Rainforest,Destruction.,Gold,Mining,Place,In,Guyana,,South,America.,Amazon

Gold mining in Peru has moved into sensitive wetland areas and is releasing a lot of stored carbon. These wetlands are peatlands, waterlogged soils built from partly decayed plants that lock away carbon for centuries.



Peat loss turns a slow natural carbon vault into a fast source of emissions. That is why scientists are sounding the alarm about new mining scars in remote corners of the Amazon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peatlands-carbon-and-mining">Peatlands, carbon, and mining</h2>



<a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/global-peatlands-assessment-2022" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peatlands</a> hold an outsized share of the world’s soil carbon and help stabilize climate over long timescales. They cover a small slice of land area yet store a huge fraction of carbon underground.



Lead researcher <a href="https://www.ifgg.kit.edu/english/staff_householder.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">J Ethan Householder</a> is with the Wetland Department, Institute of Geography and Geoecology at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany (<a href="https://www.ifgg.kit.edu/english/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IFGG</a>). 



His team’s field work and satellite analyses focus on peat swamps in southeastern Peru.



The term carbon stocks refers to the amount of carbon stored in plants and soils. In peat, most of that carbon sits below the surface in thick, oxygen poor layers that decompose very slowly.



These peat swamps also support biodiversity, the variety of living species in an ecosystem. When mining drains or digs up peat, both the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/">carbon</a> bank and the living communities take a hit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-satellites-saw">What the satellites saw</h2>



The study analyzed more than three decades of images from <a href="https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Landsat</a>, a U.S. satellite program that produces consistent pictures of Earth’s surface each year. 



That time series lets researchers pinpoint when forests were cleared and when bare mine pits appeared.



They mapped mining scars along rivers in <a href="https://7wonders.org/south-america/peru/madre-de-dios/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Madre de Dios</a>, a region in Peru that has seen a rapid spread of small operations. The scars are easy to spot because forest gives way to sand and water filled pits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-carbon-release-from-mining">Massive carbon release from mining</h2>



In a new paper, the team reports that mining has removed more than 550 hectares of peatland, with over half of that loss happening in just the last two years. 



They estimate that 0.2 to 0.7 million tons of carbon have already been released, and they identify 63 of 219 peatlands showing evidence of mining at their edges.



They also find that mining inside peat now accounts for 9 percent of all mining in the area and could reach 25 percent by 2027 if current trends hold. 



The analysis flags more than 10,000 hectares of peat at immediate risk, with a potential release of 3.5 to 14.5 million tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-ocean-holds-carbon-hidden-mechanisms-revealed/">carbon</a> if those areas are disturbed.



“The rapid proliferation of gold mining inside peatlands appears to be of such scope as to be an existential threat to the entire peatland complex,” wrote Householder. The numbers and the geographic pattern point in the same direction.



The team also tracked where mining is advancing. An outward front has been pushing into the alluvial plain at about 330 feet per year, and that front is reaching the peat rich margins where swamps are most common.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mining-is-pushing-into-peatlands">Why mining is pushing into peatlands</h2>



Rivers are the main highways in this part of the Amazon, so early mines hugged the banks. 



As miners followed gold bearing sediments inland, access paths, machinery, and makeshift camps increased, lowering the barrier to work in wetter ground.



Peatlands sit on the outer edges of the river plain where water pools for most of the year. 



Once miners arrive with pumps and hoses, it gets easier for others to follow, especially where law enforcement relies on boats and cannot easily reach new clearings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-driven-destruction">Human-driven destruction</h2>



A long term remote sensing <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/10/12/1903" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> record shows that mining has been a major driver of deforestation in southeastern Peru. 



Many operations are small and informal, and the work is a source of income for thousands of families.



Processing often uses mercury, a toxic metal that binds to fine gold particles. 



One river focused <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2015/em/c4em00567h" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> documented elevated mercury in sediments and fish downstream of mining hubs and found that a large share of carnivorous fish exceeded health guidelines for mercury in tissue.



Communities that rely on river fish face real exposure risks. This adds a public health layer to the climate and ecosystem costs of tearing up peat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mining-made-this-carbon-bomb">How mining made this carbon bomb</h2>



The researchers combined annual vegetation change with a classifier that separates mining from other forest losses. That approach reduced false alarms from seasonal flooding or quick regrowth after storms.



They then overlaid those mine maps with peat maps to see where pits and ponds overlap organic soils. That allowed them to calculate both the area lost and the likely carbon released.



Peat stores carbon more densely than nearby upland forests. When miners dig pits, drain water, or burn cleared vegetation, oxygen speeds up decay and carbon escapes into the air.



Even small patches can have outsized impacts because a few feet of peat can hold as much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-atoms-in-your-body-took-a-400000-light-year-journey-through-space/">carbon</a> as a much larger area of non peat forest. That is why a few hundred hectares of loss matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The results point to three priorities that do not require new technology. 



Map the edges of active peatlands at high resolution, monitor hot spots in near real time, and keep heavy equipment out of places where peat depth is greatest.



Local voices and science can work together to steer enforcement and restoration budgets to the areas of highest risk. 



Peat that stays wet and shaded keeps its carbon, and that is the simplest way to avoid adding more heat trapping gases to the air.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adb868" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Ticking 'carbon time bomb' has been unleashed in the Amazon rainforest by gold miners

Gold mining in Peru has moved into sensitive wetland areas and is releasing a lot of stored carbon. These wetlands are peatlands, waterlogged soils built from partly decayed plants that lock away carbon for centuries. Peat loss turns a slow natural carbon vault into a fast source of emissions. That is why scientists are sounding the alarm about new mining scars in remote corners of the Amazon. Peatlands, carbon, and mining Peatlands hold an outsized share of the world’s soil carbon and help stabilize climate over long...

Antarctica, the land of ice and snow, holds more life than you might imagine. A recent study that mapped plant life across the continent for the first time unveils surprising insights.



Covering mosses, lichens, and algae, the research uncovers a wealth of greenery expanding even in areas previously believed to be barren. These findings are set to steer conservation initiatives in the region, taking them to new frontiers.



The high-tech survey of Antarctica's plant life involved the use of a satellite belonging to the European Space Agency (<a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>).



Together with data from several summer seasons' worth of field measurements, the survey discovered almost 45 square <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-is-experiencing-rapid-plant-growth-concerning-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kilometers of vegetation</a>.



That's approximately equivalent to triple the size of Lake Windermere in the UK's Lake District.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-life-of-antarctica">Plant life of Antarctica</h2>



A group of international researchers discovered that over 80% of the vegetation discovered thrives in the Antarctic Peninsula and neighboring islands.



Despite the extensive exploration, the team found that the vegetation accounts for a minuscule 0.12 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica’s non-icy area</a>. 



This highlights the need for focused monitoring of areas abundant in vegetation, as these are inadequately shielded by the existing Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) system, according to experts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-silent-warriors-of-antarctica">Silent warriors of Antarctica</h2>



Plant life in Antarctica, mainly mosses and lichens, has developed remarkable adaptations to withstand the region's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-low-antarctic-sea-ice-and-rapid-melting-pace-stuns-climate-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harsh polar conditions</a>. 



Each plant serves a critical function in the recycling of carbon and nutrients at a local level. Before this study, the extent and distribution of these resilient greens across the continent were largely uncharted.



The exceptional environmental sensitivity of Antarctica’s flora can serve as a reliable measure of regional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-fish-are-increasingly-threatened-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



Monitoring these plants within the untouched landscapes of Antarctica might offer insights on the response of similar vegetation in other fragile regions around the world, like some areas of the Arctic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-mosses-and-lichens">Understanding mosses and lichens</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/plant-encyclopedia/bryophytes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mosses</a> and lichens are tough, tiny organisms that make a big difference in the world. Mosses are small and soft. They usually grow in thick, green patches in damp or shady spots. 



Without roots, they soak up water and nutrients directly through their leaves. Mosses help keep the soil in place, hold moisture, and create homes for small creatures.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-plant-and-lichen-species-are-overlooked-victims-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lichens</a> are a bit different. They are a team made up of a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium. The fungus offers support and shelter, while the algae or cyanobacteria make food through photosynthesis. 



This teamwork lets lichens survive in some of the harshest places on Earth, like icy tundras or bare rock surfaces. Lichens also help turn rocks into soil and provide food for various animals.



Both mosses and lichens are vital for the health of ecosystems, especially in tough environments where few other plants can live.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influence-of-antarctica-s-plant-diversity">Influence of Antarctica's plant diversity </h2>



"Our continent-wide map reveals crucial details about vegetation in remote, seldom-visited areas," said Charlotte Walshaw, a PhD researcher at the University of Edinburgh's <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/geosciences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of GeoSciences</a>. 



"This will significantly enhance our understanding of vegetation distribution across the continent and the factors that shape it," she concluded.



"Lichens and mosses in Antarctica face the planet's harshest conditions every day. Only the toughest organisms survive there," said Dr. Claudia Colesie, a researcher at the University of Edinburgh's School of GeoSciences. "With this knowledge, we can now focus on targeted conservation efforts to protect their future."



“Remote sensing approaches such as this are low impact methods to study Antarctica’s fragile ecosystem as well as monitor changes to its vegetation in the future,” noted Dr Andrew Gray from the <a href="https://www.nina.no/english/Home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Institute for Nature Research</a>, who jointly led the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-technology-in-ecological-research">Role of technology in ecological research</h2>



As our understanding of ecosystems deepens, the integration of advanced technology in ecological research has become increasingly vital. 



The recent aerial survey of Antarctica's plant life exemplifies how innovative tools can enhance our ability to gather data in remote and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-has-lost-3000-billion-tons-of-ice-in-25-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harsh environments</a>.



Technologies such as satellite imagery and remote sensing not only allow researchers to map vegetation efficiently but also provide a broader perspective on ecological changes over time. 



These methods enable scientists to monitor shifts in plant distributions, assess the health of ecosystems, and identify areas at risk from climate change or human activity.



The use of drones with imaging technology is also transforming ecological studies by navigating challenging terrains and capturing detailed imagery. This allows rapid data collection and timely conservation strategies adaptable to a changing climate.



Combining satellite data, field measurements, and drone technology expands our understanding of remote regions. These tools help unveil hidden ecosystems and enhance biodiversity protection. 



Embracing technology in ecological research is vital for effective future conservation and management.



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The majority of the research team hailed from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a>, along with the <a href="https://www.nina.no/english/Home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Institute for Nature Research</a>, <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>, and <a href="https://www.sams.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scottish Association for Marine Science</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01492-4">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Antarctica hosts more plant life than scientists expected to find

Antarctica, the land of ice and snow, holds more life...

Tipuana trees are emerging as a beacon of hope amidst the serious threat of climate change, which is altering weather patterns and leading to extreme conditions like heatwaves and droughts. 



In São Paulo, Brazil, scientists have discovered that these remarkable trees not only survive but thrive in challenging environments, continuing to provide invaluable contributions to the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drought-in-sao-paulo-s-green-spaces">Drought in São Paulo's green spaces</h2>



In a study focusing on the 2013-14 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drought-kills-trees-faster-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a>, scientists observed how this extreme weather event affected urban trees. The researchers studied seasonal changes, noting that usually, a rainy summer should encourage vigorous tree growth.



Surprisingly, Tipuana trees seemed to thrive despite these challenging conditions, exhibiting accelerated photosynthesis and higher growth rates, even under severe weather conditions.



Study co-author Giuliano Locosselli noted: "We need cities to be increasingly resilient in the context of global warming."



Advocating for intentional decisions in tree planting, the argument leans towards species capable of withstanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-can-flip-forests-from-carbon-sinks-to-carbon-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a>, thereby guaranteeing the provision of indispensable ecosystem services, like carbon capture and temperature regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research </h2>



"Cities are vulnerable to droughts and heatwaves due to the decline in permeable green spaces and the emergence of heat islands," wrote the study authors. 



"To tackle these environmental challenges, many cities adopted ambitious tree-planting initiatives. However, tree tolerance to climate extremes is overlooked even though physiological and growth limitations jeopardize ecosystem services provision."



Notably, the researchers responsible for this vital discovery hail from the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a>’s Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture (CENA-USP). Their important work was supported by FAPESP through two separate projects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-areas-the-epicenter-of-climate-change">Urban areas: The epicenter of climate change </h2>



As urbanization progresses, it is estimated that 68% of the global population will be residing in cities by 2050. This rapid expansion, coupled with the growing number of heat islands, increases vulnerability to droughts and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-change-affect-extreme-weather-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme events</a>.



In an urban environment, the health of plants is often compromised by concrete structures, air pollution, and shifts in microclimates due to rising greenhouse gas emissions. 



Consequently, the urgency for incorporating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-diversity-makes-forests-more-resilient-against-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilient species</a> such as the Tipuana tree into urban landscapes becomes even more critical. The trees play a pivotal role in enhancing ecosystem services and fostering a healthy, sustainable urban environment in the face of climate change.



In response to this threat, the Brazilian government launched the Resilient Green Cities program on World Environment Day.



This forward-thinking program focuses on fostering sustainable practices and integrating policies to enhance the value of ecosystem services provided by urban green spaces, ultimately aiming to create a more resilient and thriving urban ecosystem for generations to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tipuana-trees-a-model-for-resilience">Tipuana trees: A model for resilience</h2>



The study emphasizes the need for city planning to include resilient species in the urban plant cover, ensuring that these plants can adapt and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-in-dry-landscapes-have-surprising-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thrive</a> under challenging environmental conditions.



The research adds significant value to urban biodiversity, with the resilient Tipuana tree standing as a prime model of adaptability and robustness.



Furthermore, the team is actively exploring other resilient native species to further diversify and enrich the city's ecological framework.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-the-resilient-tipuana-tree">The power of the resilient Tipuana tree</h2>



Originally from Bolivia and northern Argentina, the Tipuana tree has become a common sight in São Paulo and other parts of the world, including North America, Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and Australia. 



The tree's resilience, which has been present for over a century, is now being recognized as a significant asset in building climate resilience.



In their research, the scientists analyzed growth rings in street and park trees, focusing on stable carbon isotopes that reflect processes relating to the carbon cycle. Their findings showed an increase in these isotopes during the drought, boosting the growth of the Tipuana trees.



"Having Tipuana trees in the city is a significant advantage," said Locosselli. However, he said it remains to be seen whether the species will be able to maintain its tolerance of water stress if a sequence of extreme events occurs.



The study opens new possibilities in our global fight against climate change, offering a promising look into nature-based solutions. 



Through intentional and strategic urban planning, our cities can become resilient sanctuaries in the face of increasing weather extremities.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2212095524001603" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Urban Climate</a>.



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Resilient trees can help protect cities from climate change

Tipuana trees are emerging as a beacon of hope amidst...

Plants are the survivors of nature, equipped with a remarkable ability to cope with diverse climatic conditions. Their resilience against weather extremes and grazing pressure offers rich insights about biodiversity and the future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoration-of-drylands-essential-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dryland ecosystems</a>.



Even more intriguing is the fact that such resilient traits, which help plants thrive in dry landscapes, are not as uncommon as one might presume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puzzling-phenomenon-of-plant-traits">Puzzling phenomenon of plant traits</h2>



An international team of scientists led by Fernando Maestre of the <a href="https://www.kaust.edu.sa/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King Abdullah University of Science and Technology</a> (KAUST) delved into the fascinating world of plant traits and their response to changes in aridness and grazing pressure across global drylands.



Surprisingly, the researchers found that as aridity and grazing pressure increased, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-may-never-fully-recover-from-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant diversity</a> did not decrease as expected.



Instead, the diversity of traits, particularly those linked to nutrient cycling, rose notably above an aridity threshold of 0.7, which marks the transition between semi-arid and arid zones. This increase in diversity was consistent with elevated grazing pressure.



Maestre, who was at the helm of this revolutionary study termed BIODESERT, noted that global initiatives aiming to describe plant trait diversity have focused on plant morphology and leaf carbon economy, but neglected the diversity of chemical elements that sustain plant survival and growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-survival-strategies-in-dry-landscapes">Plant survival strategies in dry landscapes </h2>



The research team conducted a thorough field survey to analyze the implications of aridity and grazing pressure on plant traits. They selected 98 sites from 25 countries, representing a global aridity gradient. Their selection included several plots spanning local gradients of grazing pressure.



The findings of the study were eye-opening. Variations in functional traits highlighted shifts in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-plants-adapt-to-changing-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant adaptation</a> strategies under changing environmental conditions.



Similarly, the researchers noticed that aridity and grazing triggered a plethora of strategies to endure water shortage and grazing.



The team measured traits associated with the concentration of 14 chemical elements in leaves, leaf and plant size, and the leaf carbon economy.



This invaluable data sheds light on how aridity and grazing shape the co-variations and trade-offs observed among multiple morphological and chemical plant traits across dry landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defying-nature-s-rule-book">Defying nature’s rule book</h2>



With rising levels of aridity, plants exhibited contrasting strategies. Some were tall species with fast-growing leaves following stress-avoidance strategies, and others were small conservative species following stress-tolerance strategies. The experts also noticed variations in Mg-Ca and Zn-Na concentrations in the leaves.



“These elemental strategies can reflect the contrasting role of chemical elements in plants, either as a way to tolerate high aridity levels or as base elements for defensive compounds against grazers," noted Maestre.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-plant-phenotypic-diversity">Redefining plant phenotypic diversity</h2>



The study provides novel insights into how vascular plants react to biotic stressors and environmental extremes.



More than half of the trait diversity was observed in the most arid and grazed drylands, highlighting the unique nature of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harsh environments</a>. Contrary to popular belief, harsh environmental conditions did not reduce plant trait diversity. 



“Our results also highlight the importance of considering a plant’s chemical composition (the elementone) to understand dryland biodiversity responses to ongoing climate change,” said Maestre. 



“Plants could have many alternative strategies to cope with increases in environmental stress induced by climate change and land-use intensification.”



Maestre plans to expand the BIODESERT survey into the arid and hyper-arid ecosystems of Saudi Arabia. His research offers valuable insights into how Saudi plant diversity can respond to ongoing climate change and also aids the selection of species suitable for ongoing and future greening programs.



The research confirms that plants are far from fragile, devising astounding strategies to survive and thrive in the harshest of conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-conservation-in-arid-ecosystems">The role of conservation in arid ecosystems</h2>



Understanding plant diversity in arid terrains highlights the urgent need for conservation efforts to protect these unique ecosystems. Climate change poses significant threats, making proactive measures essential to preserve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-genetics-could-help-engineer-more-resilient-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilient plant species</a>.



Conservation should focus on safeguarding habitats from land degradation, overgrazing, and unsustainable agriculture, while also restoring degraded landscapes to enhance biodiversity. 



Involving local communities and incorporating Indigenous knowledge can create a collaborative approach to land management.



Promoting research and monitoring programs will ensure ongoing understanding of plant adaptation, enabling targeted conservation strategies. 



By recognizing the importance of these efforts, we can help sustain the resilient plant species that thrive in the harshest climates.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07731-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Plants in dry landscapes have surprising diversity

Plants are the survivors of nature, equipped with a remarkable...

The natural world is full of wonders, one of which involves the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-symbiotic-relationships-evolve-between-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic relationship</a> between plants and the animals that assist in seed dispersal.



The conventional wisdom is that birds and mammals, tempted by the sight of red fruit hanging from branches, are the primary players in this relationship. 



A study from <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>, however, has shown that insects might be doing more to help plants reproduce than we previously realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-allure-of-tasty-fruit">The allure of tasty fruit</h2>



Plants offer delicious fruit to animals like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and mammals with the aim of getting them to swallow their smooth, sturdy seeds. 



These creatures then move away from the plant and excrete the seeds, giving them a chance to grow in a new location. 



But are bigger animals the only ones playing this seed-dispersal role? Traditional thought may have led us to believe so, but the intriguing new study offers a different perspective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-unsung-heroes-of-seed-dispersal">Insects: Unsung heroes of seed dispersal</h2>



Led by botanist SUETSUGU Kenji, the research team focused on interactions between plants and arthropods, particularly those plants that produce dust-like seeds.



These are often encapsulated in whitish, somewhat translucent fruit that promptly falls to the ground once ripe. 



Due to their minute size and ground-dwelling habits, insects become the best candidates for dispersing these subtle seeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-insects-in-action">Investigating insects in action</h2>



The researchers traveled to Amami-Oshima Island in Japan to study a shrub-like plant called Rhynchotechum discolor, which produces such translucent fruit with dust seeds. 



The team undertook nocturnal photography, capturing images of insects feasting on the fallen fruit. They also trapped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-silent-language-decoding-the-chemical-signals-of-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> nearby and examined their excrement to identify whether plant seeds were present and viable.



The team's findings verified that insects, specifically camel crickets, were the primary consumers of the Rhynchotechum discolor fruit.According to the researchers, roughly 80% of the seeds found in the insects' excrement were still viable.



"This result provides the first evidence of insects acting as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersers</a> for a light-harvesting, green plant in regions inhabited by land-dwelling mammals," said SUETSUGU Kenji.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-conventional-wisdom">Challenging conventional wisdom </h2>



These findings challenge the traditional thought that insects only play a major role in seed dispersal in special situations. 



"Our findings challenge the notion that insect-mediated seed dispersal is a special case and suggest that it may be more widespread and ecologically important than previously understood," noted SUETSUGU Kenji.



The research also sheds light on the evolution of dust seeds. The small size and minimal energy reserves of dust seeds have often been linked with heterotrophy.



Yet, the study on Rhynchotechum discolor suggests that small seed size could have evolved as a strategy to transform seed-eating insects into seed-dispersing agents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paving-the-way-for-future-studies">Paving the way for future studies</h2>



The Kobe University team believes that similar seed dispersal systems might be common in plants that produce dust seeds, which are found in at least 13 families. 



"We have laid the groundwork for future studies to investigate similar interactions in other regions and with other plant species," rapid SUETSUGU Kenji. 



"This research enhances our knowledge of how plants adapt to their environments and the roles that different organisms play in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-life-cycles-predicting-the-impacts-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life cycles</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-insect-mediated-seed-dispersal">Implications of insect-mediated seed dispersal</h2>



Understanding the role of insects in seed dispersal opens new avenues for appreciating ecosystem dynamics. 



Insects are abundant and diverse, often occupying various ecological niches that larger animals cannot. This means they can facilitate plant reproduction in environments that are less accessible to traditional seed dispersers. 



For instance, in densely packed forests or urban areas where larger mammals might be scarce, insects can ensure that plant species continue to thrive by spreading their seeds effectively.



Moreover, the relationship between plants and their insect seed dispersers emphasizes the interconnectedness of life forms in an ecosystem. 



As insects help disperse seeds, they also contribute to genetic diversity by allowing plants to colonize new areas and creating opportunities for adaptation to changing environments. 



This ecological function is vital in the face of climate change, as plants that can distribute their seeds effectively may have a better chance of survival.



Finally, recognizing insects as significant players in seed dispersal can inform conservation strategies. Protecting insect populations is crucial not only for their intrinsic value but also for maintaining healthy plant communities and ecosystems. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10556" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



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Insects play a much bigger role in seed dispersal than we thought

The natural world is full of wonders, one of which...

Have you ever wondered why the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperatures-increase-scientists-plan-slow-down-rising-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth is warming</a> at an alarming rate? The answer lies right under our noses - climate change, a phenomenon that scientists worldwide have been battling against. A recent study from <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a> presents insights into our planet's climatic past, offering a unique perspective on the effects of warming today.



The research was led by Earth scientists at ETH Zurich. The team collaborated with eminent institutions, including the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>, CNRS Toulouse, and the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research (WSL).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-past-and-climate-change">Earth's past and climate change</h2>



Earth's geological history is complex, with major events like volcanic eruptions that changed landscapes and released ash and gas into the atmosphere.



These eruptions often led to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-earths-hottest-day-ever-was-recorded-on-july-22-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quick climate warming</a>, affecting ecosystems and life. Mass extinctions, like the one that killed the dinosaurs, were key moments that changed evolution and allowed new species to develop.



These periods of enhanced volcanic activity altered the carbon-climate regulation systems for millions of years. As if Earth's fiery turmoil wasn't enough, the changing vegetation further shifted the planet's climatic equilibrium, leaving an indelible mark on Earth's geological narrative.



"The Siberian Traps event released some 40,000 gigatons of carbon over 200,000 years. The resulting increase in global average temperatures between 5 - 10°C caused Earth’s most severe extinction event in the geologic record,” noted Professor Taras Gerya from ETH Zurich, a seasoned veteran in the field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surviving-thriving-or-dying">Surviving, thriving, or dying</h2>



Unsurprisingly, nature has had to adapt to these climatic changes. However, some species simply didn't have the luxury of time to adapt to the steadily increasing temperatures.&nbsp;



“The recovery of vegetation from the Siberian Traps event took several millions of years and during this time Earth’s carbon-climate regulation system would have been weak and inefficient resulting in long-term climate warming,” explained study lead author Julian Rogger of ETH Zurich.



According to the study, the severity of such climatic turmoil relies on the rapid sequestration of emitted carbon back into Earth's interior, either through silicate mineral weathering or organic carbon production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-lessons-from-earths-past">Climate lessons from Earths past </h2>



The historical data from Earth's climate reveals that resilience and adaptation are not merely choices but necessities for survival.&nbsp;



The drastic shifts during previous warming periods serve as a warning, portraying the potential consequences of inaction in the face of current climate crises. Learning from the past enables us to develop robust strategies for resilience not just in plant life but across ecosystems.&nbsp;



As communities and nations grapple with climate challenges, integrating historical climate insights into modern policymaking will be essential.&nbsp;



Understanding how previous species thrived or perished can guide contemporary efforts in conservation and environmental management, ensuring that we take informed steps towards a sustainable future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-earth-s-climate-crisis">New era of Earth's climate crisis</h2>



So, what does the past have to say about our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-make-your-hometown-feel-like-somewhere-else/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">current climate crisis</a>? Essentially, the disruption of vegetation contributes significantly to the duration and severity of climate warming. The study reveals that an impaired ability of vegetation to regulate Earth's carbon cycle may take millions of years to reach a new stable climatic equilibrium.



“Today, we find ourselves in a major global bioclimatic crisis,” said Professor Loïc Pellissier of ETH Zurich and <a href="https://www.wsl.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSL</a>. 



“Our study demonstrates the role of a functioning of vegetation to recover from abrupt climatic changes. We are currently releasing greenhouse gases at a faster rate than any previous volcanic event. We are also the primary cause of global deforestation, which strongly reduces the ability of natural ecosystems to regulate the climate. This study, in my perspective, serves as ‘wake-up call’ for the global community.”



This is indeed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-still-prevent-critical-climate-tipping-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wake-up call for humanity</a>. Now, the question is, how will we respond? Will we continue on our current path, risking the destruction of our planet, or will we rise to the occasion, making changes to ensure a livable world for future generations?



The clock is ticking, and unlike plant species millions of years ago, we might not have the luxury of time to adapt.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn3450" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



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Plants needed millions of years to recover from past climate warming

Have you ever wondered why the Earth is warming at...

Researchers at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> (MSU) have recently identified two proteins that collaborate to determine the fate of cells in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-that-detect-plant-stress-could-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> under stress. This significant finding, recently published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-50105-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, was ironically made just as the project's leader was preparing to unwind.



Postdoctoral researcher Noelia Pastor-Cantizano was en route to the airport for a vacation when she decided to share a promising result she had gathered the previous day.&nbsp;



“I didn’t want to wait ten days until I came back to send it. It took almost two years to get there,” said Pastor-Cantizano, who was then part of the Brandizzi lab at the MSU-DOE Plant Research Laboratory (PRL). “I was thinking 'I can relax now, at least for one week,'” she added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-response-to-stressors">Plant response to stressors</h2>



Pastor-Cantizano had been working to identify a gene in the model plant Arabidopsis that could control the plant’s response to stressors, which can lead to its death. She and her team had pinpointed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protein</a> in Arabidopsis that seemed to dictate whether a plant would survive or perish under stress conditions.



However, identifying the gene was just the beginning, despite already being years into the project. It took an additional five years to reach the conclusions presented in the new paper.



The research revealed that the proteins BON-associated protein2 (BAP2) and inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1) cooperate under stress conditions - a critical issue for plant cells. Understanding how these proteins function together can help scientists develop plants that are more resilient to adverse conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-agriculture-nbsp">Implications for agriculture&nbsp;</h2>



Creating plants that are resistant to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has significant implications for agriculture. If crops can be bred to withstand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dry-air-alters-the-way-plants-respond-to-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> or heat better, they stand a better chance of thriving despite the changing climate.



“Research in our lab is fueled by enthusiasm and gratitude to be able to make important contributions to science,” said Federica Brandizzi, MSU Research Foundation Professor in the Department of Plant Biology and at the PRL.&nbsp;



“The work was herculean and has been possible only thanks to the patience, enthusiasm, and dedication of a wonderful team. Noelia was simply fantastic.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unfolded-protein-response-nbsp">Unfolded protein response&nbsp;</h2>



Within eukaryotic cells is an organelle known as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which creates proteins and folds them into shapes the cell can use. This process is similar to cutting up vegetables for a recipe - the proteins must be correctly shaped before they can be used.&nbsp;



Protein production and folding must be balanced, akin to a sous chef and a chef working together. When this balance is disrupted, the ER experiences stress, triggering a mechanism known as the unfolded protein response (UPR). The UPR decides whether to save or shut down the cell, potentially leading to the plant's death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-programmed-cell-death-in-plants">Programmed cell death in plants</h2>



It was known that the enzyme IRE1 directs mechanisms to either save or kill the cell, but what activates IRE1 remained unclear. The Brandizzi lab researchers were searching for the master regulator of these pro-death processes, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-secrets-of-flower-diversity-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">programmed cell death</a>.



“I had the idea because I read that irritable bowel disease is linked to a mutation in a gene controlled by IRE1 that occurs among humans,” Brandizzi said. “Humans are diverse, and so are plants. So I thought to look into plant diversity as a source of new important findings in the UPR.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-stress-response-across-different-regions-nbsp">Plant stress response across different regions&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers began by examining hundreds of accessions - plants of the same species but from different locales. For example, a plant from Colombia will have genetic variations compared to the same species in Spain, which may affect their stress responses differently.



The experts discovered extensive variation in the response to ER stress between different accessions. By examining the most dissimilar responses, they identified differences in their genomes, leading to the discovery of the BAP2 gene candidate.



“We found that BAP2 responds to ER stress,” said Pastor-Cantizano, now a postdoc at the University of Valencia. “And the cool thing is that it is able to control and modify the activity of IRE1. But also IRE1 is able to regulate BAP2 expression.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-plant-death">Endoplasmic reticulum stress and plant death</h2>



BAP2 and IRE1 work together, signaling each other on the best course of action for the cell. Without both proteins, the plant dies when ER homeostasis is disrupted.



The project spanned over seven years of dedicated work, involving meticulous tasks like placing tiny Arabidopsis seeds onto growth plates and studying the plants' offspring to understand how BAP2 functions.



“It has been a long road with its obstacles, but it has been worth it,” said Pastor-Cantizano. “When I started this project, I couldn't imagine how it would end.”



This study highlights the collaborative work required to uncover the intricate mechanisms that enable plants to withstand stress, paving the way for future agricultural advancements.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

How do plants make life-and-death decisions?

Researchers at Michigan State University (MSU) have recently identified two...

For many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-architectures-mimic-subway-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, increased branching translates to higher fruit yields. But what drives a plant to develop more branches? 



New research from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, has revealed how plants degrade the hormone strigolactone, which suppresses branching, thereby becoming more “bushy.” 



Understanding how strigolactone is regulated could have significant implications for numerous crop plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-strigolactone-nbsp">The role of strigolactone&nbsp;</h2>



The study, published in the journal Nature Communications, delves into the mechanisms behind strigolactone regulation.&nbsp;



“Being able to manipulate strigolactone could also have implications beyond plant architecture, including on a plant’s resilience to drought and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathogens</a>,” said Nitzan Shabek, the senior author of the study and an associate professor in the UC Davis Department of Plant Biology who specializes in biochemistry and structural biology.



Discovered only in 2008, strigolactone has emerged as a crucial hormone in plant research. Besides controlling branching, it fosters beneficial interactions between mycorrhizal fungi and plant roots and helps plants cope with stresses like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-crisis-un-warns-of-unprecedented-emergency/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> and high salinity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-strigolactone-breakdown">Mystery of strigolactone breakdown</h2>



While much is known about how plants synthesize hormones like strigolactone, the mechanisms of their breakdown remain largely unexplored.&nbsp;



Recent research pointed to enzymes called carboxylesterases, which are found across all life forms, including humans, as potential players in strigolactone degradation.&nbsp;



Plants produce over 20 types of carboxylesterases, but only CXE15 and CXE20 have been speculated to link to strigolactone degradation. Shabek’s team aimed to uncover the specifics of this degradation process.



“Our lab is interested in mechanisms, meaning we don’t want to just know that a car can drive, we want to know how it's driving; what's going on inside the engine,” Shabek explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



To confirm whether CXE15 and CXE20 are involved in strigolactone regulation, the researchers began by constructing 3D models of the enzymes’ molecular structure.&nbsp;



This project was initially led by undergraduate researcher Linyi Yan, who grew and purified the carboxylesterase proteins in the lab. According to Shabek, this student-led initiative quickly expanded into a more substantial research endeavor.



Postdoctoral fellow Malathy Palayam utilized x-ray crystallography and computer simulations to determine the three-dimensional atomic structure of the enzymes and conducted biochemical experiments to compare how these enzymes degrade the hormone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-enzyme-responsible-for-bushy-plants">The enzyme responsible for bushy plants</h2>



The experiments revealed that CXE15 was significantly more efficient at breaking down strigolactone compared to CXE20, which binds to the hormone but fails to degrade it effectively. Their 3D models unveiled a new finding: a specific region of CXE15 allows the enzyme to alter its shape dynamically.



“CXE15 is a very effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enzyme-plant-waste-products/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enzyme</a> - it can completely destroy the strigolactone molecule in milliseconds,” Shabek said. “When we zoomed in, we realized that there is a dynamic area in the enzyme’s structure which is required for it to function in this way.”



By examining CXE15’s structure, Shabek and his team identified specific amino acids crucial for the enzyme’s ability to dynamically bind to strigolactone. To validate these findings, they genetically engineered a mutant version of CXE15 with an altered dynamic region.&nbsp;



This mutant enzyme exhibited a reduced capacity to degrade strigolactone both in vitro and when tested in Nicotiana benthamiana plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Shabek emphasized the future directions of this research: “In this study we were really interested in elucidating these enzymes’ mechanism and structure, but future studies can begin investigating how they affect plant growth and development.” He expressed interest in exploring how carboxylesterase enzymes are produced in different plant tissues, such as roots and stems.



Understanding the intricacies of how strigolactone is broken down opens the door to new possibilities in plant biology and agriculture. By potentially manipulating this hormone, scientists could influence plant architecture, making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-corn-crops-could-have-higher-drought-tolerance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a> more productive and resilient. 



This could lead to advances in how crops are grown, improving yields and resistance to environmental stresses, which are crucial for sustainable agriculture and food security.



“Taking a broader perspective, the carboxylesterase superfamily plays fundamental roles in numerous essential metabolic pathways across all kingdoms of life. We unveil a molecular architecture and intrinsic dynamics for carboxylesterases that have not been observed before, thereby adding an important layer of complexity to the mode of action of these crucial enzymes,” the authors concluded.



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How do plants grow more branches and become bushy?

For many plants, increased branching translates to higher fruit yields....

A disturbing new study has provided direct evidence that the center of Greenland's ice sheet, not just its edges, melted away in the recent geological past. The melt, and resulting sea-level rise, revealed a once-green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climate-turns-tundra-from-carbon-sink-to-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tundra</a> landscape across Greenland.



This discovery is particularly concerning, as it suggests the ice sheet is more vulnerable to melting than previously thought.



Scientists uncovered this evidence by re-examining a small section of sediment from a two-mile-deep ice core, known as GISP2, which was extracted from the center of Greenland in 1993 and stored in a Colorado facility for 30 years. The sediment contained pristine soil with willow wood, insect parts, fungi, and a poppy seed.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-s-ice-melted-recently">Greenland’s ice melted recently</h2>



“These fossils are beautiful,” said Paul Bierman, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a> (UVM), who co-led the study with UVM graduate student Halley Mastro and nine other researchers. 



“But, yes, we go from bad to worse,” he added, referring to the implications of human-caused climate change on the melting of Greenland's ice sheet.



The study, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2407465121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, confirms that Greenland’s ice melted during a warm period likely within the last million years. This suggests that the ice sheet is not as stable as once thought.&nbsp;



If the ice at the center of Greenland melted, then the majority of the island's ice must have also melted, possibly for thousands of years - long enough for soil formation and the development of an ecosystem.&nbsp;



“This new study confirms and extends that a lot of sea-level rise occurred at a time when causes of warming were not especially extreme,” said Richard Alley, a climate scientist at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a> who reviewed the research, emphasizing the study's warning about the potential damages from continued climate warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-and-sea-level-rise-nbsp">Greenland and sea-level rise&nbsp;</h2>



Currently, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-sea-levels-spiked-dramatically-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea levels</a> are rising more than an inch per decade, with the pace accelerating. Bierman warned that if greenhouse gas emissions are not drastically reduced, the near-total melting of Greenland’s ice sheet over the next few centuries could result in approximately 23 feet of sea level rise. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/greenland_tundra-fossils_ancient-ice-melt-revealed_UVermont_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/greenland_tundra-fossils_ancient-ice-melt-revealed_UVermont_1s.webp" alt="Willow bud scale, arctic poppy seed, fungal bodies, and rock spikemoss megaspores found in the GISP2 soil sample viewed under a microscope at the University of Vermont." class="wp-image-1940905"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Willow bud scale, arctic poppy seed, fungal bodies, and rock spikemoss megaspores found in the GISP2 soil sample viewed under a microscope at the University of Vermont.</figcaption></figure>



“Look at Boston, New York, Miami, Mumbai or pick your coastal city around the world, and add twenty plus feet of sea level,” Bierman cautioned. “It goes underwater. Don't buy a beach house.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-ice-sheet-instability-nbsp">Evidence of ice sheet instability&nbsp;</h2>



In 2016, Joerg Schaefer and colleagues from <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> analyzed rock from the bottom of the GISP2 core, proposing that Greenland's ice sheet could be less than 1.1 million years old and that significant ice-free periods occurred during the Pleistocene epoch.&nbsp;



The controversial study suggested that if the ice had melted at the GISP2 site, 90% of Greenland’s ice would have also melted. This challenged the long-held belief that Greenland's ice sheet has been a stable “fortress of ice” for millions of years.



Further supporting this, in 2019, Bierman and an international team re-examined another ice core extracted from Camp Century near Greenland's coast in the 1960s.&nbsp;



They found twigs, seeds, and insect parts, indicating that the ice had melted within the last 416,000 years, demonstrating that the ice sheet's stability had failed more recently than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-ice-free-greenland">An ice-free Greenland</h2>



These findings prompted Bierman and his colleagues to investigate the bottom of the GISP2 core further. With the support of the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. National Science Foundation</a>, they obtained a sample from the National Science Foundation Ice Core Facility in Lakewood, Colorado.&nbsp;



The new study confirms that during a warm period, Greenland was not only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-ice-sheet-is-approaching-a-critical-tipping-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice-free</a> but also supported a tundra ecosystem, potentially with stunted trees. 



“We now have direct evidence that not only was the ice gone, but that plants and insects were living there,” Bierman said. “And that's unassailable. You don't have to rely on calculations or models.”



The discovery of intact biological material, such as the bud scale of a young willow and the compound eye of an insect, was made by geoscientist Andrew Christ, who worked on the project during his PhD at UVM.&nbsp;



Halley Mastro continued the research, identifying various macrofossils, including spores from spikemoss and a seed from an Arctic poppy. “It was amazing,” Mastro said. “It lets us know that Greenland's ice melted and there was soil, because poppies don't grow on top of miles of ice.”



This research underscores the fragility of Greenland's ice sheet and the significant implications of climate change, highlighting the urgency of addressing global warming to prevent catastrophic sea level rise and the loss of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overtopping-threatens-the-future-of-coastal-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal habitats</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

Increased risk of sea-level catastrophe confirmed by Greenland fossils

A disturbing new study has provided direct evidence that the...

Nxylon has emerged as a potentially revolutionary discovery in materials science, capturing attention with its extraordinary ability to absorb over 99% of visible light.



This super-black material, developed unexpectedly at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>, is poised to revolutionize a range of industries, from optical devices to luxury consumer products. 



The serendipitous creation of this material has led to a new frontier in the exploration of ultra-black substances. 



Unlike traditional black paints, which absorb around 97.5% of light, Nxylon's unique structure inherently traps light, making it a marvel of modern technology and innovation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birth-of-a-dark-marvel">Birth of a dark marvel</h2>



During the course of an experiment aimed at making wood more water-repellent using high-energy plasma, Prof. Philip Evans and his Ph.D. student Kenny Cheng stumbled upon something extraordinary. 



They found that when the plasma technique was applied to the cut ends of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-still-have-much-to-learn-about-tree-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wood cells</a>, the surfaces turned exceptionally black. 



Rather than dismissing this discovery, the team channeled their energies into developing super-black materials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-journey-to-darkness">Unexpected journey to darkness</h2>



Tests carried out by the Physics and Astronomy department at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a> confirmed their findings.



The material reflected less than one per cent of visible light, thus absorbing nearly all light that it encountered. An entirely new vista of possibilities unfolded. 



“Ultra-black or super-black material can absorb more than 99 per cent of the light that strikes it – more than what normal black paint, which absorbs about 97.5 per cent of light, can achieve,” Dr. Evans explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-super-black">Potential of super-black</h2>



The applications of such super-black substances are boundless, especially in the field of astronomy, where ultra-black coatings on instruments can suppress stray light, aiding in improved image clarity. 



Moreover, they can augment the efficiency of solar cells, and even find their way into the production of art pieces and luxury items such as watches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nxylon-the-night-wood">Nxylon: The night wood</h2>



The dynamic team behind this breakthrough christened their discovery Nxylon - deriving from Nyx, the Greek goddess of the night, and xylon, the Greek term for wood. 



Nxylon retained its extraordinary blackness even when coated with an alloy, like gold, enabling it to be viewed through an electron microscope. 



Unlike other black materials that rely on pigments, Nxylon owes its darkness to its structure, which inherently traps light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nxylon-in-action">Nxylon in action</h2>



Nxylon has the potential to replace expensive, rare black woods like ebony and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rosewood-trees-in-southeast-asia-face-the-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rosewood</a>, and even the black gemstone onyx, in the production of items such as watch faces and jewelry. 



Furthermore, it's lightweight, easy to cut into intricate shapes, and can be made from not just basswood, but also other types of wood such as European lime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impact-on-the-wood-industry">Potential impact on the wood industry</h2>



Dr. Evans and his colleagues aim to establish Nxylon Corporation of Canada, intending to scale up the applications of Nxylon, in association with jewellers, artists, and tech product designers. 



They also envision developing a commercial-scale plasma reactor to manufacture larger samples of super-black wood suitable for non-reflective ceiling and wall tiles. This could breathe new life into the wood industry, inspiring new approaches and applications. 



“Nxylon can be made from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-inspires-solutions-for-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable</a> and renewable materials widely found in North America and Europe, leading to new applications for wood," added Dr. Evans.



"The wood industry in B.C. is often seen as a sunset industry focused on commodity products -- our research demonstrates its great untapped potential.”



In the brilliant spectrum of color and materials science, Nxylon shines, a testament to the power of black, the strength of wood, and the potential of unexpected discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-promise-of-nxylon">Environmental promise of Nxylon</h2>



Beyond its innovative applications, Nxylon also holds promise for environmental sustainability. 



As the world increasingly seeks eco-friendly alternatives in various industries, Nxylon offers a viable solution. 



Since it can be derived from readily available wood sources and produced using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-practices-could-greatly-reduce-species-extinction-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable practices</a>, Nxylon not only minimizes reliance on endangered species like ebony and rosewood but also promotes responsible forestry. 



This aligns with a growing demand for products that are not only high-performing but also environmentally conscious. 



As Nxylon gains traction, it could lead to a shift in material sourcing, encouraging industries to prioritize sustainability without sacrificing quality or aesthetics.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adsu.202400184" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Sustainable Systems</a>.



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New super-black 'wonder wood' called Nyxlon absorbs almost all light

Nxylon has emerged as a potentially revolutionary discovery in materials...

An intense game of genetic chess is taking place beneath our very eyes, in the soil where our beloved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/potato-threatening-pathogens-discovered-in-pennsylvania/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potato crops</a> grow. This evolutionary battle between the humble potato plant and its mortal foe, Phytophthora infestans - the pathogen responsible for the devastating Irish potato famine in the 1840s - has puzzled scientists for years.



Now, research conducted at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> is shedding new light on this "arms race" with an innovative study using fragments of historic potato leaves to examine both the plant's resistance genes and the attacking pathogen's effector genes simultaneously.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-down-walls-a-revolutionary-approach">Breaking down walls: A revolutionary approach</h2>



The experts utilized small, 80 base-pair chunks of DNA, akin to magnets, to isolate similar pieces within the complex "soup" of DNA found on historic leaf samples.



Previously, researchers would focus on either the host (the potato) or the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-produced-by-potato-pathogen-offers-new-hope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathogen</a>, but this dual enrichment strategy has opened a new front in understanding this host-pathogen relationship.



"It's a first for looking at both potato and pathogen changes at the same time," noted Jean Ristaino, William Neal Reynolds Distinguished Professor of Plant Pathology at North Carolina State University.



This radical method of investigation has only become possible recently, as the necessary genomics weren't sequenced until around 15 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pathogen-evades-potato-defenses">Pathogen evades potato defenses</h2>



Findings from the study indicate that the pathogen, Phytophthora infestans, is surprisingly skillful at dodging the potato's defenses against late blight disease. 



For instance, the FAM-1 strain of the pathogen was capable of overcoming the plant's R1 resistance gene before it was even introduced into potato strains by plant breeders.



Such discovery suggests that the pathogen could have resisted the R1 gene even if it had been deployed much earlier, potentially owing to exposure to the wild potato variant harboring that resistance gene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-battlefield-for-pathogens-and-potatoes">Battlefield for pathogens and potatoes</h2>



The study sheds light on how the pathogen’s effector genes have largely remained steady over time, with selective mutations enhancing its infectious capabilty. 



This was particularly noticeable post-1937, when structured potato <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sugarcane-genome-finally-mapped-new-crop-breeding-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding programs</a> began in the United States and elsewhere, in an effort to boost disease resistance.



Additionally, the researchers found that the pathogen managed to add a set of chromosomes to its arsenal between 1845 and 1954, the period during which the plant samples for the study were collected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-promise-of-future-studies">The promise of future studies</h2>



This research is immensely valuable, as it provides breeders with critical information about how the pathogen has transformed over time. 



This knowledge could potentially be utilized to implement more stable resistance genes or to combine multiple resistance genes from different wild hosts.



"We now know what effectors have changed over time," Ristaino stated. "Breeders may be able to use resistance genes that are more stable or pyramid multiple resistance genes from different wild hosts." 



And so, the game of genetic chess continues with new strategies and renewed hope of winning the game against the pathogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-potatoes">The importance of potatoes</h2>



Potatoes are not just a beloved comfort food; they are a vital staple crop that nourishes millions around the world. 



Originating from the Andean region of South America, potatoes have transcended borders and cultures, becoming an essential part of diets in various countries. 



Their versatility allows them to be prepared in countless ways, from mashed potatoes to fries, making them a culinary favorite across the globe.



Moreover, potatoes are packed with nutrients, including vitamins C and B6, potassium, and dietary fiber, making them a healthy choice for many. 



As the global population continues to grow, ensuring the resilience of potato crops against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-can-help-farmers-control-crop-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a> like late blight is crucial for food security. 



The NC State research not only aids in understanding the complex interactions between potatoes and their pathogens but also plays a vital role in developing sustainable agricultural practices.



By improving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-breeding-more-resilient-potatoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potato resilience</a>, we can help secure a reliable food source for future generations and support the livelihoods of millions of farmers who depend on this crop. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-50749-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How a pathogen outsmarted the potato

An intense game of genetic chess is taking place beneath...

Doctors are increasingly recommending that fruits and vegetables become a central component in the treatment of patients with hypertension.&nbsp;



A diet rich in these foods has been shown to lower blood pressure, reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, and improve<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-pollutants-kidney-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> kidney health</a>, largely due to their base-producing effects. 



A recent study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2024.06.006" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Journal of Medicine</a> highlights these benefits, based on findings from a five-year interventional randomized control trial.



Despite advancements in pharmacological treatments for hypertension, related conditions like chronic kidney disease (CKD) and associated cardiovascular mortality are on the rise. Notably, heart disease remains the leading cause of death among patients with chronic kidney disease.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heart-healthy-fruits-and-vegetables">Heart-healthy fruits and vegetables </h2>



The <a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/education/dash-eating-plan" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension</a> (DASH) diet, known for its high content of fruits and vegetables, is recommended as the first-line treatment for primary hypertension. 



However, this diet is often under-prescribed and, even when recommended, not fully implemented, despite substantial supportive evidence from epidemiological studies.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-fruits-and-vegetables-improves-overall-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diets</a> rich in fruits and vegetables are associated with lower blood pressure, reduced risk and progression of CKD, and lower cardiovascular disease risk and mortality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-acid-and-health">Dietary acid and health</h2>



The study, led by Dr. Donald E. Wesson of the Department of Internal Medicine at <a href="https://dellmed.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dell Medical School</a>, University of Texas at Austin, explored the effects of an acid-producing versus a base-producing diet on kidney health. 



“As a nephrologist, my acid-base laboratory studies ways by which the kidney removes acid from the blood and puts it into the urine,” said Dr. Wesson.



“Our animal studies showed years ago that mechanisms used by kidneys to remove acid from the blood can cause kidney injury if the animals were chronically exposed to an acid-producing diet.”&nbsp;



Dr. Wesson said that studies in human patients showed similar findings: an acid-producing diet (one high in animal products) was kidney-harmful, and one that is base-producing (one high in fruits and vegetables) is kidney-healthy.&nbsp;



“Other investigators showed that a diet high in fruits and vegetables is heart-healthy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



To test the hypothesis that fruits and vegetables reduce dietary acid and thereby benefit kidney and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-environments-and-sidewalks-improve-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart health</a>, the study focused on participants with hypertension but without diabetes, who also had high levels of urine albumin excretion (macroalbuminuria). 



These participants were at high risk for worsening kidney disease and developing cardiovascular diseases.&nbsp;



The researchers divided 153 participants into three groups: participants adding 2-4 cups of base-producing fruits and vegetables to their daily intake; participants prescribed NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate, common baking soda) tablets; and participants receiving standard medical care from primary care clinicians.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heart-benefits-of-fruits-and-vegetables-nbsp">Heart benefits of fruits and vegetables&nbsp;</h2>



The results of the analysis revealed that both the fruit and vegetable group and the NaHCO3 group experienced improvements in kidney health. However, only the group consuming fruits and vegetables showed a reduction in blood pressure and improvements in cardiovascular disease risk indicators.&nbsp;



“Importantly, fruits and vegetables achieved the latter two benefits with lower doses of medication used to lower blood pressure and reduce cardiovascular disease risk,” noted Maninder Kahlon, a co-investigator from the Department of Population Health at Dell Medical School.



“This means that one can get the kidney health benefits with either fruits and vegetables or NaHCO3, but we get the blood pressure reduction and reduced cardiovascular disease risk with fruits and vegetables, but not with NaHCO3.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-the-need-for-medication-nbsp">Reducing the need for medication&nbsp;</h2>



The findings support the recommendation that fruits and vegetables should be the foundational treatment for patients with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-noise-increases-the-risk-of-hypertension/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hypertension</a>. This approach achieves multiple health benefits - kidney protection, blood pressure reduction, and lower cardiovascular risk - with potentially lower medication doses. 



The research team emphasizes that current clinical practice often prioritizes pharmacological treatment, with dietary changes being secondary. However, this study suggests the opposite: dietary interventions should be the first step in managing hypertension, with medications added as needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-fruits-and-vegetables-more-accessible">Making fruits and vegetables more accessible </h2>



“Dietary interventions for chronic disease management are often not recommended and even less often executed because of the many challenges to get patients to implement them. Nevertheless, they are effective, and in this instance, kidney and cardiovascular protective,” said Dr. Wesson.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We must increase our efforts to incorporate them into patient management and more broadly, make healthy diets more accessible to populations at increased risk for kidney and cardiovascular disease.”



The study also advises that patients with hypertension should ask their clinicians to measure their urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) to assess for underlying kidney disease and potential increased cardiovascular risk.&nbsp;



This proactive measure can help tailor treatment plans to better manage hypertension and its associated risks.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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How fruits and vegetables improve heart health

Doctors are increasingly recommending that fruits and vegetables become a...

Light pollution disrupts circadian rhythms and ecosystems worldwide, with potentially profound effects on plants that rely on light for photosynthesis.&nbsp;



A new study published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2024.1392262/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Plant Science</a> has revealed that high levels of artificial light at night can make tree leaves tougher and harder for insects to eat, which poses a threat to urban food chains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tough-leaves-under-artificial-light-nbsp">Tough leaves under artificial light&nbsp;</h2>



“We noticed that, compared to natural ecosystems, tree leaves in most urban ecosystems generally show little sign of insect damage. We were curious as to why,” said Shuang Zhang, a scientist at the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> and the study's corresponding author. 



“Here we show that in two of the most common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-diversity-shaped-by-climate-change-for-21000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree species</a> in Beijing, artificial light at night led to increased leaf toughness and decreased levels of leaf herbivory.”



Artificial light has increased night-time brightness by almost 10%, affecting most of the world's population. Changes in plant properties due to artificial light can significantly impact ecosystems, as plant interactions with other plants and animals are altered.



“Leaves that are free of insect damage may bring comfort to people, but not insects,” Zhang said. “Herbivory is a natural ecological process that maintains the biodiversity of insects.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tougher-leaves-as-a-defense-mechanism-nbsp">Tougher leaves as a defense mechanism&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers hypothesized that plants exposed to high levels of artificial light would prioritize defense over growth, resulting in tougher leaves with more chemical defense compounds.&nbsp;



To test this, they focused on two common street trees: Japanese pagoda and green ash trees. These trees, though similar in many ways, differ in leaf characteristics, with Japanese pagoda trees having smaller, softer leaves preferred by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivores</a>.



The team selected 30 sampling sites along main roads in Beijing, spaced roughly 100 meters apart and usually illuminated all night. They measured the illuminance at each site to determine exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-pollution-disrupts-entire-ecological-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial light</a>. 



Nearly 5,500 leaves were collected and analyzed for insect herbivory and traits potentially affected by artificial light, such as size, toughness, water content, and levels of nutrients and chemical defenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-higher-light-levels-lead-to-tougher-leaves">Higher light levels lead to tougher leaves</h2>



For both tree species, higher levels of artificial light resulted in tougher leaves, with tougher leaves showing less evidence of insect herbivory. The more intense the light, the more frequently leaves showed no signs of herbivory.&nbsp;



“The underlying mechanism for this pattern is not yet fully understood,” Zhang said. “It is possible that trees exposed to artificial light at night may extend their photosynthesis duration. Additionally, these leaves might allocate a greater proportion of resources to structural compounds, such as fibers, which could lead to an increase in leaf toughness.”



Japanese pagoda trees exposed to more artificial light had lower levels of nutrients like phosphorus, with higher nutrient levels correlating with more herbivory.&nbsp;



Conversely, green ash trees, less preferred by herbivores, showed stronger influences from higher light levels, displaying higher nitrogen levels, smaller leaves, and lower chemical defenses.



“Decreased herbivory can lead to trophic cascading effects in ecology,” Zhang explained. “Lower levels of herbivory imply lower abundances of herbivorous insects, which could in turn result in lower abundances of predatory insects, insect-eating birds, and so on. The decline of insects is a global pattern observed over recent decades. We should pay more attention to this trend.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-far-reaching-impacts-of-light-pollution-nbsp">Far-reaching impacts of light pollution&nbsp;</h2>



While leaf toughness is a mechanical defense against predation, other factors may also contribute to decreased herbivory. For example, increased light might make insects more visible to predators. Further research is needed to fully understand the effects of artificial light.



“Our study was conducted in only one city and involved just two tree species,” Zhang cautioned. “This limitation hinders our ability to generalize the conclusions to broader spatial and taxonomic scales. Research on how urbanization affects insects and insect-related ecological processes is still in its infancy.”



The study highlights the complex and far-reaching impacts of light pollution on urban ecosystems, particularly on the interactions between plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-develop-wing-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>. It underscores the need for further research to develop comprehensive strategies for mitigating these effects and protecting urban biodiversity.



“These results emphasize that high ALAN [artificial light at night] is detrimental to the flow of energy from plants to higher trophic levels, and further suggest that ALAN may have far-reaching effects on the maintenance of urban biodiversity and ecosystem functioning,” the authors concluded.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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Streetlights make tree leaves too tough for insects to eat

Light pollution disrupts circadian rhythms and ecosystems worldwide, with potentially...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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