3d,Illustration,Of,A,Robotic,Or,Machine,Hand,With,A

By focusing on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">root systems</a>, researchers aim to create new plants, using an artificial intelligence (AI) tool called SLEAP, that can store more carbon for extended periods.



For this intriguing new study, scientists are leveraging AI to optimize plants' natural ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">draw carbon dioxide</a> out of the atmosphere, a crucial step in combating climate change and limiting global temperature rise. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleap-game-changing-ai-tool-that-creates-plants">SLEAP: Game-changing AI tool that creates plants</h2>



Talmo Pereira and Professor <a href="https://www.salk.edu/scientist/wolfgang-busch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wolfgang Busch</a> from Salk’s <a href="https://www.salk.edu/harnessing-plants-initiative/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harnessing Plants Initiative</a> have joined forces to apply SLEAP, a sophisticated AI software initially designed for tracking animal movement, to the study of plants. 



Their research introduces a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41592-022-01426-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new protocol</a> for using SLEAP to analyze plant root phenotypes, such as depth, width, and mass.



"This collaboration is truly a testament to what makes Salk science so special and impactful," says Pereira. "We're not just 'borrowing' from different disciplines -- we're really putting them on equal footing in order to create something greater than the sum of its parts."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-streamlining-plant-analysis-with-ai">Streamlining plant analysis with AI</h2>



Prior to SLEAP, analyzing plant and animal characteristics was a labor-intensive process that slowed scientific progress. 



Researchers had to manually flag parts of images frame-by-frame, part-by-part, and pixel-by-pixel before older AI models could process the data.



SLEAP's unique combination of computer vision and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-help-save-mangrove-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep learning</a> allows researchers to skip this intermediary step, jumping straight from image input to defined plant features. 



This approach significantly reduces analysis time and human error while emphasizing accessibility and ease of use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleap-roots-digging-deep-into-plant-biology">sleap-roots: Digging deep into plant biology</h2>



The Salk team developed sleap-roots, a downloadable toolkit for SLEAP that enables the software to process biological traits of root systems, such as depth, mass, and angle of growth. 



The toolkit, available as open-source software, was tested on various plants, including soybeans, rice, canola, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis thaliana</a>.



"We created a robust protocol validated in multiple plant types that cuts down on analysis time and human error, while emphasizing accessibility and ease-of-use -- and it required no changes to the actual SLEAP software," says Elizabeth Berrigan, a bioinformatics analyst in Busch's lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-secrets-of-climate-saving-plants">Deciphering the secrets of climate-saving plants</h2>



By connecting phenotypic data, such as a plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-plant-root-health-scanning-leaves-xray-device/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep root system</a>, with genotype data obtained through genome sequencing efforts, researchers can identify the genes responsible for creating desirable traits. 



This step is crucial in Salk's mission to create plants with AI that hold on to more carbon for longer periods, as these plants will require root systems designed to be deeper and more robust.



"We have already been able to create the most extensive catalogue of plant root system phenotypes to date, which is really accelerating our research to create carbon-capturing plants that fight climate change," says Busch, the Hess Chair in <a href="https://pbio.salk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Science at Salk</a>. 



"SLEAP has been so easy to apply and use, thanks to Talmo's professional software design, and it's going to be an indispensable tool in my lab moving forward," Busch concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-hidden-world-of-plant-root-systems">Understanding the hidden world of plant root systems</h2>



To further clarify, plant root systems are intricate networks of roots that play a crucial role in anchoring plants to the soil, absorbing water and nutrients, and storing essential compounds. 



There are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">two main types of root systems</a> exist in plants: taproot systems and fibrous root systems. 



<ul>
<li>Taproot systems feature a single, dominant root that grows vertically downward, with smaller lateral roots branching off from it. </li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Fibrous root systems, on the other hand, consist of numerous small roots that grow outward from the base of the plant, forming a dense network.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Functions of root systems</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-follow-gravity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Root systems</a> perform several critical functions for plants:



<ul>
<li>Anchoring: Roots secure plants to the soil, providing stability and preventing them from toppling over.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Absorption: Fine root hairs absorb water and dissolved nutrients from the soil, which are then transported to the rest of the plant.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Storage: Some plants, such as carrots and beets, use their roots to store carbohydrates and other essential compounds.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Factors influencing root growth</h3>



Several factors influence the growth and development of plant root systems:



<ul>
<li>Soil type: Different soil types, such as sandy, loamy, or clay soils, affect root growth and distribution.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Water availability: Plants adapt their root systems in response to water availability, with some species growing deeper roots to access water in times of drought.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Nutrient availability: The presence or absence of essential nutrients in the soil can impact root growth and architecture.</li>
</ul>



Healthy root systems are essential for overall plant health and productivity. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-rooted-crops-can-significantly-improve-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Well-developed roots</a> enable plants to efficiently absorb water and nutrients, leading to stronger growth and increased resilience to stresses such as drought or disease. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-the-future-of-climate-saving-plants">AI and the future of climate-saving plants</h2>



The accessibility and reproducibility of SLEAP and sleap-roots have the potential to revolutionize plant research worldwide. The Salk team has already begun discussions with NASA scientists hoping to utilize the tool to guide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon-sequestering plants</a> on Earth and to study plants in space.



In summary, the Salk Institute's pioneering research in plant-based carbon capture, powered by the innovative SLEAP software and sleap-roots toolkit, paves the way for a greener future. 



As scientists continue to refine and expand these tools, they accelerate the development of climate-saving plants with optimized root systems capable of storing more carbon for longer periods. 



The accessibility and reproducibility of SLEAP and sleap-roots invite researchers worldwide to join the fight against climate change, fostering global collaboration and innovation. 



With the Harnessing Plants Initiative at the forefront, Salk scientists are rooting for change, digging deep into plant biology, and branching out to make a lasting impact on our planet's future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/plantphenomics.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Phenomics</a>.



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AI is creating new plants that can help fight climate change

By focusing on root systems, researchers aim to create new plants, using an artificial intelligence (AI) tool called SLEAP, that can store more carbon for extended periods. For this intriguing new study, scientists are leveraging AI to optimize plants' natural ability to draw carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, a crucial step in combating climate change and limiting global temperature rise. SLEAP: Game-changing AI tool that creates plants Talmo Pereira and Professor Wolfgang Busch from Salk’s Harnessing Plants Initiative have joined forces to apply SLEAP, a sophisticated AI...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169534721002238">Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution</a> examined the various strategies through which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/houseplants-improve-mood-and-productivity/">plants</a> disperse their seeds. By investigating the intricacies of the chemical ecology of seed dispersal, a research team led by <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Tech</a> aims to clarify how chemicals impact the interaction between fruit and the animals that eat them.



“Our understanding of the chemical ecology of seed dispersal is still pretty basic. A lot of the chemicals in fruits haven’t yet been described, and we know very little about the functions that these chemicals may have,” said study lead author Annika Nelson.



Just like humans and other animals, plants seem to want their offspring to be successful once they leave the “nest.” In order to have the highest chances of success, seeds need to be planted far away from their parents to minimize competition for nutrients, water, or light. Yet, since plants are rooted in the ground, they have to get creative for their dispersal strategies.



While plants like the Virginia stickseed make their seeds sticky so they cling to passers-by, and maple trees have created winged-seeds that can glide with the wind, most plants enlist the help of animals. By enclosing their seeds in appealing, delicious fruit, plants attract animals who eat the fruits and defecate them in different locations.&nbsp;



The chemicals plants use to lure potential seed dispensers are called secondary metabolites and give fruit their distinctive color and flavor. Since timing is crucial for proper seed dispersion, these metabolites notify animals when it is the right time for them to harvest the fruits.



“Ripe fruits are often a lot smellier and tastier than unripe fruits on purpose,” explained Nelson. “It communicates to animals when fruits are ready to be removed. If seeds are removed from a plant before they are fully developed, they often won’t survive.”



Sometimes, secondary metabolites can also have repelling effects, in order to prevent animals from destroying the seeds or to defend them from various viruses or bacteria. Plants must continuously strike a careful balance between attracting animals to distribute their seeds and fending off predators.&nbsp;



“Because the same metabolites can serve multiple functions across different seed dispersal stages, with the potential for complex trade-offs, examining their effects under multiple contexts is necessary to understand their adaptive significance,” the authors concluded.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How plants disperse their seeds

A new study published in the journal Trends in Ecology...

The,Sun,Beautifully,Illuminating,The,Green,Treetops,Of,Tall,Beech

Plants interact with their environments and are exceptionally sensitive to changes in light intensity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-temperatures-are-revealed-by-the-size-of-animals/">temperature</a>. This enables them to respond to seasonal fluctuations in day length, to “sense” morning and evening times, and to avoid the shading effects of other, nearby vegetation. Light and temperature are thus important environmental cues that affect almost all aspects of plant growth and development.&nbsp;



Previous research has shown that a light-sensitive protein, called phytochrome B (PHYB), is involved in a plant’s ability to detect light and temperature conditions. This protein conveys information into the cell that changes the expression of genes by switching some on and others off.&nbsp;



Gene regulation by PHYB alters the plant’s growth responses. But phytochrome B cannot interact directly with the plant’s DNA. For that, plant cells rely on a family of eight proteins called phytochrome-interacting transcription factors (PIFs). &nbsp;



Professor Meng Chen of UC Riverside is the lead author of a recent study investigating the exact biochemical means by which PHYB controls the activity of PIFs. She explained that the PIF protein activity is directly controlled by phytochrome.



The research finds that, in addition to controlling the amount of PIFs that accumulate in plant cells, light-activated phytochrome B also inhibits the activity of the PIFs.&nbsp;



“PIFs are like chefs in a restaurant. You can regulate the number of them. Get rid of half, for example and you reduce the restaurant’s productivity,” explained Chen.&nbsp;



“Alternatively, you could keep all chefs – in our case, PIFs – but tie up their hands. That could also slow down their work the same as getting rid of half of them. That’s what we’re saying.” &nbsp;



These transcription factors have two parts that enable them to carry out this function; one part that binds to genes, and one that activates the genes. This controls the extent to which plants perform different functions, such as growing stems, growing leaves or flowering.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study by Professor Meng and colleagues pinpointed the precise location on the PIFs where a plant’s genes are activated. This is the first time that activator regions have been located in plant cells.&nbsp;



In order to achieve this, the researchers chopped the PIF proteins into small sections and tested experimentally whether any of the pieces was able to activate the genes of cress plants, Arabidopsis thaliana. They found that one of them was able to do this.&nbsp;



For more detail, the scientists then changed the amino acids on a PIF, where they believed the activator region to reside, and observed how the plant responded. This allowed them to be sure where the gene activator region is located as well as how it is built.&nbsp;



“This approach allowed us to surprisingly recognize the similarities between this part of the PIF in plants and a tumor-suppressing protein in humans." In fact, Professor Chen said that the basic gene activation mechanisms in plant, yeast, and animal cells bear remarkable similarities to one another.&nbsp;



“Plants, animals, and fungi (like baker’s yeast) all evolved from a common ancestor, Genetic information in DNA converts to RNA to protein, and that basic function is conserved through these gene activators across three kingdoms of life, before plants, animals and fungi diverged.” &nbsp;



The main application of this research is to enhance the growth and productivity of crop plants in order to increase their yield. For example, crop plants that are planted too close together are able to detect the presence of shadows cast by their neighbors and then to alter their growth pattern to avoid the shade.&nbsp;



This may result in plants that grow long stems to reach unshaded patches of sunlight. If the stems are not edible then the energy used to grow them is wasted energy. It would be preferable if the plant channeled this energy instead into producing edible parts, such as fruits, seeds or leaves.



“You don’t want only stems to grow, you want yield,” explained Professor Chen. “For that, plants need energy to make leaves so they can increase photosynthesis, the process of making food out of sunlight. You want the right part of the plant to grow.”



By reducing the activity or concentration of PIF proteins, Chen’s group demonstrated they could slow down stem growth. Ultimately, the study has uncovered a precise way to make the plants grow shorter, so that seeds, fruit and edible portions of the plant could grow, even in shade.



“Now we know how plants turn genes on and off in response to changes in light and temperature,” said Professor Chen. “It’s the first step toward controlling their responses to light and temperature, and making them more tolerant of different, sometimes challenging environments in a changing climate.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-25909-5">Nature Communications</a>&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A plant’s response to light can be manipulated

Plants interact with their environments and are exceptionally sensitive to...

A new study suggests that peanuts aren’t just a tasty element of a balanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mind-diet-slows-cognitive-decline/">diet</a>, but are also excellent for promoting cognitive function and healthy stress responses in young adults. 



The study, led by the <a href="https://www.ub.edu/web/portal/en/">University of Barcelona</a>, was focused on 63 healthy adults between the ages of 19 and 33 who regularly ate peanuts. The team conducted a range of cognitive analysis tests related to the biochemical indicators of stress responses such as cortisol.&nbsp;



Ultimately, the researchers found that the levels of bioactive compounds related to many health benefits were higher in those who regularly ate peanuts.



“There is evidence suggesting a bidirectional relationship between phenolic compounds and gut microbiota, and some authors have observed an improvement of brain and general health after a polyphenol-rich intervention," explained study co-author Sara Hurtado.



"The prebiotic substances present in peanuts - such as polyphenols - can affect cognition and the mood indirectly through interactions with the gut microbiota and enhance microbiota gut-brain axis."



The study revealed that the compounds that led to health benefits included resveratrol and p-coumaric acid, in addition to short-chain fatty acids and peanut-specific long-chain saturated fatty acids. These results were confirmed in a control group of participants who were given peanut butter that was free of prebiotic substances. Among this group, the cognitive benefits were not evident.



Interestingly, the researchers found that the effects were no different among participants who ate peanut butter instead of whole peanuts, and no age-related differences were found either.&nbsp;



“This is another element of interest in the study, since many nutritional studies show significant differences in patients or subjects with a high risk of suffering diseases, especially the elderly." noted the researchers.



“The high content of prebiotic fiber and polyphenols in peanuts could explain its beneficial effects on the gut microbiota. Due to its poor absorption, fiber and most polyphenols directly reach the colon, where they are metabolized by the microbiota and can modulate the brain biochemistry by acting as neurotransmitters in the central nervous system,” said Hurtado.&nbsp;



“Short-chain fatty acids - such as acetic, propionic, and butyric acids, are the main metabolites produced by gut microbiota, and they seem to have effects against various diseases, including depression and neurodegenerative diseases.”



While the study shows promising results, further research is needed to confirm the conclusions. Using larger studies, the researchers aim to expand the range of studies into the mechanisms involved in the microbiota-gut-brain axis when peanut products are consumed regularly.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The research has been published in <a href="https://www.clinicalnutritionjournal.com/">Clinical Nutrition</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Peanuts improve cognitive function in young adults

A new study suggests that peanuts aren’t just a tasty...

New research from <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a> shows that tidal marshes - the ecosystem where freshwater meets the ocean - are likely to be flooded by rising sea levels in New Jersey. The study, including potential solutions to save the marshes, was published in the journal <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/journal/anc">Anthropocene Coasts</a>.&nbsp;



Study lead author Judith Weis explained how a marsh is destroyed by sea level rise, “Faced with sea level rise, a marsh has two options - it can either increase its elevation at a rate equal to that of sea level rise or it can migrate inland. Otherwise, it will be submerged and drown.”



Marshes are an important habitat for a collection of birds, fishes, crabs and other invertebrates. Tidal marshes are also valuable buffer zones against storms and absorb toxic pollutants, acting as a type of natural filter.&nbsp;



When researchers looked at tidal marshes in New Jersey, they found that half of those investigated were being lost to erosion due to sea level rise. The scientists found that some of this loss was being compensated by the marshes “marching” inland as the sea rose.



Unfortunately, the marsh moving inland sometimes kills trees by exposing them to salt water. Furthermore, such movement isn’t possible everywhere - especially in developed areas.&nbsp;



The researchers also found something unexpected. The tidal marshes moving most substantially away from rising sea levels were occupied by the invasive common reed (Phragmites australis). Although the reed reduces plant diversity, it allows marshes to move. When they die, the reeds accumulate sediment which raises the marsh level. This acts as a better buffer to flooding than natural grasses.&nbsp;



“Some reeds should be left on the marsh surface to give the marsh a better chance of keeping up with sea level rise," said Weis. "This will be controversial and likely opposed by many marsh managers, which will require a revolutionary change in marsh management.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/journal/anc">Anthropocene Coasts</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New Jersey's tidal marshes are vanishing

New research from Rutgers University shows that tidal marshes -...

A new study led by the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> has found that sweet corn, when planted at high densities, has steadily increased in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cleaner-air-improves-corn-and-soybean-yields/">yield</a> over the past 80 years. This historical analysis highlights the importance of planting modern density-tolerant species of corn at their optimal densities, and suggests opportunities to further improve their density tolerance.



“Over time, steady improvement in plant density tolerance has contributed greatly to genetic yield gain in field corn. While our recent research indicates plant density tolerance in modern sweet corn hybrids could be exploited to improve yield, historical changes in plant density tolerance in sweet corn were unknown,” explained study lead author Daljeet Dhaliwal, a doctoral student in the&nbsp;<a href="https://cropsciences.illinois.edu/">Department of Crop Sciences</a>&nbsp;at the University Illinois.



Together with Marty Williams, an adjunct professor of ecology, Dhaliwal tested sweet corn crowding tolerance in hybrids dating from 1934 to 2014. They found that, when grown at high densities, the marketable ear mass increased by a total of 2.85 tons per acre during this period, and an average of 0.36 tons per decade.



The researchers grew one or more hybrids representing each decade at both low (4,000 plants per acre) and high densities (32,000 plants per acre) over the course of three years. Next, they measured key harvest metrics, such as marketable ear mass, crate yield, and recovery. They discovered that the marketable ear mass and the crate yield improved in hybrids grown under high densities. Thus, modern hybrids appear particularly suited for growth at high densities.



“Plant architecture has become more compact. Plants are putting fewer resources into vegetative tissue, so there's less fresh biomass and fewer tillers. That means modern plants are really suitable for growing at higher densities. There's less interference, right? But when you plant them at low densities where there is no competition, these plants are not out-yielding older hybrids,” explained Dhaliwal.



On the other hand, the scientists found that fresh kernel mass and recovery didn’t change much over time.&nbsp;



“No improvement over 80 years suggests a potential breeding objective. What if we could improve recovery?" said Williams. "Until the last decade, few sweet corn breeding programs were measuring recovery. Instead, breeders focused on other important traits, particularly eating quality and disease resistance. But now that we know how little recovery has improved, perhaps it’s worth targeting."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.707852/full">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Planting sweet corn at high densities improves yield

A new study led by the University of Illinois at...

House,Plants,Display.,Indoor,Plants,In,Window

According to a new study commissioned by the organization <a href="https://www.thejoyofplants.co.uk/">The Joy of Plants</a> for the launch of the <a href="https://www.thejoyofplants.co.uk/houseplant-hideout-gives-londoners-slice-plant-paradise">Houseplant Hideout</a> in London, people feel happier and more productive when surrounded by houseplants. These benefits might arise from the soothing effects of the green color, combined with the opportunity to provide care for living beings.



A study of 2,000 British adults found that the perfect working environment should include a selection of plants, bright colors, and decorative stationery. Over half of the survey participants said they feel more productive when surrounded by plants, while two-thirds claimed that plants have a positive impact on their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boys-who-play-sports-as-young-children-have-better-mental-health/">mental health</a>.&nbsp;



Almost three-quarters of the participants had an average of five houseplants in their homes. Many of these individuals expressed that the plants have a calming effect (45 percent), add color to the environment (44 percent), and improve the quality of indoor air (39 percent). Some of them even speak to their houseplants (23 percent), or put music on for them (20 percent).



“As a botanist, I am fascinated by the growing body of scientific evidence which supports what this new consumer research highlights - that being around plants can measurably improve both mental and physical health,” said study lead author James Wong, an ethnobotanist, presenter, and garden designer. “The effect of houseplants seems to work on a number of inter-related levels and the best thing is that the only side effect of this therapy is having a beautiful home.”



According to Wong, the rich green color characterizing houseplants can reduce stress levels and pain, and improve feelings of self-worth. Furthermore, having a living thing to nurture and focus on could act in a similar way to mindfulness exercises, and relieve feelings of anxiety and tension.



“The research stats prove what we’ve often thought - having plants in the home helps moods and productivity,” a spokesman for the Joy of Plants said. “It’s no secret being outdoors and surrounded by nature often helps improve mental health and decrease stress levels and it’s great to see that bringing the outdoors in has a similar effect.”



“Particularly when working, which many of us have been doing from home the past year and a half, people clearly like to have a plant nearby, not only for productivity but also to boost their mood,” he concluded.



The Houseplant Hideout in Shoreditch in London is open between 7th and 10th October.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Houseplants improve mood and productivity

According to a new study commissioned by the organization The...

Research from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has revealed that birds can learn to avoid plants that host toxic insects. While it was known that young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brood-parasites-target-host-birds-with-small-eyes/">birds</a> easily learn to recognize the coloration and markings found on dangerous prey, the new study is the first to show that birds also remember the plants that harbor them.&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that insect herbivores that specialize on easily recognizable host plants gain enhanced protection from predation, independent of their warning signal alone," said study co-author Professor Nick Scott-Samuel.



To investigate, the scientists placed artificial, brightly colored cinnabar caterpillars alongside non-signalling fake caterpillars on two types of plants. The experts used ragwort, the natural host of cinnabar caterpillars, and bramble, a non-toxic plant that is not a natural host of the cinnabar. When foraging birds were abundant, both target types survived better on ragwort compared to bramble.



Study lead author Callum McLellan, a graduate student at the School of Biological Sciences, noted that Cinnabar caterpillars have a recognizable yellow and black appearance. "They also only live and feed on ragwort, which itself has distinctive yellow flowers," said McLellan.



The researchers wanted to learn whether birds use these bright yellow flowers as a cue to avoid ragwort. They removed the spikes of flowers from the ragwort and pinned them onto the bramble.



This experiment revealed that only the non-signaling targets survived better on plants with ragwort flowers, compared to the same plant type without the flowers. Meanwhile, the cinnabar lookalikes survived equally across all of the plants.&nbsp;



"We have shown that birds learn that the ragwort flowers are a cue for danger, so can avoid going anywhere near toxic prey. It’s more efficient to avoid the whole plant than make decisions about individual caterpillars," explained McLellan.



“Interestingly, any camouflaged caterpillars living on the same plant also benefit from birds’ learnt wariness of ragwort, despite being perfectly good to eat," said Professor Innes Cuthill, who devised the study.



“Our results provide the opening to a brand-new discussion on how toxicity initially evolved in insect prey, and the conditions under which warning coloration is, or is not, favored.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Birds can recognize plants that host toxic insects

Research from the University of Bristol has revealed that birds...

Green vegetables are commonly associated as an essential part of a healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-and-high-fat-diets-may-contribute-to-hair-loss/">diet</a>, but new research from the <a href="https://www.usf.edu/">University of South Florida</a> has found that basil and other herbs may protect the brain against Alzheimer’s disease pathology.



The study was based around investigation of the gut microbiome, discovering within it a sense mechanism that explains why fenchol - a natural compound abundant in basil plants - can reduce brain neurotoxicity that leads to Alzheimer’s.



However, the correlation is not direct. The study’s results first demonstrated that short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), metabolites produced in the gut microbiome that provide nutrition for colon cells, also contribute to brain health. SCFA activity is largely reduced in older patients with Alzheimers.



The protective effects are produced when the short-chain fatty acids bind to and activate the fatty acid receptor 2 (FFAR2). The researchers have discovered that the fenchol found in basil is excellent at triggering this biological communication.



“Our study is the first to discover that stimulation of the FFAR2 sensing mechanism by these microbial metabolites (SCFAs) can be beneficial in protecting brain cells against the toxic accumulation of the amyloid-beta (Aβ) protein associated with Alzheimer’s disease,” said principal investigator Hariom Yadav.



The fenchol-rich basil plant was discovered as an appropriate candidate for mimicking the beneficial signaling through a large-scale screening process concerning over 144,000 natural compounds. The results narrowed the range down to just 15 leading candidates, with fenchol showing the highest amount of potential for the stimulation of FFAR signalling.



Upon discovering this, the researchers closely examined the compound, discovering that it decreases senescent neuronal cells (otherwise known as ‘zombie cells’) that are commonly located in brains with Alzheimers. These are cells that build up in aging organs to create an inflammatory environment, sending stress signals that ultimately spread the characteristic to otherwise healthy cells.



“Fenchol actually affects the two related mechanisms of senescence and proteolysis,” explained Yadav. “It reduces the formation of half-dead zombie neuronal cells and also increases the degradation of (nonfunctioning) Aβ, so that amyloid protein is cleared from the brain much faster.”



The discovery shows great potential for the future prevention of Alzheimers, but further research is still required. It is unclear whether concentrated doses of fenchol should be administered as a pill, or if regular consumption of plants such as basil would be sufficient.



“We also want to know whether a potent dose of either basil or fenchol, if it could be delivered by nasal spray, would be a quicker way to get the compound into the brain," explained Yadav.



The study has published in the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience">Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Compound found in basil plants may prevent Alzheimer’s

Green vegetables are commonly associated as an essential part of...

After almost 50 years, specimens collected from a tree found in the Amazon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fires-are-transforming-the-amazon-rainforest-into-savanna/">rainforest</a> have been identified as a new species that has now received its own scientific name.



When Robin Foster originally came across the unusual tree in Peru's Manu National Park in 1973, he could not immediately identify the family to which it belonged. He collected samples of the tree’s leaves and its unusual fruits, which were bright orange and shaped like tiny paper lanterns. He took these home to the United States hoping that other botanists would help with identification.&nbsp;



“When I first saw this little tree, while out on a forest trail leading from the field station, it was the fruit – looking like an orange-colored Chinese lantern and juicy when ripe with several seeds – that caught my attention,” said Foster, retired curator at Chicago’s <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> and now a researcher with the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute.&nbsp;



“I didn’t really think it was special, except for the fact that it had characteristics of plants in several different plant families, and didn’t fall neatly into any family.&nbsp; Usually, I can tell the family by a quick glance, but damned if I could place this one.”



Unfortunately, the other scientists were unable to help solve the mystery of the unknown Amazon species. Not only were they unable to identify the plant as a species that had been previously described by scientists, but they couldn’t even declare it a new species, because they could not determine what family it belonged to.&nbsp;



Nancy Hensold, a botanist at the Field Museum, remembers when Robin showed her a dried specimen of the plant more than 30 years ago.&nbsp;



“I came to work at the Field Museum in 1990, and Robin showed me this plant. And I tried to get it identified using little fine technical characters like boiling up the ovaries of the flowers and taking pictures of the pollen, and after all that, we still didn’t know,” said Hensold. “It really bugged me.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The samples of the mystery Amazon species were then stored in the Field Museum’s herbarium, a library of dried plant specimens, for years, but Hensold and her colleagues didn’t forget about them. “When you have a plant no one can put in a family, it can fall through the scientific cracks. I felt for it,” said Hensold. The team eventually got a grant to study the plant, funded by the Field Museum’s Women’s Board, and the search was on.&nbsp;



DNA analysis of the dried specimens did not work well, so the researchers called on Patricia Álvarez-Loayza, a scientist who works in the Manu National Park, to collect fresh specimens of the plant. The DNA was analyzed in the Field Museum’s Pritzker DNA Laboratory and the results were shocking.



“When my colleague Rick Ree sequenced it and told me what family it belonged to, I told him the sample must have been contaminated. I was like, no way, I just couldn’t believe it,” recalled Hensold.&nbsp;



The DNA analysis revealed that the mystery plant’s closest relatives were in the Picramniaceae family, even though it didn’t look anything like its closest relatives. “Looking closer at the structure of the tiny little flowers I realized, oh, it really has some similarities but given its overall characters, nobody would have put it in that family,” explained Hensold.



The researchers were so surprised that they sent specimens to Wayt Thomas, a curator emeritus at The New York Botanical Garden and an expert in plants of the Picramniaceae family.&nbsp;



“When I opened the package and looked at the specimens, my first reaction was, ‘What the heck?’ These plants didn’t look like anything else in the family,” said Thomas, the lead author of the paper that describes the findings. “So, I decided to look more carefully – once I looked really carefully at the tiny, 2-3 millimeter-long flowers, things fell into place.”



The researchers were finally able to give the Amazon species a scientific name – Aenigmanu alvareziae. The genus name,&nbsp;Aenigmanu, means “mystery of Manu,” while the species name is in honor of Patricia Álvarez-Loayza, who collected the specimens used for the genetic analysis. It is important to note that, although Aenigmanu alvareziae&nbsp;has now been named to science for the first time, it has long been known and used by the indigenous Machiguenga people.



“Plants are understudied in general. Especially tropical forest plants. Especially Amazon plants.&nbsp;And especially plants in the upper Amazon," said Foster.&nbsp;



"To understand the changes taking place in the tropics, to protect what remains, and to restore areas that have been wiped out, plants are the foundation for everything that lives there and the most important to study."



"Giving them unique names is the best way to organize information about them and call attention to them. A single rare species may not by itself be important to an ecosystem, but collectively they tell us what is going on out there.”



The study is published in&nbsp;the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19968175">Taxon</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mystery Amazon species identified after nearly 50 years

After almost 50 years, specimens collected from a tree found...

Recent estimations suggest that up to two-thirds of the Arctic’s near-surface permafrost might disappear by the end of the century due to climate change. A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01162-y">Nature Climate Change</a> warns that rapidly melting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-years-ozone-hole-is-larger-than-antarctica/">Arctic</a> permafrost could cause the spread of nuclear waste and previously unknown pathogens. 



The Arctic permafrost covers nine million square miles and dates up to one million years ago. Over the millennia, it has housed a large variety of microbes and chemical compounds that could be released into the atmosphere once the permafrost melts.



“Changes in the Arctic’s climate and ecology will influence every part of the planet as it feeds carbon back to the atmosphere and raises sea levels,” said study co-author Arwyn Edwards, a Reader in Biology at <a href="https://www.aber.ac.uk/en/">Aberystwyth University</a>. “This review identifies how other risks can arise from the warming Arctic. It has long been a deep-freezer for a range of harmful things, not just greenhouse gases."&nbsp;



"We need to understand more about the fate of these harmful microbes and pollutants and nuclear materials to properly understand the threats they may pose.”



Between 1955 and 1990, the Soviet Union conducted 130 nuclear weapon tests in the Novaya Zemlya archipelago, releasing 265 megatons of nuclear energy. Furthermore, over 100 decommissioned nuclear submarines were scuttled in the Kara and Barents Seas.&nbsp;



However, the Soviet Union is not the only culprit for making the permafrost a deposit of dangerous compounds. The United States' Camp Century nuclear-powered research facility in Greenland also produced a large amount of nuclear waste, which is now scattered within the Greenland ice sheet.



In addition to these man-made chemicals, the permafrost also houses a variety of ancient pathogens. Scientists have already discovered more than 100 species of microorganisms in the Siberian deep permafrost that appear to be antibiotic resistant. As permafrost thaws, there is a strong chance for these pathogens to mix with meltwater and mutate into other antibiotic-resistant strains that could easily cause future pandemics.&nbsp;



“It’s important to understand the secondary and tertiary impacts of these large-scale Earth changes such as permafrost thaw,” warned study lead author Dr. Kimberley Miner, an Earth and Climate Scientist at <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>.&nbsp;



"While some of the hazards associated with the thaw of up to a million years of material have been captured, we are a long way from being able to model and predict exactly when and where they will happen. This research is critical.”&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Permafrost melting may release nuclear waste into the atmosphere

Recent estimations suggest that up to two-thirds of the Arctic’s...

As the human population increases into the mid-21st century, along with its demands for resources, we are faced with the task of working out how to supply food and other goods to people while simultaneously mitigating the effects on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-biodiversity-expected-to-shuffle-but-not-decline/">biodiversity</a> and nature.



“Figuring out how to feed, clothe and power 11 billion people without causing mass species extinction and wrecking the climate is this century’s greatest challenge,” said Andrew Balmford, a professor of Conservation Science at the University of Cambridge and author of a new review on the topic.&nbsp;“Preserving diverse life while meeting humanity’s needs will mean enormous trade-offs, but the evidence is starting to point in one direction.”



Professor Balmford’s review summarizes a decade of global research on trade-offs between crop production and biodiversity.&nbsp;It also uses data from more than 2,500 individually assessed plant, insect and vertebrate species from five continents. The research highlights that there is an urgent need to limit humanity’s escalating impacts on nature while still providing for the needs of the ever-increasing human population.&nbsp;



To this end, Professor Balmford lays out the case for concentrating farming activities in limited, high-yield enterprises that use less land and use it more effectively. This then allows other lands to be spared for re-wilding and the exclusive use of nature.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Most species fare better under this “land sparing” approach than if farming tries to share land with nature – as wildlife-friendly agriculture still damages biodiversity and requires far more land to produce the same amount of food.



Cambridge-led studies on bird and tree species in India and West Africa found that, while all species are “losers” if mid-century food targets are met, more species “fare least badly” under extreme land sparing: concentrated farming that allows the freeing-up of more natural habitat.



“Colleagues have replicated these findings in field sites ranging from Mexico and the Pampas to Colombia and Kazakhstan,” said Professor Balmford. “Most species are specialized to particular environments. Even minor disruptions reduce their populations. This is why so many species decline even with gentler farming.”



“Most species fare much better if habitats are left intact, which means reducing the space needed for farming. So areas that are farmed need to be as productive as we can possibly make them."



He recognizes that some species do thrive on traditional farmlands, particularly in Europe, and so he has proposed that some lightly farmed areas need to remain in order to accommodate the conservation needs of these species. This implies a three-compartment model to farming in the future: high-yield farms maximize food production in the smallest possible land area; some low-yield farming areas are left where species specializing in these habitats can flourish; and the rest of the land is spared for the protection of natural habitats and their associated biodiversity.&nbsp;



The National Food Strategy (NFS), commissioned by the UK government and published this past summer, recommended that Balmford’s three-compartment model should form the basis of a new “Rural Land Use framework." This approach sees high-productivity farming being concentrated into the smallest possible area, thus sparing lands to return to natural habitat. The NFS points out that around 21 percent of farmed land in England will need to be rewilded to some extent or used for biofuel if the UK is to meet its net zero targets for emissions.



Concentrating farming activities in smaller areas while leaving and increasing natural habitats will create a patchwork landscape that will not only conserve species but also allow them to “seed” and repopulate entire regions and nations. These species will no longer be isolated in small fragments of natural habitat but will be able to spread throughout the patchwork of available rewilded lands.



Professor Balmford highlights the success of just four square kilometers of restored wetland near Lakenheath in the east of England. Covered with carrot fields as recently as 1995, the site is now a launchpad for egrets spreading northwards under climate change, and home to the first breeding cranes seen in The Fens for over 300 years.



Additionally, emerging evidence from areas including the Andes, the US and the UK suggests that “land sparing” is important in the fight against climate change, as carbon storage levels are higher if high-yield production allows for more natural vegetation. In this connection, previous research by Balmford suggests that if 30 percent of UK land was spared for woods and wetlands, it could store enough carbon to offset almost all emissions from UK farming by 2050 – and provide a colossal boost to British wildlife.



Important questions remain about how to deliver high yields sustainably, and also about how to ensure that high-yield farming goes hand-in-hand with the protection and restoration of habitats and is not simply used as an excuse for farmers to make more profit.



The framework can also be applied in other fields, including urban planning, recreation, forestry and fisheries. For example, New Zealand is taking the “sparing” approach in forestry management where over 70 percent of forests are protected while the trees are intensively harvested from pockets of pine plantation.&nbsp;



In addition, research suggests the “sparing” philosophy also offers hope for depleted oceans. Fish farming and concentrated areas of locally intensive fishing could provide enough food to allow dramatic expansion of “no-take” marine protected areas where species diversity and natural ecosystems could be left to flourish.&nbsp;



Crucially, future land management policies of this type must be linked to the ability to meet humanity’s need for food and other resources. “You can’t convince people to save nature if they are hungry. We need to ensure we can harvest enough from the biosphere while preserving the planet,” said Professor Balmford. “Conservation has to be pragmatic if we are to interrupt an ecological catastrophe.”



The study is published in the <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14697998">Journal of Zoology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Farmland must be spared, not shared, for nature to thrive

As the human population increases into the mid-21st century, along...

A new study led by the <a href="https://icahn.mssm.edu/">Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai</a> has found that exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/illegal-cannabis-farms-infringe-on-crucial-animal-habitats/">THC</a>, the main psychoactive ingredient of cannabis, can cause birth defects in genetically-predisposed mice.&nbsp;



Cannabis is one of the most frequently used recreational drugs, and is also one of the most common drugs used by pregnant women. However, its effects on embryonic development are not yet clearly understood.&nbsp;



Although it is still restricted in most countries, cannabis has been increasingly legalized for recreational and medical consumption in a variety of places, thus causing the number of its consumers to grow significantly.&nbsp;



According to a research team led by Robert Krauss, a professor of Cell, Developmental, and Regenerative Biology at the Icahn School of Medicine, exposure to THC could exacerbate a mutation that affects a mechanism that cells use to communicate to each other called <a href="http://annalsofneurosciences.org/journal/index.php/annal/article/view/531">Hedgehog signaling</a>.&nbsp;



“Several years ago, it was reported that THC could inhibit Hedgehog signalling in cells grown in a dish,” said Professor Krauss. “We reasoned that THC might be an environmental risk factor for birth defects, but that it would require additional risk factors, such as specific mutations in the genes required for Hedgehog signalling, to induce these defects in mice.”



In order to test this hypothesis, the scientists administered a single dose of THC to pregnant mice approximately a week after conception. Afterward, they studied the embryonic development of the pups, some of which carried a mutation affecting their Hedgehog signaling system.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that the pups without the mutation developed normally, even when exposed to THC. However, the pups that carried the mutation and were exposed to the drug developed a face and brain defect called holoprosencephaly, which is characterized by the failure of the embryonic brain to divide into two lobes.



The findings could have important implications for human health too. “The THC concentration in cannabis is now very high, so it is important to perform epidemiology studies looking at whether cannabis consumption is associated with developmental defects."&nbsp;



"Women are already advised not to consume cannabis while pregnant, but our results show that embryos are sensitive at a very early period, before many women know they are pregnant. Cannabis consumption may therefore be inadvisable even when women are trying to get pregnant,” warned Professor Krauss.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.199585">Development</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How does cannabis use affect embryonic development?

A new study led by the Icahn School of Medicine...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...