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a>, a team focused on studying phytoplankton and ice algae, the major contributors to photosynthesis in the central Arctic.



And what they found was quite an eye-opener. A few days after the polar night -- a period when it's pitch black for an entire month -- there was a buildup of plant biomass. Now, that's something that's impossible without photosynthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-near-impossible-conditions-for-arctic-microalgae">Near-impossible conditions for Arctic microalgae</h2>



Here's the jaw-dropping bit. Photosynthesis was taking place under snow-covered sea ice. This ice cover only allowed a tiny amount of sunlight to reach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-play-an-unexpected-role-in-cooling-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microalgae</a>, about one hundred-thousandth of what we experience on a sunny day. 



"It is very impressive to see how efficiently the algae can utilise such low amounts of light. This shows once again how well organisms are adapted to their environment," says Dr. Clara Hoppe.



The success of this study was also a testament to the power of interdisciplinary collaboration. Sea ice researchers Dr. Niels Fuchs and Prof. Dirk Notz from the Institute of Marine Research at the <a href="https://www.uni-hamburg.de/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hamburg</a> helped combine the measurements of light with biological data. 



This required freezing specially developed instruments into the ice during the polar night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-climate-change-research">Implications for climate change research</h2>



The findings from the MOSAiC expedition carry significant implications for our understanding of climate change. As Arctic temperatures continue to rise, the ecological balance of this sensitive region is being disrupted. 



The ability of Arctic microalgae to photosynthesize under reduced light conditions suggests a resilience that could help maintain primary production even as ice cover fluctuates. 



This resilience not only sustains the local food web but also has broader implications for global carbon cycling, as increased algal biomass could affect the ocean's capacity to sequester carbon dioxide, thereby influencing climate dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-microalgae-and-the-future">Arctic microalgae and the future</h2>



Given the exciting revelations about Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microalgae</a>, future research must continue to investigate the underlying mechanisms that enable these organisms to thrive in such extreme environments. 



Further studies could explore the genetic adaptations that allow for efficient photosynthesis under low light or investigate the impact of varying ice conditions on algal productivity. 



Understanding these factors will not only enrich our knowledge of Arctic ecosystems but also inform conservation strategies aimed at preserving these vital organisms amid changing climatic conditions. 



Engaging with diverse scientific disciplines will be essential in advancing this research and applying the insights gained to broader ecological and environmental challenges.



"Even though our results are specific to the Arctic Ocean, they show what photosynthesis is capable of," explains Dr. Clara Hoppe. 



This new understanding of photosynthetic efficiency suggests that similar processes could be happening in the darker parts of oceans worldwide, thus expanding the potential photosynthetic habitat.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51636-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Arctic microalgae show photosynthesis is possible in near darkness

Can you imagine thriving in darkness? Humans certainly can't, but...

Tropical forests play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle, accounting for over half of the world's terrestrial carbon sink. However, climate change poses a significant threat to the carbon balance within these ecosystems.



A new study has revealed that the warming and drying of tropical forest soils could heighten the vulnerability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-can-store-the-most-soil-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil carbon</a>. This is primarily due to the increased degradation of older carbon stores.&nbsp;



The research was led by scientists from <a href="https://www.llnl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a> (LLNL), in collaboration with researchers from <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a> and the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-storage-in-tropical-forests-nbsp">Carbon storage in tropical forests&nbsp;</h2>



“These findings imply that both warming and drying, by accelerating the loss of older soil carbon or reducing the incorporation of fresh carbon inputs, will intensify soil carbon losses and negatively impact carbon storage in tropical forests under climate change,” said study lead author Karis McFarlane, a scientist at LLNL.



Tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-destruction-of-tropical-forests-is-much-worse-than-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> exchange more carbon dioxide (CO2) with the atmosphere than any other terrestrial biome, and they hold nearly a third of global soil carbon stocks. These ecosystems are characterized by a short carbon residence time, typically between 6 to 15 years.&nbsp;



This short duration means that changes in carbon inputs or outputs, including CO2 emissions from soil, can have significant and relatively rapid effects on the carbon balance of tropical ecosystems, potentially exacerbating carbon-climate feedback loops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-warming-and-reduced-rainfall-nbsp">Soil warming and reduced rainfall&nbsp;</h2>



Projections for tropical regions suggest a future with warmer temperatures and reduced rainfall, leading to longer and more intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-fires-diminish-forests-carbon-storage-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>, particularly in the Neotropics, which spans from southern Mexico through Central America and into northern South America, including the Amazon rainforest.



The research, which involved climate manipulation experiments in Panama’s tropical forests, demonstrated that both soil warming - by 4°C - and a reduction in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-changing-rainfall-patterns-impact-plants-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> - by 50% - increased the age of carbon released from the soil by 2 to 3 years, as reflected by higher carbon-14 levels in the emitted CO2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varying-effects-of-warming-and-drying">Varying effects of warming and drying</h2>



Interestingly, the processes behind this carbon shift differed between warming and drying. Soil warming sped up the breakdown of older carbon by increasing CO2 emissions, as newer carbon was quickly depleted. 



In contrast, drying reduced the decomposition of fresh carbon inputs, leading to a decrease in overall soil CO2 emissions but a higher contribution of older carbon to the CO2 being released.



“Field and laboratory experiments suggest that climate warming will stimulate a net loss of global soil carbon to the atmosphere, but how climate warming and drying will interact to influence carbon balance in forests and other ecosystems is less clear,” explained McFarlane.



Previous studies in tropical forests primarily focused on the total amount of CO2 being released, which is important for understanding the overall carbon balance but falls short of explaining the underlying mechanisms.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-of-carbon-released-by-soil">Age of carbon released by soil</h2>



By analyzing carbon-14 values, this study was able to determine the age of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-pool-of-global-soil-carbon-alters-climate-change-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> being metabolized and emitted as CO2, offering insights into these processes.



In this context, “new” or “young” carbon refers to carbon that has been fixed from the atmosphere in recent years, while “decadal aged” carbon contains higher levels of carbon-14 relative to the current atmosphere. Even older carbon, from centuries to millennia, is depleted in carbon-14.



The team studied the effects of warming and drying on the amount and age of carbon released as soil CO2 in two distinct lowland tropical forest areas in Panama, where experimental soil warming and drying were conducted. They measured the carbon-14 and carbon-13 isotopes of the CO2 emitted from the soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-warming-releases-older-carbon-nbsp">Soil warming releases older carbon&nbsp;</h2>



Utilizing the Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry at LLNL, the team found that soil warming increased carbon-14 in CO2 emissions during the wet season, indicating a greater release of older carbon, including “bomb” carbon from nuclear testing in 1963, under both warm and wet conditions.&nbsp;



The warming accelerated the breakdown of older carbon as microbial communities shifted to using older carbon after depleting fresh organic matter.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-drying-limits-access-to-fresh-carbon">Soil drying limits access to fresh carbon </h2>



On the other hand, drying decreased the total release of CO2 from the soil but also increased the carbon-14 in the remaining emissions by limiting the availability of fresh carbon from sources like leaf litter and roots.



“This limitation of microbial access to fresh carbon explains the shift toward increased contributions of older carbon in total soil CO2 emissions with warming and drying,” said McFarlane.



“Our results suggest that climate change will increase the vulnerability of previously stored soil carbon in tropical forests by stimulating the decomposition and loss of old carbon.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51422-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Warming and drying soils are losing more carbon

Tropical forests play a crucial role in the global carbon...

Green spaces are becoming essential lifelines as global temperatures continue to rise. Increasing levels of heat are turning our cities into insufferable melting pots, where concrete and asphalt amplify the issue.



Rising heat is especially severe across cities of the Global South. Here, a lack of greenery compounded by rapid urbanization and inadequate infrastructure exacerbates already harsh living conditions.



A recent study has revealed that these cities have only about 70% of their "cooling capacity" compared to cities in the Global North, making them significantly more vulnerable to heat stress.



The rising threat of global warming in urban areas of the South is further intensified by the urban heat island effect, a phenomenon where dense construction and limited vegetation cause cities to be significantly warmer than their surrounding rural regions.



This worsens heat-related illnesses, disproportionately affecting low-income communities and creating a dire public health crisis for these vulnerable regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-green-spaces">The power of green spaces</h2>



However, a cure for the relentless heat might not be as far-fetched as it seems. The introduction of urban green spaces is proven to be a highly effective approach to combat scorching temperatures.



The research team - including experts from the universities of Nanjing, Exeter, Aarhus, and North Carolina State - has found that there is “vast potential” to enhance urban cooling in the Global South and reduce inequality.



"Urban greenery is a really effective way of tackling what can be fatal effects of extreme heat and humidity," said Professor Tim Lenton from the Global Systems Institute at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>.



“Currently, the people dying due to climate change are often in the slums of cities in the Global South, such as the hottest parts of India.&nbsp;Our analysis suggests green spaces can cool the surface temperature in the average city by about 3°C during warm seasons - a vital difference during extreme heat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cooling-effect-of-urban-green-spaces">The cooling effect of urban green spaces</h2>



The cooling effect of green spaces in cities, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-forests-benefit-from-diverse-native-tree-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban forests</a>, is attributed to shading and transpirational cooling, which is the evaporation of water.



The study utilized satellite data from the world's 500 largest cities to gauge their cooling capacity - the extent to which urban green spaces could reduce a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-turf-water-cooled-sustainable-solution-hot-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">city's surface temperatures</a>.



The top ten cities with the highest cooling capacity were all located in the United States, with Charlotte and Raleigh-Durham in North Carolina topping the list.



Many US cities benefit from their low population density, despite this causing a side effect of "urban sprawl." Low population density allows for larger green spaces and a significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-measures-the-cooling-effect-of-shade-in-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooling effect</a>.



On the opposite end of the spectrum, cities like Mogadishu in Somalia, Sana'a in Yemen, and Rosario in Argentina were found to have the lowest cooling capacity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-benefits-in-the-global-south">Cooling benefits in the Global South</h2>



The Global South, which spans Africa, Latin America, and large parts of Asia, is where the risk of exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-attribute-extreme-heat-and-wildfires-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme heat</a> is most severe. 



A prior study warns that existing climate policies may leave over a fifth of the world's population exposed to dangerously high temperatures by the year 2100 - with the most vulnerable sections located in India and Nigeria.



"The differences are mostly due to quantity of vegetation, but efficiency of cooling is also better in the Global North - possibly due to management of green spaces and different tree species," said Professor Chi Xu of <a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanjing University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-greener-future">A greener future</h2>



Despite the disparities in cooling capacity and benefits, there is still a silver lining. "The good news is that this nature-based solution to cooling can be substantially improved across the Global South, helping to tackle future heat stress for billions of people," said Professor Jens-Christian Svenning.



According to Professor Rob Dunn of NC State, creating a greener urban environment is not an easy task, but it's a critical step toward making cities habitable in the near future.



"It won’t be easy to regreen cities. It can be expensive in the short-term. Yet, it will be key to making cities liveable in the immediate future. Also key will be working to prevent the loss of green space in those cities that have it, or at least that have a little," said Professor Dunn.



“Changes could include ground-level green spaces and vertical and rooftop gardens, or even forests, to help protect city people from extreme heat.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51355-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Urban green spaces are urgently needed across the Global South

Green spaces are becoming essential lifelines as global temperatures continue...

Fungi fusion: Turning food waste into culinary delights

Chef-turned-chemist Vayu Hill-Maini has a unique passion: transforming food waste...

It's no secret that artificial sweeteners have been gradually replacing sugar in our daily diets, becoming increasingly prevalent in a variety of food and beverage products. One of the most commonly used sugar substitutes is Erythritol, which is often used in your morning coffee, protein bars, and a wide range of low-carb dietary products.



This sugar alternative is often hailed as a miracle solution for individuals looking to manage their weight or reduce calorie intake. However, what if I told you that this seemingly harmless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweetener-neotame-has-shocking-effects-on-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial sweetener</a> could actually be increasing our risk of heart attack and stroke?



A new study led by Dr. Stanley Hazen, a well-known expert in cardiovascular and metabolic sciences, suggests that this sweetener might not be as harmless as it seems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-artificial-sweeteners">Defining "artificial sweeteners"</h2>



Artificial sweeteners serve as substitutes for sugar in various foods and beverages, providing a sweet taste without the added calories. These substances are often significantly sweeter than sugar, which means that only a small quantity is needed to achieve the desired flavor profile. 



Common examples include aspartame, saccharin, and sucralose, which have gained popularity in "sugar-free" or "diet" products. This appeal is particularly relevant for individuals aiming to lower their sugar intake for health reasons, such as managing weight or controlling blood sugar levels in diabetes.



The use of artificial sweeteners has ignited debate regarding their safety and potential long-term health effects. However, regulatory bodies like the FDA have classified these sweeteners as safe when consumed within established limits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-erythritol">Understanding erythritol</h2>



Erythritol is a popular pick for anyone trying to cut back on sugar. You’ll find it in lots of low-calorie, low-carb, and "keto" products. It’s about 70% as sweet as sugar, but with way fewer calories.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-artificial-sweeteners-safe-the-debate-is-heating-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Unlike sugar</a>, erythritol isn’t really processed by the body, so it just passes into the bloodstream and gets flushed out through urine.



On the surface, it seems harmless enough, especially since the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (<a href="https://www.fda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a>) and the European Food Safety Authority (<a href="https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EFSA</a>) have labeled it as "generally recognized as safe" (<a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/food-ingredients-packaging/generally-recognized-safe-gras" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GRAS</a>). This means it can be used in food products without any restrictions.



Here's the catch: while erythritol does naturally occur in fruits and veggies and is produced in small amounts during glucose metabolism, the levels we get from artificial sweeteners are much higher. This difference is what has scientists, like Dr. Hazen, taking a closer look.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-of-erythritol-and-sugar-substitutes">Risks of erythritol and sugar substitutes</h2>



A recent study by Dr. Hazen’s team at the <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cleveland Clinic</a> looked into how erythritol affects blood clot formation, adding to a larger set of questions about the physiological effects of common sugar substitutes.



The results were surprising. Healthy volunteers who consumed erythritol at levels typically found in a "sugarless" soda or muffin experienced a staggering spike in blood erythritol levels to well over 1,000 times the baseline.



More concerning, this consumption was accompanied by a significant increase in blood clot formation.



To put these findings into context, when the same participants consumed glucose, their blood didn't show the same tendency to clot.



This difference is important because it emphasizes that erythritol itself -- not just any artificial or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-sugar-sources-are-key-to-preventing-childhood-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural sweetener</a> -- could be a unique risk factor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-this-mean-for-consumers">What does this mean for consumers?</h2>



These findings have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweeteners-linked-to-higher-risk-of-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serious implications</a>, particularly for individuals at high cardiovascular risk -- those with conditions like obesity, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome.



"Many professional societies and clinicians routinely recommend that people at high cardiovascular risk consume foods that contain sugar substitutes rather than sugar," says Dr. Hazen. But with evidence mounting against erythritol, it's time to reconsider that advice.



Dr. Hazen’s research isn't the first to cast doubt on the safety of erythritol. A previous study published last year in Nature Medicine revealed that cardiac patients with high erythritol levels were twice as likely to experience a major cardiac event within three years.



Moreover, adding erythritol to blood samples increased clot formation, a finding that was confirmed in pre-clinical studies.



These consistent results suggest that erythritol, even in amounts typically consumed, may not be as safe as once thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expert-urge-caution">Expert urge caution</h2>



Given the potential risks, experts are urging caution. "This research raises some concerns that a standard serving of an erythritol-sweetened food or beverage may acutely stimulate a direct clot-forming effect," says Dr. W. H. Wilson Tang, a co-author of the study and research director for <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/departments/heart/depts/heart-failure-transplantation-medicine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heart Failure and Cardiac Transplantation Medicine</a> at Cleveland Clinic.



He emphasizes the importance of more research, especially long-term studies, to really get a handle on the cardiovascular safety of erythritol and other sugar substitutes.



Adding to the worry is that xylitol, another popular artificial sweetener, has shown similar effects in studies.



Just like erythritol, xylitol was linked to higher plasma levels and impacted platelet aggregation in healthy volunteers. The similarities between these sweeteners hint that the risks might not be exclusive to erythritol.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-erythritol-and-the-future-of-sugar-substitutes">Erythritol and the future of sugar substitutes</h2>



So, where does that leave us? Right now, it's smart to be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/startling-connection-between-soda-and-liver-disease-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cautious about artificial sweeteners</a>, especially for those at high risk for heart disease.



Research by Dr. Hazen and his team is still ongoing. We can expect more findings in the coming years.



As Dr. Hazen concludes, "Cardiovascular disease builds over time, and heart disease is the leading cause of death globally. We need to make sure that the foods we eat aren't secretly contributing to this crisis."



This hints that the food industry and regulators might need to rethink their stance on erythritol and other sugar substitutes.



To sum it all up, while the convenience and low-calorie perks of these sweeteners are definitely appealing, we should think about their potential impact on our long-term health.



The discussion around these products goes beyond personal choices. The use of artificial sweeteners, like erythritol, xylitol, also has broader and concerning implications for public health.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATVBAHA.124.321019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology</a>.



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Artificial sweeteners like Erythritol directly linked to blood clots and heart disease

It's no secret that artificial sweeteners have been gradually replacing...

When it comes to survival, plants face a significant challenge compared to many other living organisms: they cannot move to escape predators, pathogens, heat stress, or other unfavorable environmental conditions.



To cope with these threats, plants have evolved various strategies triggered by specific environmental signals. It has long been known that changes in intracellular calcium concentration play a key role in processing these signals.&nbsp;



However, alongside these calcium changes, shifts in the cell's membrane potential have also been suspected to act as signal transmitters.&nbsp;



Now, researchers from the Departments of Neurophysiology, Pharmaceutical Biology, and Botany at <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg</a> (JMU) have explored the relationship between calcium and membrane potential in greater depth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-response-to-stress">Plants' response to stress</h2>



In their study, the research teams worked with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-and-zinnia-can-thrive-in-polluted-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tobacco</a> plants that were engineered to carry ion channels that could be specifically activated by light.&nbsp;



Over 20 years ago, scientists Peter Hegemann, Georg Nagel, and Ernst Bamberg pioneered the field of optogenetics with their discovery and characterization of light-activated ion channels, known as channelrhodopsins.



Using these light-sensitive proteins, which are derived from algae and microorganisms, the JMU researchers were able to experimentally determine whether the influx of calcium ions or the depolarization of the cell membrane, mediated by anion efflux, was crucial for the plant's response to specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-that-detect-plant-stress-could-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> situations. 



However, considerable preparatory work was required before they could conduct these experiments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimizing-the-use-of-channelrhodopsins">Optimizing the use of channelrhodopsins</h2>



Channelrhodopsins, ion channels equipped with a rhodopsin-based light switch, revolutionized neuroscience by enabling the light-controlled study of neuronal networks.&nbsp;



The application of channelrhodopsins in plant research became feasible only 20 years later, thanks to close collaboration between Georg Nagel's group at the Institute of Physiology at JMU and plant researchers from the Würzburg Chairs of Botany 1, 2, and Pharmaceutical Biology.



In 2021, Nagel's group, along with Dr. Kai Konrad, a group leader at the JMU Chair of Professor Rainer Hedrich Botany 1, published a method to optimize the use of channelrhodopsins in plants by overcoming three major challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-successful-expression-of-channelrhodopsins">Successful expression of channelrhodopsins</h2>



Study co-author Shiqiang Gao, a “rhodopsin engineer” from the Optogenetics lab in the Department of Neurophysiology at JMU, explained the first challenge.



“Like all rhodopsins, including those in our eyes, channelrhodopsins require the small molecule retinal, also known as vitamin A, to absorb light. We humans get retinal mainly from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carotenes-have-a-powerful-positive-effect-on-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beta-carotene</a>, the provitamin A. However, land plants do not contain retinal, but they do have plenty of beta-carotene,” said Gao.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In 2021, Gao succeeded in combining the expression of channelrhodopsins with the production of retinal from beta-carotene in plant cells. This breakthrough allowed the development of tobacco plants with a high retinal content and successful expression of channelrhodopsins.



Dr. Markus Krischke from the Metabolomics Core Unit in the Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, headed by Professor Martin Müller at JMU Würzburg, confirmed the high retinal content of various transgenic tobacco plants.



Comparable transgenic tobacco plants were produced for the recently published study by Dr. Meiqi Ding from the Department of Botany 1, under the direction of plant physiologist and plant signal processing expert Dr. Kai Konrad, from Professor Rainer Hedrich's group at Botany 1.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-light-activation">The challenge of light activation</h2>



The second challenge involved light activation. “Most rhodopsins are activated by blue or green light. However, these colors are components of white light,” explained Nagel. 



This meant the tobacco plants could not be grown in a greenhouse or under standard artificial white light conditions, as this would inadvertently activate the rhodopsins. 



Instead, the plants had to be grown in special growth chambers with red LED light, which is photosynthetically useful and does not trigger rhodopsin activation. 



Tests under various growth conditions revealed that tobacco develops healthily and unchanged under red light compared to greenhouse conditions, noted Konrad.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-channelrhodopsins-in-tobacco-cells">Channelrhodopsins in tobacco cells</h2>



The third challenge was the difficulty in expressing channelrhodopsins in tobacco cells. In 2021, the Würzburg research team successfully expressed the light-activated anion channel GtACR1 in tobacco plant cells. 



As a result, Nagel's team was able to develop various channelrhodopsins optimized for calcium ion permeability. 



Ultimately, Shiqiang Gao and Shang Yang, both members of Nagel's group, succeeded in developing an advanced calcium-conducting channelrhodopsin, named XXM 2.0, specifically for targeted expression in tobacco plants.



This marked a significant breakthrough: “The successful expression of channelrhodopsins with different ion selectivities in plant cells allows us to compare different ion signals alongside the electrical signal, known as depolarization,” Meiqi Ding explained.&nbsp;



She used the calcium-conducting channelrhodopsin XXM 2.0 and the light-activated anion channel GtACR1 to investigate the various ion signaling pathways in tobacco.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optogenetic-tobacco-plants-nbsp">Optogenetic tobacco plants&nbsp;</h2>



These newly created “optogenetic” tobacco plants enabled the researchers to answer the question of whether calcium influx or membrane depolarization is more critical for the plant's response to a specific stress situation. “The answer was clear,” said Konrad.&nbsp;



“After activation of the anion channel, the leaves wilted and showed the typical plant response to drought; the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) was produced, and gene expression was increased to protect against dehydration,” Ding added.



“However, in the plants with the calcium channel, there was no change in ABA levels after optogenetic stimulation.”&nbsp;



“Instead, the plants produced signal molecules and plant hormones to trigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-defense-gut-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defense mechanisms</a> against predators, as evidenced by white spots on the leaves,” Konrad said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-in-plant-research-nbsp">A new era in plant research&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Sönke Scherzer from Professor Hedrich's chair demonstrated through direct measurements that reactive oxygen species (ROS) were released during this process.



Dirk Becker and Rainer Hedrich at Botany 1 designed an experimental approach using transcriptomic and bioinformatic analysis to support the working hypothesis.



The researchers are convinced that this study marks the beginning of a new era in plant research. They believe that with the help of various rhodopsins, plant signaling pathways can now be more thoroughly “illuminated.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07884-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How do plants respond to specific stress situations?

When it comes to survival, plants face a significant challenge...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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