Marine life, including algae, can present a kaleidoscope of color, sometimes produced by microstructures rather than pigments. This unique method, known as structural color, is a topic scientists have explored in creatures from fish to seaweeds.



Recent findings show that certain red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-algae-in-lake-erie-may-be-hiding-toxic-deadly-compounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> use structural color in ways that go beyond simple aesthetics. One researcher who has observed this phenomenon for years is Hiroshi Kawai, an expert in marine biodiversity and ecology at <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-s-unexpected-color-shift">Algae’s unexpected color shift </h2>



“Being a diver, I have long been aware that some red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-that-thrives-on-ice-plays-an-unexpected-role-in-glacier-melting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> have a much whiter appearance than their usual red when observed in water,” said Kawai. While exploring coastal waters, experts came across young shoots with a blueish tint near their tips.&nbsp;



Further sampling required specialized gear due to the algae’s fragile nature and deep location. Still, enough specimens were gathered for close inspection with advanced imaging methods.



Researchers classify Asparagopsis taxiformis in the <a href="https://marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&amp;id=146314" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonnemaisoniales</a> order, placing it among seaweeds that show diverse structures. Its delicate branches can break under minor stress, prompting careful handling techniques.



A qualified phycologist, someone who studies <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-revived-after-7000-years-beneath-the-baltic-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a>, can notice subtle traits that casual observers miss. Long hours underwater revealed more than just color variations, including the potential for chemical defenses within the tissues.



Field research in deeper zones sometimes requires special permits for scuba operations and environmental guidelines. Strict adherence to these rules ensured minimal disturbance to local ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-algae-reflect-light">How algae reflect light</h2>



Scientists observed that certain <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1529-8817.2006.00226.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gland cells</a> in the algae contain tightly packed spheres of reflective materials, each measuring about the same size. Uniform spheres reflect light of a single color, which explains why the tips appear blue.



As the algae mature, the sphere sizes vary and scatter multiple wavelengths of color. That color shift results in a whitish tint that can mask the original red tone.



<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhodophyta</a>, the broader group of red algae, includes species that rely on pigments like phycoerythrin. Structural color adds another layer of visual effects beyond the red shades typically seen.



Different wavelengths bounce off micro-scale structures, producing colors without relying on traditional pigments. This phenomenon has also been recorded in certain land plants and insects.



Some marine biologists stress that structural color is often more stable than pigment-based hues. Changes in water clarity or sunlight intensity can still influence how it appears to observers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-protect-algae-from-predators">Colors protect algae from predators</h2>



At the site of these color shifts, researchers found <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22404468/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anti-herbivory chemicals</a> that may deter hungry fish. Some experts propose that the bright hue signals a warning, making the algae less appetizing to potential grazers.



Where the algae’s fruiting structures develop, the lighter tones may help it blend in. This trick could be beneficial in waters where vision-based predators roam.



The presence of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969721038444" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bromides</a> in certain algae species has been documented as a possible deterrent. Some analyses suggest these substances can interfere with fish digestion, encouraging them to seek meals elsewhere.



A shift in shading at different growth stages points to complex interactions between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-play-an-unexpected-role-in-cooling-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> and its environment. Defensive strategies might change as the algae transitions from young shoots to fruiting bodies.



Anti-herbivory strategies in algae can vary, with some relying on tough external layers instead of chemicals. The dual approach of color and substances is less common, drawing renewed interest in laboratory studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-warming-seas">Impact of warming seas</h2>



“As warm-water fish migrate further north, they might pose a significant threat to the algae there that are not protected by such coloration,” explained Kawai. 



Global warming can shift tropical fish populations into cooler regions, increasing grazing pressure on algae not prepared for such threats. 



Such color shifts could lead to reduced numbers of red algae without these visual defenses. This raises concerns about ecosystem changes in regions previously free from tropical fish.



Rising temperatures can alter marine habitats faster than some organisms can adapt. Species with built-in protective traits might outcompete those lacking similar adaptations.



Marine ecologists suggest ongoing surveys to track how expanded grazing ranges affect underwater forests of algae. In some spots, these forests also serve as shelters for small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> animals, amplifying the impact of fish movement.



Warmer conditions also affect the reproductive cycles of many algae species. Faster or altered reproductive phases can intersect with shifting fish populations, compounding the stress on these underwater communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-color-of-algae">Structural color of algae</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.global.hokudai.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokkaido University</a> contributed to the effort, hinting that structural color might be more prevalent in marine plants. Some brown algae were also found to display similar optical features in earlier work.



Such color patterns may serve multiple roles, from camouflage to signaling. Future studies may uncover additional strategies across other algae groups.



Chemical compounds linked to defense could attract interest from various industries. Discoveries about unusual pigments or reflective properties sometimes pave the way for new materials or pharmaceuticals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Stronger global collaboration may spur further research on deep-water algae and their hidden qualities. Closer ties between institutions also help support the extensive fieldwork required to observe these species in their natural habitats.



Collaboration between universities offers a broader perspective on how widespread algae color phenomena may be. Sharing data across continents can reveal patterns that single-site studies might overlook.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09670262.2025.2483980" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Journal of Phycology</a>.



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Red algae use color tricks to warn fish they taste bad

Marine life, including algae, can present a kaleidoscope of color, sometimes produced by microstructures rather than pigments. This unique method, known as structural color, is a topic scientists have explored in creatures from fish to seaweeds. Recent findings show that certain red algae use structural color in ways that go beyond simple aesthetics. One researcher who has observed this phenomenon for years is Hiroshi Kawai, an expert in marine biodiversity and ecology at Kobe University. Algae’s unexpected color shift “Being a diver, I have long been aware...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/">Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies</a> describes how wildlife diversity helps to protect human health. The experts report that restoring and preserving nature is critical for preventing future pandemics. 

The researchers note that a growing collection of evidence suggests that biodiversity loss increases our exposure to both new and established zoonotic pathogens.

"There's a persistent myth that wild areas with high levels of biodiversity are hotspots for disease. More animal diversity must equal more dangerous pathogens. But this turns out to be wrong. Biodiversity isn't a threat to us, it's actually protecting us from the species most likely to make us sick," explained study lead author Professor Felicia Keesing.

Zoonotic diseases like COVID-19 and Ebola are caused by pathogens that can jump from animals to humans. However, animal species vary in their ability to pass along infectious pathogens.

"Research is mounting that species that thrive in developed and degraded landscapes are often much more efficient at harboring pathogens and transmitting them to people," said study co-author and disease ecologist Rick Ostfeld.

"In less-disturbed landscapes with more animal diversity, these risky reservoirs are less abundant and biodiversity has a protective effect."

The mammals that are mostly likely to pass along infectious pathogens to humans include rodents, bats, primates, and carnivores. "The next emerging pathogen is far more likely to come from a rat than a rhino," said the researchers. 

This is because animals with fast life histories tend to be more efficient at transmitting pathogens, explained Professor Keesing, 

"Animals that live fast, die young, and have early sexual maturity with lots of offspring tend to invest less in their adaptive immune responses. They are often better at transmitting diseases, compared to longer-lived animals with stronger adaptive immunity."

As biodiversity is lost in an ecosystem, smaller species that live fast and die young tend to be more successful. Previous studies have shown that human development typically increases the abundance of zoonotic host species, bringing people and risky animals closer together.

"When we erode biodiversity, we favor species that are more likely to be zoonotic hosts, increasing our risk of spillover events," said Ostfeld. "Managing this risk will require a better understanding of how things like habitat conversion, climate change, and overharvesting affect zoonotic hosts, and how restoring biodiversity to degraded areas might reduce their abundance."

"Restoration of biodiversity is an important frontier in the management of zoonotic disease risk. Those pathogens that do spill over to infect humans - zoonotic pathogens - often proliferate as a result of human impacts," said Professor Keesing.

"As we rebuild our communities after COVID-19, we need to have firmly in mind that one of our best strategies to prevent future pandemics is to protect, preserve, and restore biodiversity."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Preserving nature is key for preventing future pandemics

A new study from the Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies...

Researchers at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> are describing a potential new defense mechanism that fireflies use to protect themselves from <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/male-bats-have-a-secret-mating-weapon/">bats</a>. The experts have discovered that fireflies seem to create a "musical shield" to deter bats from attacking them. 

According to the study, fireflies produce strong ultrasonic sounds that are inaudible to the human ear, as well as to the insects themselves.  The researchers theorize that the ultrasonic sounds are meant for the ears of bats to keep them away.

The light flashes used by fireflies for mating also serve as a warning to potential predators that they are poisonous. However, bats have poor vision, which means that a flashing light would have little effect on them. 

Since bats are among the fireflies' most prevalent predators, the researchers believe the insects may have developed an alternative defense mechanism. 

Professor Yossi Yovel explained that the idea for this study came up accidentally, during a study that tracked bats' echolocation. 

"We were wandering around a tropical forest with microphones capable of recording bats' high frequencies, when suddenly, we detected unfamiliar sounds at similar frequencies, coming from fireflies," said Professor Yovel.

Study lead author and PhD student Ksenia Krivoruchku explained that the analysis of high-speed video footage revealed that the fireflies produce the sounds by moving their wings, and that the fireflies themselves cannot hear this frequency. "Consequently we hypothesized that the sound is not intended for any internal communication within the species," said Krivoruchku.

The researchers examined three different species of fireflies that are commonly found in Vietnam. They confirmed that all of the species produce the unique ultrasonic sounds, yet cannot hear them.

Professor Yovel explained that the study did not conclusively determine that fireflies have developed the special defense mechanism specifically for bats. At the same time, there are several findings that point to this conclusion. 

For example, the fact that the fireflies cannot hear the sounds themselves, while bats can both hear and use them to locate the insects, indicates that the noise is likely produced as a warning signal. 

Krivoruochku noted that the discovery that fireflies use ultrasonic sounds is, in itself, an important contribution to the study of predator-prey relations. 

"The idea of warning signals that the sender itself cannot detect is known from the world of plants but is quite rare among animals," said Krivoruchku.

"Our discovery of the 'musical battle' between fireflies and bats may pave the way for further research, and possibly the discovery of a new defense mechanism developed by animals against potential predators."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study hints at a secret "musical battle" between fireflies and bats

Researchers at Tel Aviv University are describing a potential new...

A new study from <a href="https://uci.edu/">UC Irvine</a> indicates that summertime lightning storms in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-arctic-sea-ice-threaten-polar-bears-and-narwhals/">Arctic</a> will soon become much more common as the weather in northern regions is transformed by global warming. 

The researchers found that lightning strikes in the Arctic Circle, which are rarely seen today, will increase by about 100 percent by the end of this century as a result of rising temperatures.

"We projected how lightning in high-latitude boreal forests and Arctic tundra regions will change across North America and Eurasia," said study lead author Yang Chen. "The size of the lightning response surprised us because expected changes at mid-latitudes are much smaller."

Study co-author Professor James Randerson was part of a NASA-led field campaign that studied wildfire occurrence in Alaska during 2015, which was a extreme year for wildfires in the state. 

"2015 was an exceptional fire year because of a record number of fire starts," said Professor Randerson. "One thing that got us thinking was that lightning was responsible for the record-breaking number of fires."

The researchers analyzed more than two decades of NASA satellite data on lighting strikes in northern regions. Based on climate projections from multiple models used by the United Nations, the experts predict a significantly higher number of lightning strikes, which will result from increases in atmospheric convection and more intense thunderstorms.

An increase in the occurrence of lightning could cause a range of issues in the Arctic. Professor Randerson noted that fires burn away short grasses, mosses, and shrubs that are important components of Arctic tundra ecosystems. These plants cover much of the landscape and have many functions, such as keeping the seeds of trees from taking root in the soil.

Once low-lying plants are burned, evergreen forests could expand north and replace what is typically a snow-covered landscape. While snow reflects sunlight back out into space, darker forests will absorb solar energy and contribute to Arctic warming.

Lightning-induced fires in the Arctic would also destroy permafrost, releasing carbon that has been stored in organic materials for centuries. This organic carbon would be released as carbon dioxide and drive regional warming even further. 

According to the researchers, scientists need to start paying more attention to the frequency of Arctic lightning strikes in order to gauge how the story will unfold in the coming decades.

"This phenomenon is very sporadic, and it's very difficult to measure accurately over long time periods," said Professor Randerson. "It's so rare to have lightning above the Arctic Circle." 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lightning strikes will increase by 100 percent in the Arctic

A new study from UC Irvine indicates that summertime lightning...

The environment in which humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-help-children-improve-their-confidence-and-social-skills/">dogs</a> live has an effect on their reproductive health, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a>.

The researchers analyzed the link between geographical location and polluting chemicals present in dog testes, some of which are known to affect reproductive health. 

"In humans and dogs, a temporal decline in semen quality and increased incidence of testicular cancer is hypothesised to be associated with exposure to anthropogenic chemicals, particularly during fetal development," wrote the researchers.

"Human studies suggest that differential exposures to environmental chemicals may be associated with geographical differences in male reproductive health."

The experts chose to focus their study on dogs because they share the same environment as people and are effectively exposed to the same household chemicals as their owners.

The investigation revealed that the chemicals present, as well as any abnormalities in the testes, were different depending on where the dogs lived. 

"For the first time, we have shown that the profile of chemical pollutants found in dog testes depends on where they are from," said study lead author Dr. Rebecca Sumner.

"We have also shown that the same cohorts of dog testes also show geographic differences in testicular pathology and evidence of an imbalance in cells that are important for sperm production."

The researchers noted that for more than seven decades, the potential effects of anthropogenic chemicals on human male fertility have been of significant concern. 

"A series of widely cited meta-analyses have reported a temporal decline in human male semen quality and, over the same period, both increased incidences of testicular germ cell cancer in younger men and malformations of babies at birth have been reported," wrote the study authors. 

"This has led to the hypothesis that these abnormalities are linked to exposure to chemical pollutants and that these developmental and functional abnormalities have the same environmental origin."

Professor Gary England said the current study is of pivotal importance because it used dogs as a sentinel species for humans to focus directly on the testis, where chemicals are likely to influence male reproductive function.

"This work is significant since collectively, these findings indicate that environmental exposures are determined by location and this may underpin regional differences in male reproductive health."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Reproductive health is impacted by geographic location

The environment in which humans and dogs live has an...

A new study from the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> (STRI) reveals that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-dust-solves-the-mystery-of-what-killed-the-dinosaurs/">asteroid</a> impact that killed off the dinosaurs also wiped out almost half of the plants in modern day Colombia. According to the researchers, this series of events paved the way for flowering plants to become dominant in tropical rainforests.

"We wondered how tropical rainforests changed after a drastic ecological perturbation such as the Chicxulub impact, so we looked for tropical plant fossils," said study first author Mónica Carvalho. "Our team examined over 50,000 fossil pollen records and more than 6,000 leaf fossils from before and after the impact."

A team of experts led by STRI paleontologist Carlos Jaramillo studied pollen grains from 39 sites across Colombia, including rock outcrops and cores drilled for oil exploration. The goal of the research was to examine the regional composition of forests before and after the asteroid impact 66 million years ago. 

Evidence obtained from rocks older than the impact showed that rainforests were equally dominated by ferns and flowering plants. Conifers, such as relatives of the Kauri pine and Norfolk Island pine, were abundant at that time. 

After the impact, conifers disappeared almost completely from this region of the tropics and flowering plants took over. The experts report that plant diversity did not recover for around 10 million years after the asteroid collision.

The researchers determined that pre-impact tropical forest trees were spaced far apart, allowing light to reach the forest floor. Within 10 million years after the impact, some tropical forests had grown thick. Trees and vines blocked out most of the light from reaching the  smaller trees, bushes, and herbaceous plants below. 

There was no evidence of legume trees before the extinction event, but diverse and abundant legume leaves and pods emerged after the event. Today, legumes are a dominant family in tropical rainforests that have a big influence on nitrogen cycling. 

Carvalho also collaborated with Conrad Labandeira at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History to investigate insect damage on the leaf fossils.

"Insect damage on plants can reveal in the microcosm of a single leaf or the expanse of a plant community, the base of the trophic structure in a tropical forest," said Labandeira. 

"The energy residing in the mass of plant tissues that is transmitted up the food chain - ultimately to the boas, eagles and jaguars - starts with the insects that skeletonize, chew, pierce and suck, mine, gall and bore through plant tissues. The evidence for this consumer food chain begins with all the diverse, intensive and fascinating ways that insects consume plants."

"Before the impact, we see that different types of plants have different damage: feeding was host-specific," explained Carvalho. "After the impact, we find the same kinds of damage on almost every plant, meaning that feeding was much more generalistic."

Based on evidence from both pollen and leaves, the team proposes three possible explanations for the transformation of tropical forests from conifers to flowering plants: dinosaurs kept pre-impact forests open by feeding and moving through the landscape; falling ash from the impact enriched soils throughout the tropics, giving an advantage to the faster-growing flowering plants; or the extinction of conifer species created an opportunity for flowering plants to take over the tropics.

"Our study follows a simple question: How do tropical rainforests evolve?" said Carvalho. "The lesson learned here is that under rapid disturbances - geologically speaking - tropical ecosystems do not just bounce back; they are replaced, and the process takes a really long time."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Asteroid impact helped flowering plants take over rainforests

A new study from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI)...

Animals are able to create their own cultures just like humans, according to a study led by Professor Andrew Whiten at the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/">University of St. Andrews</a>. The research suggests that animals pick up cultural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beluga-whales-prioritize-family/">traditions</a> from their parents.

“The all-pervading cultural nature of our species was long thought to define what it is to be human, separating us from the rest of the natural world and the evolutionary processes that shape it," said Professor Whiten.

“Other species were thought to live by instinct and some ability to learn, but only humans had culture. Over recent decades, a rapidly growing body of research has increasingly revealed a very different picture.”

Professor Whiten argues that if culture is seen as traditions that are passed on by learning from others, culture is far from unique to humans. In this case, there is evidence of culture among a growing variety of animals, including mammals, fish, birds, and insects.

According to the study, examples of animal culture range from a group of chimpanzees that have a tradition of wearing a blade of grass in one ear to female fruit flies that copy the mate preferences of other females. 

“Culture even pervades animals’ lifetimes, from infancy to adulthood. The young of many species may first learn much from their parents, but increasingly learn from the different skills of others (as we humans do), even coming to focus on those in their group who display the greatest expertise, for example in using tools," explained Professor Whiten.

“Learning from others continues to be important into adulthood. Monkeys and apes dispersing as adults into new groups, avoiding inbreeding, have been found to adopt local habits different to those back home - ‘when in Rome, do as the Romans do’ appears a useful rule of what can be learned from the locals in an environment new to these animal immigrants.”

Professor Whiten said it must be recognized that culture is not a uniquely human capacity that emerged out of the blue, but that it has deep evolutionary roots. 

"Recognition of such practical implications of the reach of animal culture, along with implications for the broad range of scientific disciplines, should help assure a bright future for researchers in this field," said Professor Whiten.

"A new generation of scientists will now surely pursue the wider reaches of culture in animals’ lives, aided by the substantial armoury of methodological advances developed over the past two decades."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.   

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans are not the only animals that create their own culture

Animals are able to create their own cultures just like...

As the consumer electronics industry continues to grow, there is also a growing demand for the raw materials and metals used to make electronic components. Scientists at <a href="https://www.osaka-u.ac.jp/">Osaka University</a> have discovered a sustainable alternative to these finite resources in an unexpected place - crab shells. 

The researchers have developed a nanocarbon material for electronics applications made from chitin, one of the most important biopolymers in nature that is found abundantly in crab shells. 

According to the experts, nanocarbon materials show significant promise for use in electronic devices. Those with porous three-dimensional (3D) structures provide efficient networks for the transport of charge as well as electrolytes and reactants. 

Energy flow through nanocarbon materials can be made even more efficient with the addition of imperfections - known as defects - in the form of nitrogen and other chemical elements.

Porous nanocarbon materials have been previously developed using synthetic polymers and biomass for energy storage, sensing, and electrocatalysis. However, many of these materials were designed with non-renewable resources or require multiple steps to prepare the network and introduce the defects.

The researchers have now developed 3D porous defective nanocarbon materials through the simple pyrolysis, or thermal decomposition, of chitin nanofiber paper. Chitin is an ideal candidate for engineering electronics materials because it contains nitrogen atoms and acts as its own source of defects.

"We were able to control various properties of the final nanocarbon materials by pyrolyzing the chitin nanofiber paper at different temperatures," said study first author Luting Zhu. "The pore structure, specific surface area, and electrical resistivity all varied with the pyrolysis temperature, providing us with a useful means of tuning the material for specific applications."

The pyrolyzed chitin nanofiber papers were successfully used as photosensors - exhibiting lower resistance when exposed to light. They also proved effective as supercapacitor electrodes, with a higher capacity to store an electrical charge than many other nanocarbon materials. This indicates that chitin nanofiber papers have great potential for use in energy storage.

"In order to translate laboratory findings into products that make a significant impact in the real world it is important to streamline processes, which is why we are excited about our simple pyrolysis treatment," explained study co-author Hirotaka Koga. "Furthermore, our successful use of a renewable resource that is generally considered a waste product demonstrates the viability of sustainable electronics."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.rsc.org/journals-books-databases/about-journals/journal-of-materials-chemistry-c/">Journal of Materials Chemistry C</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Crab shells could help pave the way for sustainable electronics

As the consumer electronics industry continues to grow, there is...

A team of researchers at the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> (WCS) has discovered that a group of female monkeys use males as "hired guns" for protection.

The experts report that female putty-nosed monkeys use specific alarm calls to recruit males for protection when leopards and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-coral-reefs-depend-on-poop-from-their-predators/">predators</a> are nearby. 

The research was focused on 19 different groups of wild putty-nosed monkeys in Mbeli Bai, a study area within the forests in Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, Northern Republic of Congo.

The results support the idea that female alarm calls require males to assess the nature of a threat. The study also confirms that the calls are used to recruit males for defense. 

The researchers noted that the female alarm calls do not cease until males produce calls associated with anti-predator defense. 

The observations suggest that alarm-calling strategies depend on the sex of the signaler. Females recruit males for protection, while males reassure the females that they are adequately protected. The male strategy likely ensures future mating opportunities as well.

When they are called upon for defense, the males use general "pyow" calls as they approach the rest of their group. These calls allow the female monkeys to recognize individual males, including the most high quality group defenders, from a distance.

The signature "pyow" calls likely contribute to long-term male reputation in groups, as females prefer mates that can reliably protect their offspring.

"Our observations on other forest guenons suggest that if males do not prove to be good group protectors, they likely have to leave groups earlier than good defenders," said study lead author Frederic Gnepa Mehon. 

"To date, it remains unclear whether female guenons have a saying in mate choice, but our current results strongly suggest this possibility."

During the study, a new type of call was consistently recorded named "kek." The experts found that the males used the "kek" call when exposed to a moving leopard model created by researchers for field experiments. 

Previous studies of putty-nosed monkeys in Nigeria never documented "keks," which indicates that putty-nosed monkeys have different dialects - a strong indicator of vocal production learning. 

According to the study authors, the findings advance our understanding of different female and male alarm calls. Males have more complex vocal ranges than females. However, the cognitive skills needed to effectively utilize simple female ranges are much more complex than those needed for male calling strategies. 

"Sexual selection might play a far more important role in the evolution of communication systems than previously thought," said study co-author Claudia Stephan.

"In a phylogenetic context, what strategies ultimately drove the evolution of communication in females and in males? Might there even be any parallels to female and male monkeys' different communication strategies in human language?"

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Female monkeys use males as "hired guns" for protection

A team of researchers at the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)...

In a new study from the <a href="https://btiscience.org/">Boyce Thompson Institute</a> (BTI), experts have identified a group of bacteria that appear to help fungi and their host plants gain access to soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-seafloor-nutrients-support-the-entire-food-chain/">nutrients</a>. The findings may ultimately lead to inexpensive and environmentally safe methods of enriching soil and improving crop yields.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi interact with the roots of 70 percent of all terrestrial plants to establish symbiotic relationships. The plants trade fatty acids for the fungi's nitrogen and phosphorus. However, AM fungi do not have the enzymes that are needed to release nitrogen and phosphorus from complex organic molecules in the soil. 

Led by Professor Maria Harrison, the BTI team speculated that other soil microbes may help the fungi gain access to soil nutrients. To investigate, the experts set out to determine whether AM fungi are linked to a specific community of bacteria. 

Fungi possess long filament-like structures called hyphae, which they extend into the soil to probe for nutrients. The researchers discovered highly similar bacterial communities on the hyphae of two species of fungi. The composition of these bacteria was distinct from those in the surrounding soil.

"This tells us that, just like the human gut or plant roots, the hyphae of AM fungi have their own unique microbiomes," said Professor Harrison. "We're already testing a few interesting predictions as to what these bacteria might do, such as helping with phosphate acquisition."

"If we're right, then enriching the soil for some of these bacteria could increase crop yields and, ultimately, reduce the need for conventional fertilizers along with their associated costs and environmental impacts."

The team found remarkable consistency in the makeup of bacterial communities from two species of AM fungi, Glomus versiforme and Rhizophagus irregularis. According to Professor Harrison, the function of these bacteria is not yet clear, but their composition has already sparked some interesting possibilities.

"We predict that some of these bacteria liberate phosphorus ions in the immediate vicinity of the filaments, giving the fungus the best chance to capture those ions." "Learning which bacteria have this function could be key to enhancing the fungi's phosphate acquisition process to benefit plants."

Professor Harrison believes the AM fungi may secrete molecules that attract the specialized bacteria, and in turn, the bacterial communities may influence which molecules the fungus secretes.

Some of the microbes present on the hyphae were "bacterial predators" that kill and eat other bacteria by causing them to burst and release their contents. The researchers plan to investigate why these particular types of bacteria assemble on the hyphae. 

"It's possible that the actions of predatory bacteria make mineral nutrients available to everyone in the surrounding soil - predators and fungi alike," said Professor Harrison.

The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ismej/">The ISME Journal</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fungi rely on bacteria to release nutrients for their host plants

In a new study from the Boyce Thompson Institute (BTI),...

Tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-with-short-lives-are-more-sensitive-to-climate-change/">plants</a> with thick leaves will likely respond very successfully to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a>.

The researchers found that competition between species, as well as multiple changes in the plant leaves, could preserve the ability of tropical forests to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. 

It is difficult for scientists to predict how various plant species will respond to rising levels of carbon dioxide, particularly in the tropics. There will be both advantages and disadvantages, and the resulting shifts in vegetation will have a big influence on the future direction of climate change.

The UW team analyzed how tropical forests, which absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide, will respond as atmospheric CO2 levels continue to rise. 

"Our findings suggest that plants with some types of responses, like making their leaves thicker, will ultimately grow better in tropical forests than their competitors," said study senior author Professor Abigail Swann. 

"If these better-growing plants become more common in the forest, the total rates of water and carbon exchange could stay closer to what they are now."

In previous work, Professor Swann and colleagues showed that the CO2-related thickening of tropical plant leaves could worsen climate change, considering that thicker leaves may also be smaller. 

As a result of smaller leaves, plants would capture less sunlight for photosynthesis, absorb less carbon dioxide, and emit less water vapor - factors that all promote global warming. 

The new study expands on the earlier research to account for competition between plant species, and the ratio of carbon and nitrogen in the plants' leaves. 

While more carbon dioxide makes photosynthesis easier, the plants become less efficient at producing energy if nitrogen cannot keep pace with their growth rates. 

Professor Swann said that the verdict is still out on why exactly plants grow thicker leaves under high CO2 levels. However, the results of the modeling study indicate that there may be a simple explanation..

"Thicker leaves can concentrate the nitrogen so that photosynthesis rates per area of leaf are high," explained Professor Swann.

The study authors ran simulations for broad-leaf evergreen tropical trees, such as wild cashew and Ecuador laurel. The trees were programmed to have various responses to the higher carbon dioxide levels, and could compete with one another for space.

The study revealed that trees which were simulated to have more carbon relative to nitrogen in their leaves became less efficient at photosynthesis and emitted less water vapor. 

On the other hand, tree species with leaves that also thickened during the simulations were better at absorbing carbon and producing water vapor, helping them grow tall and stay cool. These trees could also outcompete their neighbors.

"Our work suggests that by shifting which plants are growing in the forest there may be less dire consequences of higher CO2 than other studies have suggested," said Professor Swann. 

"There is a lot we still don't know about how plants are responding to climate change -- this work really sets up some best guesses about which plants will grow best in future tropical forests that we can test with more observations."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19449224">Global Biogeochemical Cycles</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical trees with thick leaves may thrive in higher CO2 conditions

Tropical plants with thick leaves will likely respond very successfully...

A fast-spreading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fiber-may-help-control-inflammation-in-covid-19-patients/">COVID-19</a> variant was already present in 15 countries before it was discovered, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">UT Austin</a>. The experts report that the highly contagious variant B117 was spreading throughout the United States for months by the time it was identified in the United Kingdom.

Study co-author Lauren Ancel Meyers is the director of the COVID-19 Modeling Consortium and a professor of Integrative Biology at the University of Texas at Austin.

"By the time we learned about the U.K. variant in December, it was already silently spreading across the globe," said Professor Meyers. "We estimate that the B117 variant probably arrived in the U.S. by October of 2020, two months before we knew it existed."

The researchers evaluated the likelihood that travelers from the U.K. introduced the variant into 15 countries between September 22 and December 7, 2020. Their analysis showed that the virus variant had almost certainly arrived in all of the 15 countries by mid-November. In the United States, evidence suggests that the variant had arrived by mid-October.

"This study highlights the importance of laboratory surveillance," said Professor Meyers. "Rapid and extensive sequencing of virus samples is critical for early detection and tracking of new variants of concern."

The experts have developed a new tool to help the U.S. expand national surveillance of variants. The online calculator indicates the number of virus samples that must be sequenced in order to detect new variants when they first emerge. 

"Health officials are looking for better ways to manage the unpredictability of this virus and future variants," said study co-author Spencer Woody. "Our new calculator determines how many positive SARS-CoV-2 specimens must be sequenced to ensure that new threats are identified as soon as they start spreading."

According to Woody, the calculator can also help labs figure out how quickly they will detect new variants, given their current sequencing capacity.

"We created this tool to support federal, state and local health officials in building credible early warning systems for this and future pandemic threats," said Professor Meyers.

A recent study published in the journal Nature found that the B117 COVID-19 variant may pose a 61 percent higher risk of mortality within 28 days. A separate investigation published in the BMJ drew a similar conclusion, reporting that B117 increases the risk of 28-day mortality by up to 64 percent.

"SARS-CoV-2 appears able to mutate quickly, and there is a real concern that other variants will arise with resistance to rapidly rolled out vaccines," said Dr. Leon Danon of the University of Bristol. 

"Monitoring for new variants as they arise, measuring their characteristics and acting appropriately needs to be a key part of the public health response in the future."

The UT Austin study is published in the journal <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/">Emerging Infectious Diseases</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Highly contagious COVID-19 variant went undetected for months

A fast-spreading COVID-19 variant was already present in 15 countries...

Coral species that appear to be identical to each other are turning out to be genetically distinct. This hidden diversity could be much more important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-conservation-relies-on-plant-diversity/">conservation</a> than what was previously realized, according to researchers at the <a href="https://www.calacademy.org/">California Academy of Sciences</a>.

In collaboration with an international team of experts, the researchers are taking a new approach to studying hidden coral species by investigating their ecological differences, which have been largely overlooked. 

"We know we are greatly underestimating the true number of coral species because of this hidden diversity," said study lead author Pim Bongaerts. 

"In our study, we provide one of the first clear examples of how coral species that look identical can be very different in terms of their ecology and physiology, from when they reproduce to what depths they prefer. This means that our current framework for classifying reef-building corals based primarily on morphology is limiting our ability to understand and protect them."

The experts conducted one of the most extensive genomic studies of corals to date, including DNA samples from more than 1,400 individuals. The analysis showed that the serpent coral, one of the most widespread corals across the Indo-Pacific, is actually four different species that evolved millions of years ago. 

The researchers were stunned when they realized that the four species are indistinguishable from each other, even at a microscopic level. This prompted the team to look for ecological differences that may have been missed.

An investigation was launched using remotely-operated vehicles and specialized deep diving gear to analyze corals from shallow depths down to 80 meters beneath the surface. 

While individual corals from each species were spotted across the entire range, the experts discovered that each species had distinct depths where they were most abundant. In addition, there were differences in physiological traits, such as protein content, that affect each species' ability to survive and thrive at their preferred depths.

"Knowing what corals thrive where and at which depths is crucial for reef conservation," said study co-author Professor Ove Hoegh-Guldberg of the University of Queensland. 

"Most marine protected areas only protect shallow reefs, which means that hidden species at mesophotic depths are being overlooked by current conservation strategies. We need to give this gap in protection some further thought."

"For years we have asked ourselves about the relevance of this hidden diversity, wondering if we are missing something important," said study co-author Alejandra Hernández-Agreda. 

"By using all of the tools at our disposal to analyze not just the morphology, but all these other aspects of these species as well, we now show how this hidden diversity can mask major differences in these species that could translate to their ability to cope with the rapidly changing conditions of our world's oceans."

The researchers hope their findings reveal the importance of taking a holistic approach to understanding hidden coral species that are potentially harboring key differences which impact global conservation efforts.

"At a moment when reefs around the world are experiencing rapid degradation, it is critical to start capturing this hidden diversity - not only of species, but of how they live and function - to improve our understanding and ability to protect these fragile ecosystems," said Bongaerts.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The hidden diversity of coral species could help save them

Coral species that appear to be identical to each other...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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