<p>Far beneath our feet, beyond the Earth's rocky mantle and molten outer core, lies a dense, solid sphere of iron and other elements like carbon. </p>



<p>This inner core is Earth’s deepest secret, shaping the magnetic field that shields our planet. Yet, scientists still puzzle over how it first formed and what ingredients allowed it to crystallize.</p>



<p>A new study by researchers from the University of Leeds, University of Oxford, and <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> provides fresh insight. </p>



<p>Their findings reveal that carbon may have been the key element that enabled the inner core to solidify billions of years ago.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-earth-s-core-composition-matters">Why Earth's core composition matters</h2>



<p>The makeup of Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/">core</a> determines not only its density but also its thermal and magnetic behavior. </p>



<p>Seismology shows that the core is less dense than pure iron, meaning lighter elements must be present. Candidates like silicon, sulphur, oxygen, and carbon have all been considered.</p>



<p>The latest simulations show that carbon, in particular, may have been essential. Without it, the inner core’s crystallization would have required impossible conditions, making its very existence a mystery.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_hidden-chemistry_illustration_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_hidden-chemistry_illustration_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of Earth with cutaway showing the mantle and inner and outer core. Magnetic field lines produced by the geodynamo extend into space and interact with the solar wind. The iron-rich core at Earth's center is slowly freezing from the inside out. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984775"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Drawing of Earth with cutaway showing the mantle and inner and outer core. Magnetic field lines produced by the geodynamo extend into space and interact with the solar wind. The iron-rich core at Earth's center is slowly freezing from the inside out. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-supercooling-paradox">The supercooling paradox</h2>



<p>Liquids rarely freeze solid the instant they cool past their <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/melting-point" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting point</a>. Instead, they must be supercooled, chilled further before crystals can form. </p>



<p>For molten iron alone, estimates suggested that a massive 800 to 1000 °C (1472 to 1832 °F) of supercooling would be needed.</p>



<p>If that had occurred, the consequences for our planet would have been dramatic. </p>



<p>The inner core would have grown far too quickly, disrupting the delicate balance of heat flow inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-is-not-solid-it-is-shape-shifting-time-for-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/">Earth</a> and destabilizing the magnetic field that protects life from harmful solar and cosmic radiation.</p>



<p>Scientists know this did not happen. Geophysical evidence points instead to a modest level of supercooling, limited to about 250 °C (482 °F). </p>



<p>That small difference between theoretical predictions and observational reality has puzzled researchers for decades.</p>



<p>This contradiction, known as the inner core nucleation paradox, continues to inspire debate, experiments, and advanced simulations aimed at uncovering the true chemistry of Earth’s deepest layers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-the-impossible">Simulating the impossible</h2>



<p>To resolve the paradox, the research team ran atomic-scale simulations of iron mixed with different light elements. </p>



<p>They tested silicon, sulfur, oxygen, and carbon, and watched how each affected the first step of freezing: nucleation.</p>



<p>“Each of these elements exists in the overlying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-ocean-of-fire-shaped-early-earths-core-according-to-a-new-study/">mantle</a> and could therefore have been dissolved into the core during Earth’s history,” explained co-author Associate Professor Andrew Walker from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.</p>



<p>“As a result, these could explain why we have a solid inner core with relatively little supercooling at this depth. The presence of one or more of these elements could also rationalize why the core is less dense than pure iron, a key observation from seismology.”</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_cross-section_convection_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_cross-section_convection_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Cross section of the Earth showing the mantle, outer core and inner core. Convection in the outer core produces Earth's geomagnetic field. The properties of Earth's iron-rich core are key to understanding our planet's deep interior, from its temperature to the way it generates the global magnetic field. The core's exact chemistry remains unknown. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984773"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Cross section of the Earth showing the mantle, outer core and inner core. Convection in the outer core produces Earth's geomagnetic field. The properties of Earth's iron-rich core are key to understanding our planet's deep interior, from its temperature to the way it generates the global magnetic field. The core's exact chemistry remains unknown. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-drives-earth-s-core-freezing">Carbon drives Earth's core freezing</h2>



<p>The simulations revealed that silicon and sulfur actually hindered freezing, which would have increased the supercooling requirement. Carbon, however, had the opposite effect.</p>



<p>With 2.4 % carbon, the required supercooling dropped to about 420 °C (788 °F). Still too high, but much closer to reality. </p>



<p>Extrapolating further, a carbon content of 3.8 % reduced the figure to 266 °C (511 °F), which is consistent with geological evidence.</p>



<p>This makes carbon the only element so far shown to both enable nucleation and align with seismic observations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-seeds-needed">No seeds needed</h2>



<p>Unlike hail forming around dust in clouds, Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-how-gold-reaches-earths-surface-from-the-mantle/">core</a> appears to have frozen without “nucleation seeds.” </p>



<p>Tests of possible seed materials, like oxides or metals, show they would melt or dissolve before reaching the center. That leaves chemistry itself, specifically the presence of carbon, as the driver of solidification.</p>



<p>“It is exciting to see how atomic scale processes control the fundamental structure and dynamics of our planet," said lead author Dr. Alfred Wilson from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>. </p>



<p>"By studying how Earth’s inner core formed, we are not just learning about our planet’s past. We’re getting a rare glimpse into the chemistry of a region we can never hope to reach directly and learning about how it could change in the future.”</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_iron-carbon-atoms-nucleating_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_iron-carbon-atoms-nucleating_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of iron and carbon atoms nucleating to form solids which could initiate growth of Earth's solid inner core. The study used atomic scale simulations to identify solids nucleating in supercooled liquids. Carbon atoms can accelerate this process, perhaps enough to trigger the freezing of Earth's solid inner core. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984777"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Drawing of iron and carbon atoms nucleating to form solids which could initiate growth of Earth's solid inner core. The study used atomic scale simulations to identify solids nucleating in supercooled liquids. Carbon atoms can accelerate this process, perhaps enough to trigger the freezing of Earth's solid inner core. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-s-role-in-earth-s-core">Carbon's role in Earth’s core</h2>



<p>The research also helps refine estimates of when the inner core formed. Some argue it began crystallizing over two billion years ago, while others suggest it happened less than half a billion years ago. </p>



<p>By identifying carbon as the critical player, scientists can narrow down these timelines. </p>



<p>This enables a better understanding of how Earth’s deep engine has evolved to influence the magnetic field, surface conditions, and even the long-term habitability of our planet.</p>



<p>The message is clear: carbon is more than a surface element of life. It may also be the hidden architect of Earth’s inner heart, shaping its stability across geological time.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62841-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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Scientists have changed their minds again about the composition of Earth's core

Far beneath our feet, beyond the Earth's rocky mantle and molten outer core, lies a dense, solid sphere of iron and other elements like carbon. This inner core is Earth’s deepest secret, shaping the magnetic field that shields our planet. Yet, scientists still puzzle over how it first formed and what ingredients allowed it to crystallize. A new study by researchers from the University of Leeds, University of Oxford, and University College London provides fresh insight. Their findings reveal that carbon may have been the key element...

<p>In the vast savannas of Africa, elephant herds roam with a quiet grace that often hides the complexity behind their movements. From a distance, it may look like these giants simply wander in search of food and water. But new research reveals a different story - one of calculation, strategy, and energy balance.</p>



<p>African elephants, it turns out, don’t just walk aimlessly. They think before they move.</p>



<p>A recent study published in the <em>Journal of Animal Ecology</em> shows that elephants are highly efficient in how they meet their immense daily energy needs. The research brings together over two decades of data from 157 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> in Northern Kenya.</p>



<p>With advanced tracking and modeling tools, scientists have uncovered how elephants choose their paths based on terrain, food availability, and energy cost. The insights have far-reaching implications for conservation, especially in the face of habitat loss and climate change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-save-energy-to-survive">Elephants save energy to survive</h2>



<p>Being an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-elephants-teeth-can-help-us-track-animal-movements/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> comes with some heavy burdens - literally. These massive herbivores, often weighing several tons, need to consume huge amounts of low-calorie vegetation every single day.</p>



<p>Their enormous size gives them strength, but it also demands constant refueling. Unlike predators that hunt calorie-dense prey, elephants must spend most of their day eating just to keep up.</p>



<p>But eating isn’t the only task that burns energy. Finding food in harsh, fragmented landscapes means walking long distances. Each step taken across uneven ground, up steep hills, or through dry plains carries a cost. </p>



<p>For elephants, movement isn’t just a means of travel - it’s a calculation. The right decision can save hours of energy; the wrong one can drain their reserves.</p>



<p>That’s why understanding how elephants navigate their environment matters. Knowing the logic behind their paths helps scientists protect their habitats better and ensure that conservation strategies match their real-world needs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-elephants-for-22-years">Tracking elephants for 22 years</h2>



<p>To uncover the patterns behind <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinct-elephant-fossils-reveal-early-evidence-of-animal-butchery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> movement, researchers from the University of Oxford, the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>), and Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena worked with Save the Elephants, a UK-registered charity based in Kenya. </p>



<p>Over 22 years - from 1998 to 2020 - they collected GPS data from 157 elephants moving across Northern Kenya.</p>



<p>This dataset provided a rare and rich look at how elephants respond to their environment. The patterns were clear. Most elephants consistently avoided areas that would require too much effort to cross. </p>



<p>Rough terrain and steep slopes saw far fewer elephant visits. Instead, elephants selected flatter, smoother paths - even if those routes were longer. Energy saved, not distance shortened, seemed to be the deciding factor.</p>



<p>The study showed that 94% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-movement-is-influenced-by-habitat-suitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> avoided high-cost terrain. These weren't random decisions. Elephants appeared to actively weigh their options and pick the path that required the least energy, a strategy that may be essential for survival in unpredictable landscapes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-water-choices">Food and water choices</h2>



<p>Terrain wasn’t the only factor in elephant decision-making. Vegetation quality also played a big role. Around 93% of elephants showed a preference for areas rich in plant productivity. </p>



<p>These areas offered more reward for less walking - ideal for large herbivores who need to eat for hours each day. The link between green areas and elephant movement was strong and consistent across seasons.</p>



<p>Water, too, influenced their choices, but not in the way one might expect. Some elephants stayed close to rivers or waterholes. Others traveled far and wide. The researchers found that while water access is important, elephants make complex individual choices about how much they prioritize it.</p>



<p>This adds another layer of complexity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-elephant-conflict-will-escalate-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> behavior and shows that conservation plans need to leave room for variation among individuals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-and-strategy-of-elephants">Speed and strategy of elephants</h2>



<p>The study also uncovered a surprising detail: elephants are even more selective about terrain when moving at higher speeds. When walking slowly, 74% of elephants avoided difficult landscapes. </p>



<p>But when moving at intermediate or fast speeds, those numbers climbed to 87% and 93% respectively. That means the faster they go, the more carefully they choose their route.</p>



<p>This strategy mirrors what scientists have seen in other species. Just like birds that ride thermal uplifts to glide with less effort, elephants appear to make conscious choices to preserve energy. These choices are not just about immediate survival. </p>



<p>They shape long-term success, reproduction, and herd stability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-tools-to-understand-old-trails">New tools to understand old trails</h2>



<p>To analyze the movement data, the researchers used a modeling method called ENERSCAPE. This system estimates how much energy it takes for an elephant to move across various types of terrain, based on the animal's body mass and the slope of the land.</p>



<p>When combined with satellite data on vegetation and water, the tool creates a detailed picture of the “energy landscape” each elephant navigates.</p>



<p>They also used step-selection functions, a statistical method that compares the places elephants actually visited with nearby places they could have visited but didn’t. By examining these choices, the researchers identified which environmental factors shaped elephant routes most.</p>



<p>This approach revealed more than just preference - it showed decision-making. Elephants don’t walk randomly. They make careful, context-aware choices that reflect an understanding of effort, reward, and terrain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-elephant-energy-logic">Following elephant energy logic</h2>



<p>These findings aren’t just academic. They could change how conservation areas and migration corridors are planned. </p>



<p>Many protected zones are created based on where elephants are seen most often. But this new research suggests that energy cost must be a key factor in design. A path that looks good on paper may be too steep or rugged for real elephant use.</p>



<p>Planning must also consider individual differences. Some elephants prefer staying near water. Others roam far. A rigid conservation plan that doesn’t account for these preferences may fall short. Flexibility and energy-efficiency need to be built into every project aimed at protecting these animals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-disturbance-and-change">Climate, disturbance, and change</h2>



<p>The environment is changing fast. As temperatures rise and rainfall patterns shift, food and water availability will also change. </p>



<p>That could force elephants to alter their routes, raising the risk of human-elephant conflict. The study's authors believe their work can help predict how elephants might respond to these changes - and guide conservation efforts accordingly.</p>



<p>Future work will improve the ENERSCAPE model by adding seasonal data, human activity maps, and climate projections. These enhancements will give a fuller picture of how elephant behavior adapts to a world in flux.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-save-energy-whenever-possible">Elephants save energy whenever possible</h2>



<p>“While more detailed research is needed to fully understand how an elephant uses its habitat, this study identifies a central decision-making factor for travelling elephants: save energy whenever possible,” noted co-author Professor Fritz Vollrath from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.</p>



<p>“These new results have important implications for assessing and planning conservation and restoration measures, such as dispersal corridors, by explicitly accounting for the energy costs of moving,” added lead researcher Dr. Emilio Berti from the&nbsp;German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research&nbsp;and&nbsp;Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena.</p>



<p>Elephants, long admired for their memory and strength, now reveal another layer of intelligence - how they move with intention. In learning to think like elephants, we may find better ways to protect them.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <em><a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652656" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>. </em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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Elephants choose their paths carefully to conserve energy

In the vast savannas of Africa, elephant herds roam with...

<p>Across the United States, a quiet crisis is unfolding in forests, grasslands, and wetlands. Native plants, many of which have thrived in their home ecosystems for thousands of years, now face an impossible race. </p>



<p>Climate change is shifting temperature zones and seasonal patterns faster than these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> can naturally respond. Unlike animals, most plants cannot migrate quickly. Their slow dispersal, tied to seed movement and favorable growing conditions, means many will not survive unless we intervene.</p>



<p>Scientists and conservationists are grappling with a difficult question: Should we help these native species relocate? And if so, how do we do it responsibly?</p>



<p>The idea of helping plants move into nearby habitats, known as “managed relocation,” is gaining momentum. But moving plants is not without danger. </p>



<p>Many invasive species, which now plague American ecosystems, arrived in similar ways - carried by humans, intentionally or not, into places they never belonged.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-native-plants-may-save-them">Moving native plants may save them</h2>



<p>Managed relocation sounds like a solution, but it comes with serious risks. The ecological scars of past mistakes remain. Kudzu, once planted for erosion control, now chokes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>. </p>



<p>Purple loosestrife clogs wetlands. Japanese honeysuckle overruns fields. All were introduced with good intentions. All became ecological threats.</p>



<p>Despite these examples, doing nothing could be worse. Climate projections show ecosystems changing rapidly, putting slow-moving native species at risk of extinction. Human-assisted movement might be their only shot.</p>



<p>Thomas Nuhfer is the lead author of a new study published in <em>Global Change Biology</em> and a graduate student in organismic and evolutionary biology at the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a>.</p>



<p>​“We know that, because of climate, native species need to move,” said Nuhfer. "But many of the people working to manage invasive plant species have real concerns about unwittingly contributing to the problem if we start moving native species around.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessing-native-plant-traits">Assessing native plant traits</h2>



<p>To solve this challenge, researchers need to understand what makes some plants thrive in new places and others wreak havoc. </p>



<p>This is where Nuhfer and his advisor, Professor Bethany Bradley, step in. Their new research examines how specific plant traits contribute to success (and potential risk) when relocating native species.</p>



<p>“We’ve made the mistake of introducing invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> so many times in the past and we don’t want to keep making that mistake. But in a changing climate, doing nothing might do even more harm," said Professor Bradley. </p>



<p>The team in Bradley’s lab has already shown that controlling invasive species is one of the strongest tools local communities can use to prepare for climate change. The researchers have tracked how invasive species numbers are rising rapidly.</p>



<p>In many ecosystems, plants and animals need to shift their range by at least 3.25 kilometers per year just to keep pace with warming temperatures and shifting seasons.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-candidates-for-relocation">Good candidates for relocation</h2>



<p>The study was focused on the traits that determine whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-lettuce-nasas-plans-to-grow-nutritious-plants-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> can successfully relocate - and whether it will become a problem after doing so.</p>



<p>Traits like rapid growth, long flowering periods, and seed dispersal by wind often help plants survive in new environments. But these same traits have also been used to flag invasive species.</p>



<p>“We often use specific plant characteristics - like how quickly a plant grows, how long it flowers or whether its seeds can be spread by the wind - to determine its risk of becoming invasive,” said Nuhfer. “But these are also traits that could help a native species to survive in a new environment.”</p>



<p>The study draws from a wide range of literature in both restoration and invasion ecology. The researchers also reviewed the risk assessment tools used by land managers. </p>



<p>Their conclusion is that many traits promoting establishment are shared by both invasive and native species.</p>



<p>However, key differences emerge later - particularly when plants begin to spread. It’s in this phase that certain traits, such as size or toxicity, begin to distinguish potentially harmful species from those that simply need help surviving.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drawing-the-line-between-help-and-harm">Drawing the line between help and harm</h2>



<p>Some traits, like a high metabolic rate, support a plant’s ability to establish itself in new surroundings. These traits apply to both native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and invasive ones. But other traits, especially those linked to unchecked growth or ecosystem disruption, raise red flags.</p>



<p>Large size, for example, not only helps plants establish but also enables them to dominate landscapes. This can lead to overgrowth and displace local flora. </p>



<p>Toxicity is another trait of concern. While it doesn’t help a plant settle in, it allows it to repel herbivores and spread aggressively - potentially harming native species that share the habitat.</p>



<p>This creates a dilemma. If we avoid all traits associated with invasive species, we may end up ruling out the very traits that could help a plant survive. On the other hand, ignoring the signs of future invasiveness could create a new wave of ecological damage.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-the-way-we-measure-risk">Changing the way we measure risk</h2>



<p>The solution, according to the study, is not to ban all plants with certain traits but to refine our risk assessments. </p>



<p>Current tools used by land managers often take a one-size-fits-all approach. If a plant shares any trait with a known invasive, it may be excluded from relocation efforts. That overly cautious approach could undermine the entire strategy.</p>



<p>“Many of the current risk assessments that managers are using in the field are so risk-averse as to guarantee that managed relocation will fail,” said Professor Bradley.</p>



<p>“And if the relocation fails, then we’ve wasted all sorts of resources and haven’t helped native plants persist," noted Nuhfer.</p>



<p>Instead, the researchers suggest focusing on traits that are most likely to lead to ecological harm - such as toxicity or seed dispersal by water - rather than those that simply help a plant get established.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-forward-in-a-warming-world">A path forward in a warming world</h2>



<p>This research, supported by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.usgs.gov/programs/climate-adaptation-science-centers/northeast-casc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey Northeast Climate Adaptation Science Center</a>, marks a pivotal moment in conservation thinking.</p>



<p>As climate change accelerates, strategies that once seemed risky are now essential. Managed relocation, when guided by science and nuanced risk assessments, could help preserve the ecological heritage of countless regions.</p>



<p>By learning from past mistakes and using precise criteria, scientists and conservationists may strike a balance - helping native plants survive without repeating the errors that let invasive species flourish.</p>



<p>The stakes are high. But with thoughtful, evidence-based action, we can give native species a fighting chance in a changing world.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.70145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.</em></p>



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Native plants can’t outrun climate change on their own

Across the United States, a quiet crisis is unfolding in...

<p>Chewing gum may be doing more than just freshening your breath. According to a recent study, each piece of gum could be releasing hundreds - or even thousands - of microplastic particles into your mouth.</p>



<p>This means that, along with the minty taste, you might be getting a mouthful of plastic.</p>



<p>These findings come from scientists at the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA), who recently conducted a pilot study to test how much microplastic can be released during gum chewing. Their goal wasn’t to raise alarm but to shed light on an everyday source of plastic exposure that hasn’t been widely considered.</p>



<p>“Our goal is not to alarm anybody,” said Sanjay Mohanty, the project’s principal investigator and an engineering professor at UCLA.</p>



<p>“Scientists don’t know if microplastics are unsafe to us or not. There are no human trials. But we know we are exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/4200-harmful-plastic-chemicals-hidden-in-everyday-objects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastics</a> in everyday life, and that’s what we wanted to examine here.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-plastic-than-you-think">More plastic than you think</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastics</a> - tiny particles between 1 micrometer and 5 millimeters wide - are found in food, drinks, packaging, clothes, and even the air we breathe. But chewing gum, despite being so common, hasn't received much attention as a source.</p>



<p>Gum is typically made from a rubbery base, along with sweeteners and flavorings. Some gums use synthetic rubber made from petroleum-based plastics. Others use natural bases like tree sap.</p>



<p>The UCLA team wanted to see if chewing either kind would release microplastics.</p>



<p>“Our initial hypothesis was that the synthetic gums would have a lot more microplastics because the base is a type of plastic,” explained Lisa Lowe, a graduate student at UCLA and the study’s presenter.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-tests-were-done">How the tests were done</h2>



<p>The researchers picked ten different chewing gum brands - five synthetic and five natural. To limit variables, all seven samples of each gum brand were chewed by the same person.</p>



<p>In one test, the person chewed each piece for four minutes, pausing every 30 seconds to produce saliva samples. After that, a mouth rinse was added to the sample.</p>



<p>In another test, they collected saliva every few minutes for up to 20 minutes. The samples were examined under a microscope and through spectroscopy to detect and identify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-particles-found-in-99-of-tested-seafood-samples/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic particles</a>.</p>



<p>On average, each gram of gum released about 100 microplastic particles. Some pieces released as many as 600 particles per gram. </p>



<p>Since most pieces of gum weigh between two and six grams, a large piece could release up to 3,000 microplastics while it is being chewed. And with the average person chewing 160 to 180 pieces per year, that could add up to around 30,000 ingested plastic particles annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-synthetic-gums">Not just synthetic gums</h2>



<p>“Surprisingly, both synthetic and natural gums had similar amounts of microplastics released when we chewed them,” said Lowe.</p>



<p>Both types contained the same kinds of plastic - polyolefins, polyethylene terephthalates, polyacrylamides, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastics-can-be-passed-from-mothers-to-unborn-babies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polystyrene</a>. The most common of these were polyolefins, which include common plastics like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-the-human-blood-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polyethylene</a> and polypropylene.</p>



<p>Most of the microplastics were released during the first two minutes of chewing. But this wasn’t because of enzymes breaking things down. It was simply due to the abrasive motion of chewing.</p>



<p>“The plastic released into saliva is a small fraction of the plastic that’s in the gum,” says Mohanty.</p>



<p>In fact, by the eight-minute mark, 94% of the detectable plastic particles had already been released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-you-do-about-it">What can you do about it?</h2>



<p>While the study only tracked plastic particles 20 micrometers or larger due to equipment limits, it's possible that even smaller particles went undetected. These could include nano-sized plastics, which may be more easily absorbed by the body. </p>



<p>More research will be needed to understand the presence and potential health impacts of the nanoparticles.</p>



<p>If you’re concerned, chewing a single piece of gum for longer rather than popping in several for a short chew may help reduce your exposure.</p>



<p>Aside from the potential health concerns, improperly discarded gum also adds to plastic pollution in the environment. “So, be mindful about the environment and don’t just throw it outside or stick it to a gum wall,” said Mohanty.</p>



<p>Next time you reach for a stick of gum, remember that how you chew it and how you dispose of it could matter more than you think.</p>



<p>Details of <a href="https://acs.digitellinc.com/p/s/chewing-gums-unintended-sources-of-ingested-microplastics-in-humans-618916">the study</a> will be presented at the spring meeting of the American Chemical Society.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Your chewing gum may be full of microplastics

Chewing gum may be doing more than just freshening your...

Mejannes-le-clap,,Gard,,France,07,30,2013,,Incredible,Colors,Of,The

<p>Deep underground, where sunlight never reaches, ancient minerals lie hidden within the rock - until illuminated by a black light. In that moment, once-drab walls blaze with color: pinks, blues, and greens glow from within.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For scientists studying how life survives in extreme environments, these fluorescent clues may offer critical insights - not only into Earth’s history, but also into the potential for life on other worlds, like Jupiter’s moon Europa.</p>



<p>At the Spring 2025 meeting of the American Chemical Society (<a href="https://www.acs.org/meetings/acs-meetings/spring.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS</a>), researchers led by astrobiologist Joshua Sebree from the <a href="https://uni.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Northern Iowa</a> are presenting new findings about the chemical makeup of cave systems and what it can teach us about life in places humans have yet to reach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mineral-fingerprints-and-ancient-clues">Mineral fingerprints and ancient clues</h2>



<p>Sebree and his students have explored caves across the U.S., including South Dakota’s Wind Cave and Minnesota’s Mystery Cave, mapping their twisting passages and hidden formations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As they worked, the researchers also scanned the cave walls with ultraviolet light, uncovering brilliant displays of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-glow-in-the-dark-fluorescence-found-to-be-very-common-in-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluorescence</a> created by mineral impurities embedded in the rock over thousands of years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These luminous patches often mark where water once flowed or pooled, leaving behind chemical traces. What looks like an ordinary stone wall under normal light is transformed under UV.&nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_normal_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_normal_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1s.webp" alt="A section of South Dakota’s Wind Cave seen under normal white light (left image) transforms into something otherworldly when placed under UV light (right image). Credit: Joshua Sebree" class="wp-image-1963441"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>A section of South Dakota’s Wind Cave seen under normal white light (left image) transforms into something otherworldly when placed under UV light (right image). Click to enlarge. Credit: Joshua Sebree</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>“The walls just looked completely blank and devoid of anything interesting,” Sebree said. </p>



<p>"But then, when we turned on the black lights, what used to be just a plain brown wall turned into a bright layer of fluorescent mineral that indicated where a pool of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-ocean-water-shaped-early-life-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> used to be 10,000 or 20,000 years ago.”</p>



<p>The glowing hues provide more than visual drama. They reveal distinct chemical compositions that help scientists understand how the cave formed and how it may have supported life.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These “chemistry fossils” are collected not by breaking off rock samples, but through a non-destructive method: using a handheld spectrometer, the team gathers fluorescence spectra, essentially chemical fingerprints of the rock’s surface, right in the field.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-new-type-of-cave-map">Building a new type of cave map</h2>



<p>Undergraduate student Anna Van Der Weide is building a public database of these spectral fingerprints, adding a new layer of chemical information to traditional cave maps. </p>



<p>This work could help paint a clearer picture of a cave’s formation and environmental history.</p>



<p>Other students are contributing to the broader project as well. Jacqueline Heggen is studying the caves as models for astrobiological research on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extremophiles-and-the-quest-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extremophiles</a> - organisms that live in extreme conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Jordan Holloway is developing an autonomous spectrometer that could be used in future missions to planets or moons. </p>



<p>Celia Langemo is researching biometric monitoring systems to help ensure the safety of scientists exploring harsh underground environments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glowing-minerals-and-cave-development-nbsp">Glowing minerals and cave development&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The work is far from easy. At just 48 degrees Fahrenheit (9°C), caves like Minnesota’s Mystery Cave require extra planning to keep instruments functioning. </p>



<p>For instance, the experts had to bury the spectrometer’s batteries in hand-warmers to keep them from dying. </p>



<p>Reaching areas of interest sometimes meant crawling through tunnels less than a foot wide for long distances or standing in freezing water while conducting measurements.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1s.webp" alt="One of Sebree’s students, Jacqueline Heggen, showing off glowing formations within Wind Cave. Credit: Joshua Sebree" class="wp-image-1963443"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>One of Sebree’s students, Jacqueline Heggen, showing off glowing formations within Wind Cave. Click to enlarge. Credit: Joshua Sebree</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>Despite these physical obstacles, the fieldwork has already revealed major insights. In Wind Cave, the team found that manganese-rich water had carved out the cave and created zebra-striped calcites - formations that glow pink under black light.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These formations appear to have contributed to cave expansion by fracturing weaker rock, suggesting a previously overlooked mechanism of cave development.</p>



<p>“It’s a very different cave forming mechanism than has previously been looked at before,” Sebree explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-into-other-worlds">A glimpse into other worlds</h2>



<p>The bigger picture, though, reaches far beyond Earth. Because the chemistry in caves like Wind Cave may resemble conditions on icy moons such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-on-europa-co2-discovery-by-webb-increases-the-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a>, Sebree’s research helps scientists imagine how life could survive in dark, isolated, mineral-rich environments far from the sun.</p>



<p>Looking ahead, Sebree hopes to confirm the accuracy of fluorescence mapping by comparing it to traditional, more invasive techniques. </p>



<p>He also wants to explore why some cave waters glow under UV light, which might help explain how life from Earth’s surface could influence ecosystems far underground.</p>



<p>Ultimately, Sebree’s work is driven by a larger question: if life can thrive in the deepest, coldest corners of our planet, what’s stopping it from doing the same in the outer reaches of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-structure-discovered-at-the-edge-of-our-solar-system-oort-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>?</p>



<p>“It was really cool to see how you can apply science out in the field and to learn how you function in those environments,” Van Der Weide said. </p>



<p>That blend of fieldwork, curiosity, and science may one day help uncover life in places no human has ever gone.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Fluorescent caves on Earth can teach us about extraterrestrial life

Deep underground, where sunlight never reaches, ancient minerals lie hidden...

<p>In the fight against obesity and related health issues, attention is often focused on the nutritional content of meals or total calorie intake. Yet new research in Japan suggests that how we eat - particularly the pace at which we chew and swallow - could play a significant role in regulating food consumption and potentially combating obesity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Led by professor Katsumi Iizuka from <a href="https://www.fujita-hu.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fujita Health University</a>, the team’s work sheds light on straightforward methods for slowing meal duration that might help people consume less food overall.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-eating-habits">Rethinking eating habits</h2>



<p>Though numerous studies have underscored the link between slower eating and reduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaking-free-from-ultra-processed-foods-the-surprising-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food intake</a>, Japan-specific evidence on how best to slow eating has been limited.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“While nutritional science is often concerned with food metabolism and absorption and dietary content, there’s limited evidence in Japan on dietary behavior that connects the two,” Iizuka said.</p>



<p>The researchers set out to explore factors influencing meal duration and eating behavior, from sex differences to chewing patterns and the potential impact of external rhythmic stimuli - namely, metronome beats or music that might prompt people to chew more slowly.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-meal-duration">A closer look at meal duration</h2>



<p>The study involved 33 healthy adults between the ages of 20 and 65 who were asked to eat slices of pizza under a range of experimental scenarios.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The scientists recorded each participant’s meal duration, their number of chews and bites, and the speed at which they chewed. In some trials, participants listened to a slow metronome of about 40 beats per minute, while in others, they ate in silence.</p>



<p>When analyzing these data, several notable results emerged. First, the researchers found that there were sizable differences between men and women in how quickly they finished eating. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-habits-across-genders">Eating habits across genders </h2>



<p>Women generally took longer on average to finish a slice (about 87 seconds) than men (about 63 seconds), and they tended to chew and bite more often (107 chews and 4.5 bites, compared with men’s 80 chews and 2.1 bites). However, both sexes had similar “chewing tempos” - that is, they chewed at roughly the same rate.</p>



<p>Once the researchers accounted for these sex-related differences, they observed that how long people took to finish a slice of pizza strongly correlated with how many chews and bites they performed. By contrast, body mass index (BMI) and chewing tempo had no direct tie to total meal duration.</p>



<p>Perhaps most striking, the team found that having participants listen to a slow metronome beat significantly increased their mealtime. This means that rhythmic cues could effectively encourage people to consume food more slowly.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switching-up-eating-habits">Switching up eating habits</h2>



<p>From these results, the research team proposes several strategies for extending mealtime.&nbsp;</p>



<p>First, increasing the number of chews per bite can lengthen the period spent eating. Next, taking smaller bites can raise the overall count of bites and therefore slow down consumption.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Finally, introducing slow, rhythmic cues in the environment - like calm music or deliberate metronome beats - may further encourage diners to reduce their eating pace.</p>



<p>“These are easy, money-saving measures that can be started right away to help prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-obesity-difficult-to-reverse-it-starts-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>,” said Iizuka, emphasizing that these tactics do not require special technology or major expense.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-combating-obesity">Implications for combating obesity</h2>



<p>Given the worrying rise in obesity worldwide, these findings may prove valuable for policymakers and public health practitioners.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study demonstrates that practical, no-cost interventions focusing on how we eat might complement more conventional approaches, such as dieting and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evening-exercise-can-reduce-major-health-risks-of-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise</a>. </p>



<p>“Incorporating the proposed eating behavior into school lunches and other programs can lead to the prevention of future diseases related to obesity,” Iizuka noted.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combining-exercise-and-slower-eating">Combining exercise and slower eating</h2>



<p>While this particular experiment relied on pizza as the test food, future research will likely extend to different cuisines and contexts to see if the principle holds. </p>



<p>If so, meal duration could join the ranks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-almonds-can-help-you-cut-calories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calorie</a> control and balanced diets as a key point of emphasis in anti-obesity campaigns.</p>



<p>Additionally, the findings suggest a certain synergy between higher physical activity and slower eating as well.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Though the study itself did not measure physical activity, prior research indicates that combining mindful eating habits with regular exercise can be more effective than tackling these issues separately.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>No single study can resolve all questions, and the researchers acknowledge that further investigation is needed. More work could explore the effect of different food textures on chew rates, how cultural eating norms shape mealtime pacing, and whether long-term interventions focusing on slow eating can achieve lasting behavioral change.</p>



<p>Though the study did not find that BMI directly affects meal duration, it provides significant evidence that how people eat might alter how much they ultimately consume.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By urging people to chew more thoroughly, take smaller bites, or dine with calm, slow rhythms in the background, we may be able to gently nudge better habits without relying on dramatic diets or expensive gadgets.</p>



<p>Ultimately, this research delivers promising clues that our daily routines - such as the bite-by-bite process of eating - can be leveraged in combating obesity. </p>



<p>By helping people develop an increased awareness of their meal speed and offering simple environmental tweaks, we can hope to reduce unnecessary caloric intake and pave the way for a healthier population.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu17060962" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nutrients</em></a>.</p>



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Simple eating habit may be key to weight management

In the fight against obesity and related health issues, attention...

<p>Phosphorus, alongside nitrogen and carbon, is an essential element for life on Earth - integral to molecules like DNA, RNA, and ATP.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Yet despite its importance, phosphorus is relatively scarce at Earth’s surface, posing a long-standing question: how did living organisms first acquire enough phosphorus to jumpstart the biochemical processes necessary for life?</p>



<p>A new study, led by Craig Walton from <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>, offers a novel explanation. His work points to large, landlocked “soda lakes” as potential reservoirs that could have maintained sufficiently high concentrations of phosphorus to support prebiotic chemistry and eventually nurture early life. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-phosphorus-is-essential-yet-scarce">Why phosphorus is essential - yet scarce</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/phantom-nutrient-the-secret-force-that-fuels-plant-growth/">Phosphorus</a> shapes all life on Earth: it helps form the backbone of DNA and RNA, carries energy in cells through ATP, and is a key ingredient in many other biochemical reactions. However, unlike nitrogen and carbon, phosphorus is in limited supply.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Experiments in labs have shown that prebiotic chemistry - chemical reactions that likely preceded life - requires phosphorus levels roughly 10,000 times higher than what typically exists in natural waters.</p>



<p>This shortfall raises the question: how did Earth’s early environment ever manage to concentrate enough phosphorus for the formation of life?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soda-lakes-as-phosphorus-hotspots">Soda lakes as phosphorus hotspots</h2>



<p>Walton posits that large soda <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-first-sparked-in-shallow-soda-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> - those without natural runoff - could have built and sustained extremely high concentrations of phosphorus.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Because water in these lakes escapes primarily via evaporation, phosphorus remains in the lake instead of being washed away by streams or rivers. Over time, the concentration of phosphorus can climb dramatically.</p>



<p>The concept of soda lakes as potential cradles of life is not entirely new; researchers at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> proposed something similar in 2020.&nbsp;</p>



<p>But Walton’s research adds detail to this hypothesis, suggesting that only relatively large soda lakes would have had the right conditions - namely, a steady and abundant supply of phosphorus via inflowing water, coupled with minimal outflow - to maintain levels high enough for both prebiotic chemistry and newly emerged life forms.</p>



<p>Smaller lakes, by contrast, might experience sudden drops in phosphorus as soon as life starts to consume it, thereby stifling chemical reactions and halting further biological development.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large soda lakes, however, can absorb that consumption thanks to ongoing inputs from tributaries or other sources, keeping phosphorus concentrations robust over longer timeframes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-life-s-beginnings">Implications for life’s beginnings</h2>



<p>One real-world illustration of a suitable soda lake is Mono Lake in California. About twice the size of Lake Zurich, Mono Lake consistently supports diverse life due to its high phosphorus concentration.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Walton’s findings suggest that a lake of comparable size on the early Earth, fed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-disrupting-the-seasonal-flow-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> and left to evaporate, could have sustained similar or even higher phosphorus levels, driving the chemical processes integral to the formation of life.</p>



<p>Walton’s theory indicates that the origin of life might have been more likely in large bodies of water than in the “small warm pond” that Charles Darwin once imagined.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In the unique environment of a large soda lake, not only would the necessary phosphorus be plentiful, but geological and ecological dynamics would also remain favorable over extended periods. This would give emergent life enough breathing room to evolve without quickly depleting its essential resources.</p>



<p>“This new theory helps to solve another piece of the puzzle of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-origins-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">origin of life</a> on Earth,” Walton said. Because soda lakes can trap water, minerals, and key elements like phosphorus more effectively than smaller ponds, they may have fostered the right balance of chemical conditions and resources that early life-forms needed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soda-lakes-and-prebiotic-chemistry">Soda lakes and prebiotic chemistry </h2>



<p>While many questions remain about how life first formed on Earth, Walton’s findings offer a compelling argument that large soda lakes, with their high phosphorus retention, could have provided an ideal setting for prebiotic chemistry.&nbsp;</p>



<p>If further research reinforces these conclusions, the longstanding puzzle about how Earth’s earliest life managed to obtain enough phosphorus for complex biochemical processes may take another step toward resolution.</p>



<p>By tying the early chemical environment to known geological settings, these insights open fresh avenues for investigating life’s origins - both on our planet and, potentially, on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-worlds-unraveling-the-mysteries-of-exoplanets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alien worlds</a> that might host similar lake conditions.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq0027" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science Advances</em></a>.</p>



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<p>-----</p>

How soda lakes may have sparked life on Earth

Phosphorus, alongside nitrogen and carbon, is an essential element for...

<p>In a quiet home office in Durham, North Carolina, neuroscientist Richard Mooney pores over vivid brain scans of zebra finches. </p>



<p>Each image captures moments in the life of a young bird learning to sing - dots of neural activity scattered across the brain like a pointillist painting, or bright squiggles marking chemical changes during a solo performance.</p>



<p>To Mooney, a professor at <a href="https://duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> who has spent four decades studying how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/">birds</a> learn to sing, these imperfect chirps and squeaks are the earliest signs of something much bigger. “Their songs don’t sound like much at first,” he said.</p>



<p>But, like a child learning to talk or a pianist learning scales, zebra finches must put in hours of practice - up to 10,000 renditions a day for an entire month - before they can produce their complex, courtship-ready melodies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-reveal-secrets-of-learning">Songbirds reveal secrets of learning</h2>



<p>Now, thanks to new research by Mooney and Duke neurobiology professor John Pearson, scientists are beginning to understand what fuels this relentless drive to improve - and what it reveals about the learning process in general.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08694-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature</em></a>, offer new insight into how learning occurs without external rewards, and could deepen understanding of motor learning and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chemicals-linked-to-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurological disorders</a> in humans.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-learning-process">Tracking the learning process</h2>



<p>In their experiments, the researchers placed male juvenile zebra finches - who are the only singers among their species - in soundproof chambers where they could practice at will. </p>



<p>These birds learn their courtship songs early in life by first listening to their fathers and memorizing the melodies. </p>



<p>Then, like human toddlers learning speech, they begin to babble, gradually shaping their squeaks into structured songs that match their mental template.</p>



<p>To monitor their progress, Pearson’s team developed a machine learning model capable of analyzing and scoring thousands of song renditions in real time. This allowed the researchers to track how each bird’s performance changed from moment to moment.</p>



<p>“Some tries were a little better, and some were a little worse,” Pearson said. “Generally the longer the birds worked at it, the better they got.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-learning-for-the-joy-of-it">Songbirds learning for the joy of it</h2>



<p>As the birds honed their songs, the team also monitored chemical signals in the basal ganglia, a brain region involved in learning new motor skills. </p>



<p>Using fluorescent sensors engineered to light up in the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-helps-us-learn-from-positive-and-negative-experiences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine</a> - a key chemical messenger for reward and motivation - the researchers tracked its activity in real time.</p>



<p>What they discovered was surprising: each time a bird practiced, dopamine levels began to rise, regardless of how well the song was performed.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Whether the bird hit the right notes or not, simply making the effort triggered activity in the brain’s reward system.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-brain-wired-to-learn">A brain wired to learn</h2>



<p>The dopamine signal increased even more when a bird sang better than expected for its developmental stage, and dipped slightly when performance regressed.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These shifts suggest that the birds’ brains were reinforcing improvement and gently correcting missteps - all without any external feedback.</p>



<p>“Nobody’s telling the bird if he’s an honor student or going to be sent to detention,” Mooney said. “The birds were alone during their practice sessions, singing away in a soundproof room.”</p>



<p>Instead, the study shows that dopamine acts as an internal guide - a kind of neurological compass - helping the birds adjust and improve over time. This system of intrinsic motivation may explain how learning continues even in the absence of rewards or punishments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dopamine-provides-a-motivational-boost">Dopamine provides a motivational boost</h2>



<p>The researchers also identified another player in the process: acetylcholine, a neurochemical known to influence attention and learning.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Qi, the study’s first author, demonstrated that acetylcholine could stimulate dopamine release when the birds sang, providing an extra motivational boost.</p>



<p>When the team blocked dopamine or acetylcholine in the basal ganglia, the results were dramatic.</p>



<p>“Learning basically comes to a halt,” Mooney explained. “The bird still sings a lot, but he doesn't seem to be able to learn from it.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-learning">Implications for human learning</h2>



<p>While the experiments were conducted in zebra finches, the implications go far beyond avian neuroscience. The basal ganglia, dopamine, and acetylcholine systems involved in the birds' learning are shared across vertebrates - including humans.</p>



<p>“These findings translate across species,” Pearson said. “Essentially every animal with a backbone shares these brain systems.”</p>



<p>Understanding how these internal motivation systems function may shed light on how humans acquire complex skills like speaking, playing an instrument, or juggling. </p>



<p>In this sense, Mooney said, “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birdsong</a> learning is very similar to what children do when they spontaneously acquire these remarkable skills.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-as-a-model-for-learning">Songbirds as a model for learning</h2>



<p>The research could also help explain what happens when those systems break down. Dopamine dysfunction in the basal ganglia is associated with neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. </p>



<p>By studying learning in songbirds, researchers can explore the underlying principles in a simpler system.</p>



<p>“It’s really important that we understand these regions, and the bird is a means of getting at those principles,” Pearson noted.</p>



<p>For Mooney, the significance is both scientific and deeply human.</p>



<p>“Of all the scientific frontiers that remain, the brain is probably the most poorly understood. And it’s fundamental to being human,” he concluded.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Dopamine fuels learning in young songbirds

In a quiet home office in Durham, North Carolina, neuroscientist...

<p>The story of early human migration into South America has stirred debate. Researchers have long argued about when these first travelers arrived, how they adapted, and which paths they followed. </p>



<p>Evidence has surfaced in many forms, from stone tools and butchered bone fragments to entire campfire sites once littered with animal remains. </p>



<p>Although these clues have fueled lively conversations, scholars have faced frustrations when old assumptions were challenged and new findings seemed sparse.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-in-the-pampas">Humans in the Pampas</h2>



<p>The Pampas, known for its expansive plains and iconic landscapes, saw much of its early buzz dwindle in the mid-1900s. Yet the puzzle of who first roamed there has never truly gone away.</p>



<p>Now, according to research by Mariano Del Papa of <a href="https://unlp.edu.ar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National University of La Plata</a>, Argentina and colleagues, modern technology and updated theories are breathing fresh life into these investigations. </p>



<p>Refined carbon dating, advances in ancient DNA methods, and broader approaches to human-environment interactions have sparked new interest in how and when humans walked across these southern lands.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-bones-and-cut-marks">Animal bones and cut marks</h2>



<p>Scientists have long wondered if humans and extinct giant animals, sometimes called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">megafauna</a>, overlapped in time or even shared close encounters. The debate has centered on physical associations and behavioral associations.</p>



<p>The former refers to animal bones and tools found in direct contact, while the latter involves traces of human activity on the bones themselves. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-europeans-practiced-cannibalism-eating-both-enemies-and-loved-ones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cut marks</a> are among the strongest signs of human interaction, yet they require careful analysis to rule out accidental scratches, weathering, or other natural wear.</p>



<p>In the Pampas, confident identification of these marks has been sporadic, with just a handful of sites showing possible evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> and large mammals coexisting. </p>



<p>Many previous finds lacked direct proof of who caused the damage or how these animals ended up with unusual grooves.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reconquista-river-discovery">The Reconquista River discovery</h2>



<p>One significant lead emerged along the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquista_River" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reconquista River</a> in northern Buenos Aires, where researchers uncovered the fossilized remains of an extinct armored animal called Neosclerocalyptus, which resembled giant armadillos.</p>



<p>Scientists inspected the shell and tail bones, seeking patterns that might confirm human involvement. </p>



<p>Radiocarbon dating placed these remains at around 21,000 years old, suggesting human presence in this area well ahead of many earlier estimates.</p>



<p>Further microscopic analysis revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eat-like-neanderthal-unpacking-ancient-cooking-methods-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cut marks</a> on parts of the pelvis, tail, and body armor. Statistical work compared these traces with known examples from butchered remains. </p>



<p>The marks aligned with what stone tools commonly produce, and their location matched spots where hunters might have targeted meat-rich areas.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neosclerocalyptus-giant-armadillos">Neosclerocalyptus - giant armadillos</h2>



<p>Neosclerocalyptus was one of those prehistoric oddballs you wouldn’t want to bump into on a walk through ancient South America. </p>



<p>It looked kind of like an armadillo on steroids - covered in a thick, bumpy shell and sporting a short, stubby snout. </p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/first-humans_south-america_Neosclerocalyptus-skeleton_giant-armadillo_credit-Del-Papa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/first-humans_south-america_Neosclerocalyptus-skeleton_giant-armadillo_credit-Del-Papa_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of a Neosclerocalyptus skeleton highlighting cut-marked skeletal elements in light blue found at the CRS-10 specimen. Credit: Del Papa et al., 2024, PLOS ONE" class="wp-image-1963422" style="width:300px;height:auto"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Drawing of a Neosclerocalyptus skeleton highlighting cut-marked skeletal elements in light blue found at the CRS-10 specimen. Credit: Del Papa et al., 2024, PLOS ONE</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>This guy belonged to the glyptodont family, which were basically giant armored mammals related to modern armadillos. </p>



<p>Neosclerocalyptus roamed the open plains during the Pleistocene epoch, which means it shared the landscape with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smilodon-fatalis-young-saber-toothed-cats-had-double-fangs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saber-toothed cats</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-in-america-coexisted-with-giant-sloths-and-mastodons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giant ground sloths</a>, and early humans. It wasn’t exactly speedy, but its tank-like body made up for it in defense.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timeline-of-humans-in-south-america">Timeline of humans in South America</h2>



<p>The dating results place this evidence roughly 6,000 years before most recognized archaeological sites in southern South America. </p>



<p>Researchers note that a small but growing body of recent findings across the Americas indicates humans may have been around even earlier than 20,000 years ago. </p>



<p>These outcomes resonate with discoveries elsewhere suggesting that people reached the continent sooner than older textbooks stated.</p>



<p>While the giant armadillo discovery in northeastern Argentina stands out, it parallels similar points of interest in other regions. </p>



<p>Scientists working elsewhere have seen indications of human activity dating beyond the once-accepted timeline of 13,000 to 16,000 years ago. </p>



<p>These glimpses could fill voids in the historical record, showing that different groups explored diverse landscapes, from coastal zones to inland stretches.</p>



<p>Clear behavioral associations remain challenging to confirm. Bones alone can be scattered by rivers or shifting sediments, and random fractures sometimes mimic cut marks. </p>



<p>In this case, careful examination of the site’s layers helped rule out normal taphonomic processes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



<p>Investigations like this may steer attention to under-sampled areas where layers from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Glacial Maximum</a> remain intact. </p>



<p>If additional fossils with similar markings appear nearby, the evidence for a broader human footprint dating back more than 20,000 years will become tougher to dispute. </p>



<p>Radiocarbon dating and ancient DNA techniques could then piece together the connections between these early populations and later groups spread across South America.</p>



<p>Experts agree that ongoing exploration is essential. Early settlement patterns in the Pampas might reflect unique strategies for finding resources and adapting to shifting climates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-south-america-and-giant-armadillos">Humans, South America, and giant armadillos</h2>



<p>From a set of fossils on the Reconquista River to the possibility of unearthing more traces in the surrounding region, every fresh clue adds depth to an ancient tale. </p>



<p>These findings echo other recent data suggesting humans reached the Americas well before longstanding theories indicated. </p>



<p>The weight of this evidence challenges traditional timelines and inspires experts to reexamine historical assumptions.</p>



<p>For now, this glyptodont discovery seems to indicate that South America’s early human narrative might stretch back further than once believed.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0304956" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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First humans in South America survived by eating giant armadillos

The story of early human migration into South America has...

<p>You might already know that salty food affects your blood pressure. But a new study suggests it could be doing something far more surprising - it might be changing how you feel. Scientists have now linked high salt intake to depression-like behavior, revealing a new immune mechanism that connects the gut, the brain, and mood.</p>



<p>The study, led by researchers from <a href="https://english.njmu.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanjing Medical University</a> explored how excess salt changes the immune system in ways that alter brain function and behavior.</p>



<p>The findings are built on years of clinical observations that hinted at a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-chronic-pain-have-high-rates-of-depression-and-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">connection</a> between high-sodium diets and worsening mental health. Now, there is experimental evidence to back it.</p>



<p>“This work supports dietary interventions, such as salt reduction, as a preventive measure for mental illness. It also paves the way for novel therapeutic strategies targeting IL-17A to treat depression,” said Dr. Xiaojun Chen, the study's lead researcher.</p>



<p>“We hope these findings encourage discussions on salt consumption guidelines.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-salt-leads-to-depression">How salt leads to depression</h2>



<p>The researchers noticed that mice on a high-salt diet for five weeks showed less curiosity and more inactivity. These behaviors resembled those seen in standard stress-based models of depression. </p>



<p>Mice with high salt intake also showed elevated IL-17A levels in the spleen, blood, and brain - especially the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.</p>



<p>IL-17A was not just present; it was active. In mice lacking the RORγt gene - a gene required for IL-17A production - these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-related-brain-inflammation-linked-to-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depressive symptoms</a> did not appear. This points to a direct causal link between IL-17A and mood changes triggered by salt.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-special-immune-cells-trigger-mood-changes">Special immune cells trigger mood changes</h2>



<p>The research also pinpointed γδT17 cells as the key producers of IL-17A. These cells made up nearly 40% of IL-17A producers in the spleen, blood, and brain. Their activity increased in the high-salt group, but the total number of γδT cells stayed the same. Instead, the shift was in their function, not quantity.</p>



<p>Specifically, HSD triggered γδT cells to become hyperactive IL-17A producers, marked by higher CD44 expression and a tilt toward the Vγ4 subtype. These cells likely carry out the salt-triggered immune attack on the brain, altering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-therapy-offers-hope-for-millions-with-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mood and behavior</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blocking-salt-linked-cells-eases-depression">Blocking salt-linked cells eases depression</h2>



<p>To investigate further, scientists treated mice with antibodies that deplete γδT cells. This lowered IL-17A levels and reversed depression-like behavior. The mice explored more and spent less time immobile in behavioral tests. These results highlight γδT17 cells as potential drug targets.</p>



<p>Interestingly, combining salt with restraint stress did not worsen depression in the same way. This suggests that salt may trigger a different biological route to depression than psychological stress.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salt-alters-immunity-and-metabolism">Salt alters immunity and metabolism</h2>



<p>The team also proposed two possible molecular pathways. First, HSD may activate the p38/MAPK pathway in γδT cells, increasing IL-17A output. </p>



<p>Second, salt might raise IL-1β levels in macrophages. IL-1β is a known driver of IL-17 production. Both routes could explain how salt tweaks immune function and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-americans-have-lost-years-of-time-to-poor-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mood</a>.</p>



<p>Salt also affects how immune cells make energy. By shifting cells from mitochondrial respiration to glycolysis, HSD reprograms how immune cells behave. These metabolic shifts might further activate γδT17 cells, linking diet and mood through immune cell energy use.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-mental-health">What this means for mental health</h2>



<p>Major depressive disorder is already a leading cause of disability and death. Its ties to other diseases, like cancer and autoimmune conditions, make it an urgent health issue. Treatments that target immune signals, especially IL-17A, could provide new hope.</p>



<p>The research confirms what some clinical data hinted at: high salt worsens depression, while low sodium intake improves mood. Dietary advice could now go beyond blood pressure and heart health. It may become a mental health intervention too.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-and-broader-impacts">Next steps and broader impacts</h2>



<p>The researchers will now try to validate these results in human studies. </p>



<p>If confirmed, simple dietary changes could lower depression risk. Drugs that block IL-17A or deactivate γδT cells might also help people with salt-sensitive mood disorders.</p>



<p>This study not only challenges how we view diet and mood but also shows how tightly the immune system and brain work together. What we eat might shape how we feel - cell by cell, molecule by molecule.</p>



<p>The study is published in <em><a href="https://academic.oup.com/jimmunol/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jimmun/vkaf019/8090296?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Immunology</a>. </em></p>



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Eating too much salt may contribute to depression

You might already know that salty food affects your blood...

<p>In many Western countries today, the number of dogs is increasing, but the number of children is not. This striking shift raises big questions. Are people choosing dogs instead of kids? Or is something deeper going on?</p>



<p>Professor Enikő Kubinyi from <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a> believes she has found the answer. Her theory connects the rise of dog ownership to falling birth rates - but not in a simple, cause-and-effect way.</p>



<p>Kubinyi explains that many see their dogs not just as pets, but as full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">family members</a>. Some even place their relationships with their dogs above those that they have with humans.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-as-emotional-anchors">Dogs as emotional anchors</h2>



<p>Recent surveys in Hungary show a surprising trend. Nineteen percent of childless adults, and ten percent of parents, value their dog more than any human.</p>



<p>Kubinyi’s theory explores why this emotional shift is happening.</p>



<p>"Some say dogs are the new children, while others find this idea outrageous. Pope Francis, for example, has called it selfish for childless people to pamper pets," noted Kubinyi.</p>



<p>She points to studies suggesting that dog owners often feel more negatively about motherhood. Some mothers with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> feel parenting becomes more burdensome, reducing their desire for more children. In some cases, dogs even create distance in romantic relationships.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-as-a-step-before-having-a-child">Dogs as a step before having a child</h2>



<p>But the picture isn’t one-sided. Kubinyi highlights another argument: dog ownership may actually support family life.</p>



<p>"Families with children are more likely to own dogs, and some couples see their pet as a 'practice child,' a preparatory step toward starting a family. Women also tend to find men with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-focus-more-when-humans-use-eye-contact-and-gestures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> more attractive, which could increase the chances of fatherhood."</p>



<p>In this view, dogs don’t replace children. They support and sometimes lead to parenthood.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-build-social-ties-too">Dogs build social ties too</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-share-genes-linked-to-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dog ownership</a> doesn’t just affect families. It also shapes social life. Dog walking often leads to more human interaction. </p>



<p>Kubinyi explains that dogs serve as "social glue" in modern life. They help build relationships.</p>



<p>But there’s a flip side. If someone&nbsp;leans only on dogs for emotional needs,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1558787820300356" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior issues</a> like barking or aggression can isolate them further, instead of connecting them to other people.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-bonds-now-shift-to-dogs">Emotional bonds now shift to dogs</h2>



<p>"The number of children is not declining because the number of dogs is increasing, but the same trend lies behind both phenomena: the transformation of social networks," said Kubinyi.</p>



<p>She calls this the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.x-mol.com/paper/1900939840006262784"><em>companion dog runaway theory</em></a>.&nbsp;It ties the rise of dog ownership to both biology and culture.&nbsp;Humans have an innate need to care and connect.&nbsp;When bonds between humans weaken, these instincts shift to dogs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-changed-in-society">What changed in society?</h2>



<p>Nearly 90% of Hungarian adults don’t spend even an hour a week with children. That’s unusual for a species built around cooperative childcare.</p>



<p>Kubinyi points out that modern support networks have eroded. People feel alone. Some have lost faith in human relationships altogether. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewards-of-dog-ownership-outweigh-the-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dogs</a> that offer loyalty and comfort fill that space.</p>



<p>Cultural shifts support this trend.&nbsp;Memes joke about dog-parent life, and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1558787824000819" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet businesses are booming</a>. People call themselves "dog moms" and "dog dads." These aren’t just trends - they reflect emotional truths.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-are-treated-like-children">Dogs are treated like children</h2>



<p>Dogs aren’t just pets anymore. For many, they’re the most important companion a person has. Their loyalty, shaped by thousands of years beside humans, fits perfectly in the role of substitute family.</p>



<p>Even breeding reflects this change.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flat-faced-dogs-have-childlike-traits-that-humans-cannot-resist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Small, baby-faced dogs</a> are now wildly popular. Their “cuteness” triggers our nurturing instincts. But these breeds also suffer from many health issues. Owners care for them intensely - and feel deeply needed.</p>



<p>Sometimes, though, over-caring causes confusion and behavior problems. Dogs have needs, but they aren’t children. Misreading these needs can cause stress - for both pet and owner.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-people-substitute-caregivers-with-dogs">People substitute caregivers with dogs</h2>



<p>"The changing role of dog ownership suggests that people in Western societies experience a significant lack of caregiving and social support - and they try to compensate for this, at least in part, with dogs and likely cats as well," said Kubinyi.</p>



<p>She urges stronger support systems for families and better ways to fight loneliness. Dog ownership should help people connect - not push them further apart.</p>



<p>Other experts agree. Researcher Hal Herzog refers to Kubinyi’s theory as "an important new perspective" on how dogs fit into our social and emotional world.</p>



<p>In the end, keeping dogs reflects our deepest human needs - for love, connection, and care.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09637214251318284" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Directions in Psychological Science</a>.</em></p>



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Are dogs replacing children? How modern society is changing

In many Western countries today, the number of dogs is...

<p>Have you ever noticed how memories from the same day seem to blend together, while events that happened weeks apart feel like they exist in totally separate mental files? </p>



<p>A new study sheds light on why this happens - and it’s not because of what’s happening in the main body of brain cells. Instead, the secret lies in the tiny branches called dendrites.</p>



<p>In a recent study, scientists from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ohio State University</a> used advanced imaging tools, including miniaturized microscopes, to track how mice formed memories in real time. </p>



<p>The team focused on a lesser-known part of the brain cell - dendrites, the slender projections that stretch out from neurons. These branches are known for receiving information, but they’re much more active than previously thought.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-branches-big-role">Small branches, big role</h2>



<p>The researchers zeroed in on the retrosplenial cortex (RSC), a brain area involved in spatial and contextual memory.</p>



<p>When mice were introduced to two different environments close together in time, something remarkable happened: the memories of those places became linked. </p>



<p>If the mice were later given a small shock in just one of the environments, they reacted with fear in both. Their brains treated the two places as connected - even though only one was associated with the unpleasant experience.</p>



<p>“If you think of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neuron</a> as a computer, dendrites are like tiny computers inside it, each performing its own calculations,” said study lead author Megha Sehgal.</p>



<p>“This discovery shows that our brains can link information arriving close in time to the same dendritic location, expanding our understanding of how memories are organized.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-between-neurons">Communication between neurons </h2>



<p>The researchers studied how dendrites change during the process of learning and storing information. On the surface of these branches are small bumps called spines - tiny hubs where communication between neurons happens.</p>



<p>When a new memory was formed, they saw clusters of these spines pop up. Then, if another memory formed shortly after, those same spots were more likely to attract additional spines.</p>



<p>This physical clustering of connections appears to be how the brain binds related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-often-undervalue-the-most-meaningful-experiences-in-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiences</a> together.</p>



<p>“The idea is that we don’t form memories in isolation. You don’t form a single memory. You use that memory, make a framework of memories, and then pull from that framework when you need to make adaptive decisions,” said Sehgal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-role-of-dendrites">Critical role of dendrites</h2>



<p>To test whether these dendritic branches were really causing the linking effect, the team used a method called optogenetics. This technique lets scientists control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-emotions-linked-to-unique-brain-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain activity</a> using light. </p>



<p>The experts reactivated the exact dendritic branches that had been used during one memory and found that doing so could link it to another, unrelated memory.</p>



<p>This confirmed the critical role that dendrites play in how memories are joined together in our brains.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-memory-related-disorders">Understanding memory-related disorders</h2>



<p>This discovery not only changes how we think about memory - it also opens the door to new ways of understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dementia-was-extremely-rare-in-ancient-times-so-why-is-it-now-so-prevalent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory-related disorders</a>.</p>



<p>If scientists can learn to influence how dendrites work, they may be able to treat conditions where memory formation or linking is impaired.</p>



<p>“Our work not only expands our understanding of how memories are formed but also suggests exciting new possibilities for manipulating higher order memory processes,” said Sehgal. “This could have implications for developing therapies for memory-related conditions such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stopping-alzheimers-before-it-starts-early-treatment-shows-potential/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a>.”</p>



<p>The research marks an important step in decoding the physical structure of memory -and it all starts with the tiny, busy branches inside each brain cell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-memory-storage">Rethinking memory storage</h2>



<p>This study encourages us to rethink how we view memory storage. Instead of seeing each experience as a separate snapshot, it may be more accurate to picture them as parts of a timeline - physically tied together through shared dendritic changes.</p>



<p>This could explain why certain days feel like a continuous stream of events, while others stand alone. </p>



<p>The findings also suggest that how we mentally group events may depend more on timing than emotional weight. </p>



<p>With a clearer picture of how the brain organizes information, scientists can better understand what happens when that system begins to fail, such as in age-related cognitive decline.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-025-01876-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Why memories close in time feel connected

Have you ever noticed how memories from the same day...

<p>Climate change has long threatened species living in extreme habitats. Emperor penguins, iconic residents of Antarctica, now face a sharper edge of that threat. </p>



<p>​A team led by scientists at the&nbsp;Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu/press-room/news-release/new-study-finds-emperor-penguins-increasingly-threatened-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>), along with global collaborators, has revealed new evidence that these birds are more at risk than previously believed.​</p>



<p>The study suggests emperor penguins should no longer be considered “Near Threatened.” Instead, the team recommends reclassifying them as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719309899?" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Vulnerable” or even “Endangered”</a>. This shift, based on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22697752/132600320?" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">updated IUCN criteria</a>, highlights an urgent need to reconsider current conservation strategies.</p>



<p>The researchers tailored their study to match the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/just-a-whiff-of-penguin-poop-can-send-krill-into-a-frenzy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a>’ deep dependence on stable sea ice and predictable Antarctic conditions. The changing environment now places them on unstable ground.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-threats-to-emperor-penguins">Climate threats to emperor penguins </h2>



<p>Emperor penguins are at significant risk of extinction due to climate change, particularly the rapid loss of Antarctic sea ice, which they depend on for breeding and raising their chicks. </p>



<p>Studies suggest that if current warming trends continue, more than 90% of emperor penguin colonies could be gone by the end of the century. </p>



<p>Some projections indicate that major population declines could happen much sooner, potentially within our lifetime.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study </h2>



<p>Published in <em>Biological Conservation</em>, the paper titled <em>Living with Uncertainty</em> presents new tools to predict future risks. The researchers used a cutting-edge method: the Multi-Model Large Ensemble (MMLE) framework.</p>



<p>This approach combines numerous Earth system simulations to capture a fuller picture of possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enhanced-monitoring-of-emperor-penguins-can-help-us-save-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental futures</a>.</p>



<p>“This is the first study to integrate natural variability in physical and biological processes and employ a wide range of Earth system and ecological models to account for numerous sources of uncertainty in projecting assessments of future population trajectories,” said Stéphanie Jenouvrier, lead author and senior scientist at WHOI.</p>



<p>“Improved methods for accounting for uncertainties are urgently needed to strengthen assessments of extinction and inform conservation efforts in an uncertain world.”</p>



<p>The framework improves how scientists handle uncertainty in environmental modeling. Instead of relying on a single future scenario, the MMLE considers many outcomes. This change offers deeper insight into extinction risks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-is-changing-for-emperor-penguins">The world is changing for emperor penguins</h2>



<p>To build their models, the team used a wide variety of data. These included satellite images of 50 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-penguins-have-lost-97-percent-of-their-population/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguin colonies</a>, long-term monitoring of chicks and adults, and over a decade of observations of individual birds. The researchers also factored in how colonies move, drawn from genetic and population data.</p>



<p>“There are quantifiable uncertainties in projections of future environmental conditions,” said Jenouvrier. “Incorporating this uncertainty in ecosystem projections allows for a more complete and robust assessment of potential extinction risk.”</p>



<p>This approach blends fieldwork, satellite technology, and ecological theory. It gives conservationists a more grounded look at future risks. Such forecasts help shape stronger policies - especially when dealing with species that live in remote or harsh environments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-for-future-conservation">A model for future conservation</h2>



<p>Professor Phil Trathan, one of the study’s authors and formerly Head of Conservation Biology at the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>, emphasized the broader meaning of this research.</p>



<p>“Emperor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-are-struggling-to-survive-as-sea-ice-vanishes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a> are vital indicators of ecosystem health in the Antarctic, they also help inform us about wider changes in the earth system. Therefore, harnessing robust models that increase our understanding about uncertainty and risk are vital, if we are to better conserve and protect this and other species.”</p>



<p>“Ultimately, humans depend upon the natural world, so developing better projections of the future earth system are essential for ensuring human health and well-being. The tools used in this study should now help us all.”</p>



<p>The combination of modeling tools and diverse data points may set a precedent for future work. Other species in similarly vulnerable habitats may also benefit from these techniques.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-emperor-penguins">Protecting emperor penguins</h2>



<p>The IUCN plays a central role in shaping how species like the emperor penguin are protected. The Red List guides many conservation decisions, often influencing discussions at international levels.</p>



<p>These include forums like the&nbsp;Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (<a href="https://www.ats.aq/e/atcm.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ATCM</a>)&nbsp;and the&nbsp;Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (<a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CCAMLR</a>).​</p>



<p>“The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting serves as a key forum for decision-making on Antarctic conservation. This new IUCN Red List assessment provides critical scientific support for strengthening protections for emperor penguins under the Antarctic Treaty System,” noted Jenouvrier.</p>



<p>”It also strengthens the case for establishing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) under the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, particularly in vital regions like the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea, which could serve as crucial refugia for emperor penguins.” </p>



<p>With the scientific foundation now laid, the next step lies with policymakers. If taken seriously, this reassessment may not only protect emperor penguins but also influence how we respond to global climate threats across species and continents.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320725000746" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.</em></p>



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Emperor penguins may disappear in our lifetime

Climate change has long threatened species living in extreme habitats....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



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<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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