Quantum entanglement is a mind-boggling phenomenon in quantum mechanics that intrigues both scientists and the public alike.



Unlike the predictable nature of classical physics, quantum mechanics thrives on unpredictability, often challenging our everyday perceptions. This is particularly evident in the behavior of entangled particles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-quantum-entanglement">Understanding quantum entanglement</h2>



In quantum mechanics, particles can exist in multiple states simultaneously, a concept known as superposition. Entanglement elevates this idea: when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-laws-thermodynamics-follow-entropy-rule/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particles become entangled</a>, their states are interlinked.



A change in one particle's state instantly influences the other, regardless of distance—imagine two distant light bulbs flickering in sync across the cosmos.



Entanglement suggests that information can be shared instantaneously between particles, defying the notion that nothing travels faster than light.



This "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-spooky-action-at-a-distance-persists-between-top-quarks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spooky action at a distance</a>," as Albert Einstein famously termed it, prompts profound questions about the nature of space and time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-measurement">Challenges of measurement</h2>



Measurement in quantum mechanics presents unique challenges. Observing one particle in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-dance-entangled-photons-wave-functions-captured-real-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">an entangled pair</a> determines the states of both, leading to critical inquiries: What constitutes a 'measurement,' and how does it influence our understanding of reality?



The complex mathematics underpinning quantum mechanics -- incorporating concepts like Hilbert spaces, wave functions, and operators -- can be intimidating, rendering entanglement less accessible to many.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-puzzle">Fascinating puzzle</h2>



Simply put, quantum entanglement is just too complicated for most people to fully understand. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-tunneling-allow-particles-break-light-speed-barrier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">It defies classical intuitions</a>, involves sophisticated mathematics, and urges us to reevaluate our understanding of reality.



That is, until now. 



Enter Professor Carl Kocher, a pioneer of the study of quantum entanglement. He is currently a member of the <a href="https://quantumfoundry.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum Foundry</a> at University of California Santa Barbara and Professor Emeritus at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>.



Professor Kocher is the author of a new article in Frontiers in Quantum Science and Technology, explaining his groundbreaking 1964-67 experiments in quantum entanglement and discussing the 'paradox' of quantum entanglement.



In the following guest editorial, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carl-Kocher" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Kocher</a> helps us stretch our minds to understand this apparently paradoxical phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-quantum-entanglement-0">Understanding quantum entanglement</h2>



My new article, ‘<a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/quantum-science-and-technology/articles/10.3389/frqst.2024.1451239/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum Entanglement of Optical Photons: The First Experiment, 1964-67</a>’, is intended to convey the spirit of a small research project that reaches into uncharted territory. 



The article breaks with tradition, as it offers a first-person account of the strategy and challenges for the experiment, as well as an interpretation of the final result and its significance. 



In this guest editorial, I will introduce the subject and also attempt to illuminate the question ‘What is a paradox?’



Let’s begin with the gyroscope that I bought when I was eight, from a store that sold novelties and magic tricks. The spinning disk, supported at one end of its shaft, did not fall, but moved slowly around in a horizontal plane. 



This behavior seems mysterious or paradoxical in the context of common experience that excludes gyroscopes, but makes complete sense in the context of Newtonian mechanics, which resolves the paradox by predicting precisely how gyroscopes will behave.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-quantum-theory">Evolution of quantum theory</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-new-theory-finally-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum theory</a>, conceived in the mid-1920s, has been impressively successful in accounting for the properties and interactions of atoms and molecules. 



In 1935, Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen stirred controversy with a thought experiment in which two particles of common origin move apart, noting that quantum theory predicts correlations in subsequent measurements of their spins.



The correlation may seem quite puzzling, as a measurement on one of the particles appears to influence a subsequent measurement on the other, even if the particles do not interact.



In current terminology, these correlations are an example of entanglement, and the correlation phenomenon is known as the EPR paradox.



The puzzle has become a subject for much discussion and analysis, especially because there was (and is) no known mechanism for measurements to communicate with each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disentangling-quantum-entanglement">Disentangling quantum entanglement</h2>



In 1964 I was intrigued by this unfamiliar effect and began to think of a way to actually perform the EPR experiment -- or at least a version of it -- for observing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-discovery-is-a-revolutionary-step-forward/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">correlation and entanglement</a>. It would be a low-energy experiment that could be set up in a small laboratory.



For the experiment outlined here, the particles of interest are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-photons-used-to-measure-earth-rotation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visible-light photons</a>, which are noninteracting, emitted by excited calcium atoms in a two-stage spontaneous emission process. The polarization states of the photons, which are related to their spins, can be measured simply, with ordinary linear polarizers. 



Photomultiplier detectors count the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-dance-entangled-photons-wave-functions-captured-real-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">individual photons</a>, #1 (green) and #2 (violet), and timing circuits enable the identification of photon pairs from the same atom. A rotatable linear polarizer is mounted in front of each detector.



In simplest terms, the experiment involves counting the rate at which photon pairs are detected, as a function of the orientation of the polarizers. A photon pair detected from the same atom is recorded as a “coincidence count.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theory-and-experiment-agree">Theory and experiment agree</h2>



Quantum theory makes the following predictions:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-photons-create-vortex-when-they-collide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Each photon</a>, taken separately, has a 50% chance of being transmitted by its polarizer, regardless of its angle of orientation. </li>



<li>If the polarizer axes are parallel, both photons from the same atom can pass through their polarizers and be counted. Coincidence counts will be observed. </li>



<li>If the polarizer axes are perpendicular, it never happens that both photons pass through their polarizers. Therefore, no coincidence counts will be observed.</li>
</ol>



Predictions #1 and #2 are not surprising, as the green and violet beams of light are unpolarized.



Prediction #3, discussed further in my article, is a quantum entanglement effect with no analog in classical (non-quantum) physics. It is especially interesting because it can be tested experimentally. I designed the experiment specifically for this purpose.



The results of the experiment, after nearly three years of effort in the laboratory, clearly demonstrate that coincidence counts are recorded if the polarizer axes are parallel, and that no coincidences are recorded if the polarizers are perpendicular. The agreement between theory and experiment is unequivocal and striking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-so-is-there-a-paradox">So is there a paradox?</h2>



In our brief discussion of the gyroscope, no paradox was acknowledged because Newton’s theory (classical dynamics) fully explains how a gyroscope moves. 



Furthermore, both the theory and the observed gyroscopic behavior are compatible with our life experience and intuitive ability to grasp natural processes in the classical realm.



In the entanglement case, quantum theory accounts for the observed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-photons-fascinating-behavior-in-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">correlation of the photon polarizations</a>. But even when a theory predicts experimental results, a paradox may remain if the intuition cannot reach out to connect with it.



Take another look at predictions #1 and #3 above. If we draw on our experience of life in a non-quantum world, we may notice something very strange when the polarizers are “crossed” at 90 degrees. 



If each photon has a 50% chance of transmission through its polarizer, why don’t we get coincidences 25% of the time? Instead, we observe none at all. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stretching-the-mind-to-resolve-the-paradox">Stretching the mind to resolve the paradox</h2>



At first consideration, this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">does seem to qualify as a paradox</a>. One possible explanation could involve a missing component of quantum theory - perhaps a causal mechanism that could allow one photon, or one measurement, to communicate with the other. 



However, despite extensive research, no evidence has been found for such a mechanism.



As we do not live in an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overtly quantum world</a>, classical phenomena may influence our thought processes - even when we venture into the quantum realm. It may therefore remain a challenge to assimilate entanglement into the intuition.



I believe that the paradox can be at least partially resolved when further thought and experience, such as the experiment considered here, ‘stretch the mind’ to more fully embrace entanglement and other quantum phenomena.



I have come to view these aspects of nature as ‘strangely wonderful’.



The full paper and study can we read at <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/quantum-science-and-technology/articles/10.3389/frqst.2024.1451239/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Quantum Science and Technology</a>.



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Quantum entanglement: A simple way to fully grasp this 'impossible' concept

Quantum entanglement is a mind-boggling phenomenon in quantum mechanics that intrigues both scientists and the public alike. Unlike the predictable nature of classical physics, quantum mechanics thrives on unpredictability, often challenging our everyday perceptions. This is particularly evident in the behavior of entangled particles. Understanding quantum entanglement In quantum mechanics, particles can exist in multiple states simultaneously, a concept known as superposition. Entanglement elevates this idea: when particles become entangled, their states are interlinked. A change in one particle's state instantly influences the other, regardless of distance—imagine...

Hydrogen,Power,Plant.,Gas,Storage,Equipment.,Spherical,Tanks,For,H2

Hydrogen carries about 120 megajoules of energy per kilogram, roughly triple the punch of gasoline. Yet producing it without carbon emissions still hinges on squeezing every last electron through water.



Global electrolyzer capacity doubled to 1.4 gigawatts in 2023, but the <a href="https://www.iea.org/energy-system/low-emission-fuels/electrolysers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Energy Agency</a> says the world needs 560 gigawatts by 2030 to meet net‑zero goals. 



That gap keeps chemists awake at night. <a href="https://www.wpi-aimr.tohoku.ac.jp/en/research/researcher/liu_h.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heng Liu</a> of <a href="https://www.wpi-aimr.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tohoku University</a> just gave them a reason to sleep better. His team reports a cobalt–molybdenum catalyst that turns nearly every electron into hydrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precatalysts-set-the-stage">Precatalysts set the stage</h2>



Many industrial catalysts begin life as a precatalyst that reshapes under voltage. That makeover, called reconstruction, can raise or wreck performance.



“It’s hard to design a catalyst that works well when that catalyst itself can change,” explained Liu, noting the challenge of hitting a moving target. His group decided to steer the change rather than fight it.



When an electrode drives <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-electrolysis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrolysis</a>, water molecules split into hydrogen and oxygen. The half‑reaction that releases hydrogen is the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/hydrogen-evolution-reaction" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrogen evolution reaction</a>.



During that reaction Liu’s cobalt‑rich <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsami.0c20271" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Co2Mo3O8</a> precursor sheds molybdenum into the liquid. The exposed cobalt atoms then bind hydroxide ions and reorganize into a nanoscale shell of Co(OH)₂.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cobalt-and-clean-hydrogen">Cobalt and clean hydrogen</h2>



Cobalt holds a sweet spot on the periodic table when it comes to catalytic activity. It has just the right balance of electron density to attract and release protons during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-forming-hydrogen-cloud-discovered-surprisingly-close-to-earth-eos/">hydrogen</a> production.



When combined with <a href="https://periodic-table.rsc.org/element/42/molybdenum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molybdenum</a>, the alloy forms a conductive and stable surface that resists corrosion in alkaline solutions. That durability is essential for keeping large-scale electrolysis running without constant maintenance.



Voltage control lets the shell wrap the crystal core evenly, creating a tidy <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780122341243500069" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heterostructure</a>. Laboratory tests show the interface speeds the step in which water donates its first proton.



Meanwhile the dissolved molybdate anions drift back and perch on the shell. At slightly more negative potentials they pair up as Mo₂O₇²⁻, loosening hydrogen’s grip and letting bubbles escape faster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molybdate-ions-and-clean-hydrogen">Molybdate ions and clean hydrogen</h2>



The presence of MoO₄²⁻ (molybdate anion) and Mo₂O₇²⁻ ions isn't just a side effect of the reconstruction process, it plays a direct role in performance. 



These ions alter the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-hydrogen-source-could-power-earth-for-170000-years/">hydrogen</a> sticks to and leaves the surface, which is key to keeping the reaction fast and efficient.



When Mo₂O₇²⁻ forms under slightly more negative voltage, it encourages weaker <a href="https://css.umich.edu/publications/factsheets/energy/hydrogen-factsheet" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrogen binding</a>. This makes it easier for hydrogen atoms to pair up and detach as gas, rather than staying stuck on the surface.



Faradaic efficiency measures what fraction of current produces the desired product. The new catalyst reaches 99.9 percent at –0.4 volts versus the reversible hydrogen electrode, with a hydrogen output of 1.85 moles per hour.



Those numbers hold for more than a month at about 100 milli‑amps per square centimeter, a current density relevant to alkaline industrial cells. 



Commercial <a href="https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/aldrich/205958?srsltid=AfmBOor7Ndg-C1bxkj2_PhvkoRgvM6UjC_VVeid6RB8KrshpsZmhdHau" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">platinum‑on‑carbon</a> electrodes in the same test lost three‑quarters of their activity within a day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-lab-bench-to-factory-floor">From lab bench to factory floor</h2>



The study showed the material keeps working after sitting on the shelf for weeks. That stability lowers shipping and storage costs for large‑scale projects. 



Cobalt and molybdenum are already mined for batteries and steel, so supply chains exist. Even so, recycling plans will be needed to prevent price spikes if demand climbs sharply.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57056-6/figures/4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/clean-hydrogen-production_efficiency-model_graphic_credit-Nature_1s.webp" alt="Theoretical calculation of clean hydrogen energy production at 99% efficiency. Credit: Nature" class="wp-image-1974516"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Theoretical calculation of clean hydrogen energy production at 99% efficiency. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Nature</figcaption></figure>



<a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2025/05/22/3086846/0/en/Hydrogen-Electrolyzer-Market-Projected-to-Hit-USD-40-12-Billion-by-2032-Amid-Surging-Demand-for-Clean-Energy.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Analysts</a> expect the hydrogen‑electrolyzer market to jump from $1.75 billion in 2025 to $40 billion by 2032, a 56 percent annual growth rate. Near‑perfect catalysts like Liu’s could help those projections stick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-difficulty-of-clean-hydrogen-scaling">Difficulty of clean hydrogen scaling</h2>



Scale‑up still faces hurdles such as heat management and electrode fouling. The Tohoku group plans pilot studies that pair their catalyst with intermittent wind power on Japan’s Pacific coast.



A separate challenge lies in sourcing alkaline electrolytes at the volumes gigawatt systems demand. Recycling potassium hydroxide and capturing stray molybdenum will be part of the engineering brief.



Researchers outside the project welcome the mechanistic insights. By tracking both the solid surface and the changing liquid, the team underscored that chemistry never happens in isolation.



Every efficiency gain cuts electricity bills, the biggest cost in green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-hydrogen-reserves-discovered-beneath-earths-mountains/">hydrogen</a>. That is why a single decimal point (99.9 instead of 99.0) echoes far beyond the laboratory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-hydrogen-infrastructure">Changing hydrogen infrastructure</h2>



If scaled successfully, this catalyst could lower the cost of producing hydrogen by cutting energy waste and extending equipment life. 



That kind of savings makes on-site <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-natural-hydrogen-deposit-discovery-is-worth-a-staggering-184-billion/">hydrogen</a> generation more practical for industries like shipping, steelmaking, and fertilizer.



It also opens the door for smaller, distributed electrolyzer units that could plug directly into local solar or wind farms. 



More localized production would mean less reliance on pipelines or cryogenic transport, simplifying the hydrogen supply chain.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57056-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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New catalyst improves clean hydrogen production to 99.9% efficiency

Hydrogen carries about 120 megajoules of energy per kilogram, roughly triple...

Everyone’s tried a diet at some point - counting calories, skipping dessert, cutting carbs. But here’s the catch: most of it doesn’t last. That’s where intermittent fasting comes in. Instead of limiting what you eat, it focuses on when you eat.



Now, scientists have tested whether it really works. A huge review published in&nbsp;The BMJ&nbsp;looked at 99 trials. Over 6,500 adults took part. Most had health issues. Most were women. Their average body mass index was 31, which falls under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-a-popular-weight-loss-drug-are-finally-revealed/">obesity</a>.



This wasn’t a small review. It compared different types of fasting with standard calorie-cutting diets and unrestricted eating. And the results? Pretty interesting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-these-diets-work">How these diets work</h2>



Let’s break down the main strategies. Time-restricted eating (TRE) means eating during a set time window each day, like 8 hours on, 16 off.



Alternate-day fasting (ADF) is exactly what it sounds like: you fast one day, eat the next. Whole-day fasting (WDF) usually follows a 5:2 plan - five days of regular eating, two days of fasting.



These were compared with daily calorie restriction and completely unrestricted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-unexpectedly-help-people-drink-less-alcohol/">diets</a> (called ad-libitum). 



Participants followed these plans for anywhere from three weeks to a year. Most trials lasted about three months. Some were high quality. Others, less so. But together, they gave us a clearer picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternate-day-fasting-works-best">Alternate-day fasting works best</h2>



Among all the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-could-save-an-enormous-number-of-lives/">diets</a>, alternate-day fasting came out on top. People following ADF lost around 3.4 kg more than those who ate freely. Compared to daily calorie restriction, ADF showed an extra 1.29 kg drop in weight. That’s not a huge difference, but it’s something.



ADF also did better than the other fasting types. It beat TRE by 1.69 kg and WDF by 1.05 kg. But here’s the twist: none of these differences reached 2 kg. That’s the threshold researchers say matters for people that are above weight.



Still, ADF had some extra perks. It helped lower triglycerides and “bad” cholesterol more than the other diets. Blood sugar? No changes there. Same for “good” cholesterol. But weight and lipids did shift a bit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-result-fades-over-time">Result fades over time</h2>



For the first few months, all fasting plans helped people lose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-foods-promote-weight-loss-regardless-of-processing/">weight</a>. But after six months, those differences faded. Only people eating without restrictions kept showing a clear gap.



Longer trials also showed another pattern: people dropped out. ADF had the highest dropout rate. In one year-long trial, only 22% stuck with it. The rest gave up.



Were there side effects? Yes. Mild ones. Hunger, constipation, maybe some dizziness. Nothing dangerous, but not exactly fun either.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-quality-matters">Food quality matters</h2>



Here’s what the team from Colombia pointed out. A diet isn’t just a plan. It’s also the support, the structure, the advice, and what you eat on non-fasting days.



“The current evidence provides some indication that intermittent fasting diets have similar benefits to continuous energy restriction for weight loss and cardiometabolic risk factors. Longer-duration trials are needed to further substantiate these findings,” noted the study authors.



“Intermittent fasting does not aim to replace other dietary strategies but to integrate and complement them within a comprehensive, patient centered nutritional care model.”



In other words, it’s not about picking sides. Intermittent fasting isn’t better or worse by itself. It can work - if it fits the person.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reality-of-alternate-day-fasting">The reality of alternate-day fasting</h2>



Intermittent fasting works. So does <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spicy-foods-can-slow-down-eating-and-cut-calorie-intake/">calorie</a> restriction. ADF may give you a slight edge. But none of these are magic. And none of them guarantee long-term success without real change and support.



The numbers aren’t mind-blowing, but they tell us something. If you can stick with fasting, especially ADF, you may lose a little more weight and lower some risk markers. If you can’t, you’re not alone.



In the end, the most effective diet isn’t the trendiest or the one that shows the biggest weight drop in studies. It’s the one you can keep doing without burning out. 



If you can follow a plan for a week, then a month, then maybe a year - without feeling miserable or deprived - then that’s a good sign.



The meals you eat should feel normal, not like a punishment. Your routine should fit around your life, not take it over. When your eating habits make sense, and you don’t dread sticking to them, that’s when real, lasting change has a chance to happen.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/389/bmj-2024-082007" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The BMJ</a>.



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Alternate day fasting might be worth trying for weight loss

Everyone’s tried a diet at some point - counting calories,...

Men inherit their Y chromosome much the way families pass down a favorite pocketknife - practically unchanged from father to son. For decades, biologists treated this tiny stretch of DNA as little more than a switch for making testes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-is-disappearing-may-already-be-causing-problems-for-men/">Recent work flips that idea on its head</a>. The Y chromosome turns out to influence immune function, cancer risk, and even how long a man might live.



Scientists once assumed its limited gene set made it a genetic lightweight. The X chromosome carries more than a thousand genes, yet the Y chromosome contains only about fifty to seventy protein-coding genes. 



Size, however, doesn’t tell the whole story. By following the Y’s trail through aging blood cells, researchers are charting an unexpected route from missing DNA to stubborn tumors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-y-chromosome-matters">Why the Y chromosome matters</h2>



The Y chromosome sprang into the spotlight a century ago when geneticists linked it to male sex determination. 



Its <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SRY gene</a> directs an embryo’s early tissues to form testes, setting off a hormonal cascade that produces typical male anatomy. 



Beyond that first task, the Y shoulders other jobs - guiding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-testicles-created-in-a-lab-will-eventually-produce-sperm/">sperm formation</a>, shaping certain brain circuits, and engaging with immune genes on the X chromosome.



Because the Y is passed down intact, it serves as a molecular time capsule. Anthropologists trace paternal lineages back tens of thousands of years by decoding tiny changes in its sequence. 



Clinicians, meanwhile, focus on what happens when the Y goes missing altogether in some cells - a phenomenon called loss of Y, or LOY.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-y-loy">Loss of Y (LOY)</h2>



LOY rises steeply after middle age. Surveys of European and American blood banks show that fewer than 2 percent of men under forty carry Y-negative blood cells, but the figure balloons past 40 percent by the late seventies. 



Smokers hit those levels even sooner. Despite its frequency, LOY often flies under the radar because routine blood panels do not look for mosaic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-changes-supercharged-the-human-brain-but-at-a-cost/">chromosomal loss</a>.



The disappearing Y appears to chip away at healthy aging. Population studies link LOY to higher mortality from cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer’s-like dementia. 



One Swedish project calculated that men with heavy LOY lived, on average, 5.5 years less than peers whose cells kept their Y. 



The chromosome’s dwindling presence seems to impair immune surveillance, setting the stage for rogue cells to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-cancer-and-y-chromosome-loss">Link between cancer and Y chromosome loss</h2>



In the new study co-authored by <a href="https://cancercenter.arizona.edu/person/dan-theodorescu-md-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Dan Theodorescu</a>, director of the Cancer Center at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, researchers mapped Y chromosome loss across thousands of individual cells from human cancers and matched mouse models.



They found that Y-negative cells were not limited to the tumors themselves; they also dominated the surrounding immune landscape. 



CD4⁺ helper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-learns-how-cancer-cells-highjack-the-immune-system-t-cells/">T cells</a> shifted toward a regulatory identity that dampens attack signals, while CD8⁺ killer T cells lost much of their punch.



The degree of LOY in the bloodstream mirrored what the team saw inside the tumor. Patients whose blood showed a high percentage of Y-negative white cells tended to harbor tumors rich in LOY and faced poorer outcomes.



Those correlations held across lung, bladder, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-directly-linked-to-head-and-neck-cancer/">head-and-neck cancers</a>, hinting at a common mechanism rather than a disease-specific quirk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-loy-in-the-cancer-ecosystem">Watching LOY in the cancer ecosystem</h2>



The work was led by <a href="https://www.uu.se/en/contact-and-organisation/staff?query=N9-750" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lars A. Forsberg</a> at Uppsala University’s Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, with collaborators at <a href="https://ki.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karolinska Institute</a> and the <a href="https://www.broadinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Broad Institute</a> of MIT and Harvard. 



His group has spent the last decade cataloging how the vanishing Y shapes male health beyond reproduction. 



By combining single-cell RNA sequencing with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR-engineered</a> mouse tumors, the researchers could watch LOY spread through the cancer ecosystem in real time.



Forsberg’s earlier epidemiological studies set the stage, but the present findings move from pattern spotting to mechanistic insight. 



The team now proposes that Y-negative tumor cells may release vesicles carrying factors that nudge nearby immune cells toward the same chromosomal loss, blunting the body’s response on multiple fronts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-care-and-the-lost-y-chromosome">Cancer care and the lost Y chromosome</h2>



Immune-based therapies such as CAR-T cells rely on harvesting a patient’s own T cells, engineering them to recognize cancer, and then infusing them back. 



If those starting cancer cells already lack the Y chromosome, their fighting spirit may be compromised before treatment even begins. 



Routine LOY screening could help oncologists decide whether to enrich for Y-positive cells or explore alternative strategies.



The study also raises the possibility of a simple blood test that flags men at higher risk years before a tumor forms. 



By tracking LOY alongside traditional markers like PSA or C-reactive protein, clinicians might refine screening schedules and lifestyle advice, especially for heavy smokers or men with family histories of cancer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-open-questions-that-need-answers">Open questions that need answers</h2>



Although the association between LOY and worse survival is strong, causality still needs proof. Lab groups are now using gene-editing tools to delete the Y in naïve T cells and watch how tumor control changes in animal models. 



Others are probing whether antioxidants, exercise, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-vaping-help-people-quit-smoking-cigarettes-new-study-breaks-it-down/">smoking cessation</a> can slow the march of LOY in circulating blood cells.



Another unknown is why certain chromosomes - particularly the Y - drop out more readily than others. 



One theory points to its structure: lacking a second copy for recombination, the Y may struggle to repair damage from oxidative stress or environmental toxins. 



Pinning down the exact triggers could open doors to interventions that keep the chromosome intact longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-chromosomes-cancer-and-the-future">Y chromosomes, cancer, and the future</h2>



The Y chromosome may be small, but its absence echoes throughout a man’s biology. Loss of Y tampers with immune cells, helps tumors dodge attack, and shortens healthy years. 



As laboratories refine single-cell tools and clinicians adopt more personalized cancer therapies, checking whether the Y is present or missing could become as routine as measuring blood pressure. 



From sex determination in the womb to survival in old age, this pint-sized chromosome punches well above its weight, reminding us that in genetics, size isn’t everything.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09071-2#Sec8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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New study on Y chromosome disappearance finds direct link to much greater cancer risk

Men inherit their Y chromosome much the way families pass...

Pregnancy is a delicate time, and fresh evidence shows that wildfire smoke and extreme heat may add extra risk - especially for families in climate-stressed neighborhoods. 



The study suggests that exposure even a month before conception can shape a baby's weight at birth.



Researchers at the University of Southern California tracked more than 700 pregnancies across Los Angeles between 2016 and 2020. 



Study lead author Roxana Khalili is a researcher in the Department of Population and Public Health Sciences at the Keck School of Medicine of USC.



“We already know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-air-quality-linked-to-cognitive-problems-in-infants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">poor air quality</a> is associated with adverse health outcomes, and that pregnant women and fetuses are especially vulnerable,” said Khalili.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-location-impacts-pregnancy-outcomes">Location impacts pregnancy outcomes</h2>



“Where you live makes a difference in your health,” said Khalili. “So does the timing of your exposure during or immediately before pregnancy."



"We wanted to better understand how these risks might differ for women who lived in neighborhoods that experience more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-the-hidden-casualty-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate related stressors</a> and have fewer resources to deal with them.”



Using detailed smoke maps from CalFIRE and NOAA, the team estimated how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fine-particle-pollution-may-cause-children-to-develop-asthma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fine particle pollution</a> reached each participant’s home on every day. 



The researchers paired the fire pollution data with weather data to capture heat, humidity, and wind. Together, those numbers revealed when each mother faced high smoke or heat stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnancy-risks-rise-with-wildfire-days">Pregnancy risks rise with wildfire days</h2>



“Overall, we found consistent associations between increased exposure to wildfire smoke and heat stress during preconception and the first trimester with the odds of having an SGA infant,” Khalili said. 



Babies classified as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-new-trees-brings-hope-for-healthier-babies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small-for-gestational-age</a> (SGA) weigh below the 10th percentile for their age.



The team linked moderate smoke exposure in early pregnancy to low birth weight under five pounds, eight ounces.



Living in the hottest, most climate-vulnerable parts of the city raised the stakes. For women in these areas, the effect of heat stress before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moms-health-shapes-how-well-an-embryo-develops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conception</a> on the chance of an SGA birth nearly doubled. 



Fenton Z-scores, a marker of how an infant’s size differs from the average, also fell as wildfire days piled up during pregnancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-staying-indoors">More than just staying indoors</h2>



“Understanding what’s happening to women during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-threaten-the-recovery-of-the-ozone-layer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> and excessively hot days could help us identify protective measures, develop guidance, and plan interventions,” said Khalili.



Staying indoors, running air filters, and using air conditioning can help. However, the researchers stress that broader community solutions are needed.



“As the recent Los Angeles fires have demonstrated, infrastructure, socioeconomic, and health vulnerabilities can combine with excessive climate and environmental factors to magnify health risks,” said Rima Habre, director of USC’s&nbsp;CLIMA Center. 



“It is only by looking at the cumulative impacts of burdens communities are facing, now and into the future, that we can start to truly quantify health risks of climate hazards and target interventions to strengthen community resilience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnant-stress-linked-to-surroundings">Pregnant stress linked to surroundings</h2>



Pregnancy is shaped by more than genetics or individual behavior. The surrounding environment - both physical and social - plays a powerful role in maternal and infant health. 



Factors like air quality, temperature, housing conditions, and access to health care can all affect outcomes.



For families in under-resourced communities, these stressors often overlap, compounding the risks during pregnancy.



Public health experts are increasingly calling for a more holistic approach to prenatal care. This means looking beyond clinical checkups to also consider neighborhood-level interventions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-planning-protects-expectant-mothers">Better planning protects expectant mothers</h2>



Expanding access to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/safe-levels-of-air-pollution-can-negatively-impact-the-developing-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clean air</a>, cool spaces, nutritious food, and mental health support can help ease the burden on expectant mothers. 



Another crucial step is preparing communities for climate-related challenges with better urban planning and emergency response systems.



Pregnancy is a vulnerable time, but it’s also an opportunity to make meaningful change. By protecting the health of pregnant people today, we’re investing in the well-being of future generations. 



As climate-related hazards grow more frequent, ensuring healthier pregnancies will require more than individual action. 



Protection for expecting mothers will demand community-wide support, informed policies, and sustained attention to the environments in which people live, work, and grow families.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.4c10194">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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Pregnancy risks rise with heat and smoke exposure

Pregnancy is a delicate time, and fresh evidence shows that...

Prescriptions for antibiotic medications have fallen in recent years. Yet the genes that let bacteria shrug off these drugs remain stubbornly common in rivers and streams. 



A new investigation shows that less medicine in people does not always mean less antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-antibiotic-resistance">Tracking antibiotic resistance </h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a> traced both antibiotic use and AMR genes by sampling wastewater from four treatment plants in southwest England. 



The researchers studied two years of samples taken during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-disrupts-gut-health-increasing-risk-of-other-infections/">COVID-19</a> pandemic and compared them with data gathered before 2019. The team matched every sewage sample to medical prescription records from the same period.



The experts noted a clear seasonal dip in prescriptions between 2017 and 2019. Drug levels in wastewater decreased too. But the load of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigs-and-humans-are-sharing-antibiotic-resistance-genes/">resistance genes</a> in the wastewater remained high. 



Even a sharp drop in prescriptions during the 2020 lockdown brought only a brief fall in AMR genes in wastewater. Once social contact rose, both prescriptions and resistance genes bounced back up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-antibiotic-use-isn-t-enough">Reducing antibiotic use isn’t enough</h2>



“The spread of antimicrobial resistance is a huge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increases-threat-antimicrobial-resistance/">threat</a> to all our lives - we rely on antibiotics for treating common infections and to safely carry out surgical procedures," said Professor Barbara Kasprzyk-Hordern, director of CWBE.



“The main focus globally on combatting AMR has been to reduce the amount of antibiotics used, but our research findings show that this alone might not be enough to tackle the problem."



She pointed out that once resistance genes are out there in the environment, they can be transferred between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-can-jump-between-healthy-pets-and-owners/">bacteria</a>, increasing the populations of microbes that are resistant to treatment with antibiotics.



“This is really worrying because we had previously assumed that less usage would result in less AMR, but our results show the problem is more complex than that,” noted Professor Kasprzyk-Hordern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-resistance-spreads-without-antibiotics">How resistance spreads without antibiotics</h2>



Bacteria swap genes with each other in soil, water, and the human gut. Once a resistance gene enters that pool, it can spread even when antibiotic pressure falls.



The study suggests that public-health plans must look beyond prescribing habits and consider farming, wastewater treatment, and environmental cleanup.



The research team urges policy makers to adopt a One Health approach. That means looking at people, animals, and ecosystems together in an any attempt to reduce populations of resistant microbes.



Better drug stewardship in hospitals and clinics is still vital. But it must be joined by limits on antibiotics in livestock, upgrades to sewage plants, and surveillance of rivers and soils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-real-world-lab">Building a real-world lab</h2>



The Bath group and partners have launched the Centre of Excellence in Water-Based Early-Warning Systems for Health Protection. 



The team's first “living lab” will follow microbes and chemicals from wastewater to human health outcomes over many years. This long view should reveal how resistance moves through entire communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antibiotic-resistance-genes-in-wastewater">Antibiotic resistance genes in wastewater</h2>



“Our work shows that wastewater-based epidemiology is an innovative and cost-effective monitoring tool that can be used to understand antibiotic usage and how antibiotic-resistant genes spread,“ said Dr. Like Xu, first author of the&nbsp;study.



Antimicrobial resistance is a growing concern and the presence of persistent concentrations of antibiotic-resistant genes in the environment could potentially lead to serious and widespread health issues. 



“Through wastewater analysis, this approach helps identify new resistance patterns, understand their transmission and establish baselines at community level," confirmed Dr. Xu.



“This evidence can support decision makers in developing coordinated interventions and assessing their effectiveness in near-real time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-responsibility">A shared responsibility</h2>



Antibiotic resistance isn’t just a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antimicrobial-resistance-projected-to-kill-10-million-people-each-year/">problem</a> for doctors or scientists - it affects everyone. The study shows that resistance can spread in ways we don’t always see or expect.



To reduce the threat, we need to focus on where resistance is hiding and how it travels - not just how we can reduce the use of antibiotic medications. 



This also calls for broader action. Clean water systems, responsible farming, and better tracking of resistance in communities all play a role. It’s not just about changing how we use antibiotics - it’s about changing how we think about the connections between health, the environment, and society.



Everyone has a part to play, from governments and hospitals to farmers and families. If we want to protect the power of antibiotics for the future, we’ll need to take a smarter, more connected approach today.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213716525001092?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance</a>.



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Genes for antibiotic resistance lurk in our wastewater and streams

Prescriptions for antibiotic medications have fallen in recent years. Yet...

Brain,Neurons,,Synapses,,Reasoning

When you juggle a phone number, an address, and directions - all while driving - you will notice that stray memory details, like the jingle on the radio, try to muscle their way in and vie for space and attention in your brain.



Neuroscientists have long suspected that the brain employs an internal "memory janitor" that's able to sweep that clutter away, and a new study finally catches the cleanup crew in action.



The evidence comes from cognitive neuroscientists <a href="https://postlab.psych.wisc.edu/staff/shan-jiangang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jiangang Shan</a> and <a href="https://psych.wisc.edu/staff/postle-brad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bradley Postle</a> at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, who traced how volunteers intentionally dropped one memory item to make room for another and then mapped the electrical ripple that followed the internal command.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-brain-clears-memory-space">Why the brain clears memory space</h2>



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11515286/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Working memory</a> is famously stingy, holding only about four independent chunks before performance crashes. Because that ceiling never grows across adulthood, clearing stale or distracting content is the only way to keep goals on course.



The idea that we can store seven plus or minus two items dates to <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4486516/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">George Miller’s 1956 essay</a>, but later work shows that number shrinks once chunking tricks and rehearsal are stripped away. 



Active deletion therefore matters even more than passive forgetting when the cognitive stakes are high.



Failing to clear the cache can feed <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11122689/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rumination</a> and other intrusive thought loops tied to depression, anxiety, and hallucinations. 



Pinning down the neural broom that prunes irrelevant data may expose a direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-has-a-meal-memory-that-controls-hunger/">therapeutic target</a> for disorders that hijack the mind’s limited spotlight.



A 2019 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31054444/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meta‑analysis</a> found that intrusive memories dog 76 percent of adults with major depressive disorder, underscoring how common and stubborn unwanted recollections can be. An efficient erase signal could help break that cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-waves-that-erase-memory">Brain waves that erase memory</h2>



Using scalp electroencephalogram (<a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.01.09.632207v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EEG</a>) sensors, Shan and Postle spotted an anterior‑to‑posterior traveling wave that surged down the cortex roughly 160 milliseconds after a “forget” cue. 



The rapid sweep looked like a top‑down shout from executive regions toward the visual areas that first encoded the now‑irrelevant detail.



That directional burst was markedly stronger than the weak hum seen when participants simply ignored an item, hinting that active deletion is a distinct operation rather than a slow fade powered by neglect. 



A separate analysis showed that stronger waves predicted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/">cleaner recall</a> of the surviving item, tying the electrical surge to practical memory benefits.



Early animal studies link traveling waves to attention shifts, but the new human data confirm that the same mechanism can serve a more radical purpose, silencing content outright. 



By converting an attention tool into a forgetting tool, the cortex re‑uses existing circuitry instead of inventing a bespoke system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-test-showed-memory-deletion">How the test showed memory deletion</h2>



Twenty‑nine adults stared at two colored bars on a screen, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">memorizing</a> their orientations, and then received a cue naming which bar to discard before a third bar appeared. 



The tricky part: all bars shared the same format, so participants had to surgically erase only the flagged target while preserving everything else.



Because EEG captures brain rhythms at millisecond resolution, the team watched the decision and its aftermath unfold in real time. 



They also fired a brief “ping,” a flash matching the banished color, during the delay to probe any lingering excitability in the relevant neural channels.



A control condition left forgetting to happen passively, giving the researchers a baseline trace for comparison. That contrast let them separate mere inattention from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-the-brain-for-the-future-while-protecting-memories-of-the-past/">active‑removal process</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-silences-old-info">How the brain silences old info</h2>



“Active removal led to decreased excitability in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-time-and-space-interact-in-the-brain/">perceptual circuits</a> centered on the unwanted information,” report Shan and Postle. 



After active removal, the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482504/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual cortex</a> barely flinched at the ping, evidence that its circuits had been deliberately dampened. 



That engineered silence contrasts with passive forgetting, where the same probe evokes a modest after‑shock that slowly decays, suggesting the trace lingers and can still meddle with new material. 



The neural hush also predicts smaller interference effects on later trials, confirming that the brain’s tidy‑up translates into cleaner behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-active-brain-memory-deletion-beats-fading">Active brain memory deletion beats fading</h2>



Passive forgetting starves a detail of attention until it slips below awareness, much like muting a television you no longer watch. 



Active forgetting uses the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36072093/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation‑hijacking</a> mechanism, throttling neuronal gain so the discarded feature cannot compete later.



Behaviorally, items erased in this way leave a measurable repulsive after‑effect on subsequent perception, a fingerprint that never appears after passive withdrawal and one that further underscores the existence of two cleanup tools inside the same brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters-for-mental-health">Why it matters for mental health</h2>



People who ruminate struggle to swap out emotional memory information and commit more false alarms in brain memory tasks, underscoring how sticky thoughts hamper cognitive control. 



Training the brain’s active‑removal memory circuit could give these individuals a concrete method to quench spirals of negativity.



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10658640/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hallucinations</a> in psychosis, intrusive memories in post‑traumatic stress disorder, and even compulsive cravings might also flare when unwanted content refuses eviction. 



Boosting the frontal wave, or mimicking its effect with targeted stimulation, could tip the balance back toward flexible, goal‑directed thinking.



Clinical teams already experiment with cognitive‑control exercises and non‑invasive brain stimulation; the new findings supply a physiological marker to gauge whether those interventions truly engage the forgetting pathway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-this-works-in-daily-life">How this works in daily life</h2>



The <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9400626/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ABC‑retrocuing task</a> uses abstract shapes, yet the principle probably scales to everyday situations, such as clearing a coworker’s outdated instructions before a meeting pivots to a new agenda. 



Ordinary forgetfulness may hinge less on storage capacity and more on how quickly the cleanup signal fires when priorities flip.



Understanding that signal could even inform workplace design: regular micro‑breaks might allow the brain to issue its erase order before the next demand floods in, shaving off mistakes rooted in lingering clutter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-in-brain-and-memory-research">What’s next in brain and memory research</h2>



Shan and Postle now plan to pair <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/transcranial-magnetic-stimulation/about/pac-20384625" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transcranial magnetic stimulation</a> with EEG to test whether amplifying the anterior‑to‑posterior wave speeds forgetting and improves downstream recall accuracy. 



Meanwhile, computational neuroscientists are adding adaptive gain control to artificial networks, hoping to build machines that forget with the same finesse as humans.



“It is surprisingly hard to teach an algorithm to know what not to remember,” Postle notes in a university briefing. 



If that memory challenge is cracked, voice assistants and self-driving cars could avoid brain overload by erasing sensor snapshots the instant they become obsolete.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/06/04/JNEUROSCI.2414-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.



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Scientists find a built-in 'memory janitor' that helps your brain forget some things on purpose

When you juggle a phone number, an address, and directions...

A visual feast of galaxies

It is astounding how a single image can hold such a wealth of information. This new view from the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) showcases a crowded landscape of stars and galaxies, each one shedding a little more light on the story of the universe.



The scene includes objects that lie near and far, stretching across billions of years in cosmic time. 



The <a href="https://cosmos.astro.caltech.edu/page/cosmosweb" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COSMOS-Web group</a>, led by Dr. Ghassem Gozaliasl from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>, has focused on the largest concentration of galaxies seen in the central region, where a cluster dazzles with a white-gold glow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-captures-unknown-galaxies">Webb captures unknown galaxies</h2>



Scientists use the term "light-year" to describe the distance light travels in one year, roughly 5.88 trillion miles (9.46 trillion kilometers). Because light takes time to travel, instruments like Webb can glimpse conditions that existed eons ago.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-finds-uranus-full-of-surprises-after-20-years-of-observations/">Hubble</a> and other observatories have contributed to this deep-sky survey, yet Webb’s infrared detectors are revealing structures that were previously unseen. 



Observing so many diverse galaxies in a single region helps researchers trace how these mighty star cities evolve over cosmic time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamics-of-new-galaxy-clusters">Dynamics of new galaxy clusters</h2>



Over half of all galaxies in our universe exist in groups, making these <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1205.5556" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clusters</a> valuable for understanding galactic evolution. 



When galaxies interact in such close quarters, gravity can pull them into surprising shapes or even merge them altogether.



Many such groups in the COSMOS-Web sample likely formed alliances that shifted their histories forever, resulting in collisions or new star-forming bursts.



Some of these groupings are so large that they can significantly bend the path of light from objects behind them. 



Researchers studying these systems piece together patterns that help explain how matter is distributed across huge stretches of space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxies-in-a-crowded-neighborhood">Galaxies in a crowded neighborhood</h2>



When galaxies live in crowded settings like groups, their environments tend to strip gas away from the outer edges. This gas loss limits future star formation and can cause galaxies to grow old faster. 



Researchers have seen this process, called <a href="https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/*/Ram+Pressure+Stripping" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ram pressure stripping</a>, in many nearby clusters.



In some cases, galaxies that pass through the dense center of a group get pulled apart by gravity or collide with neighbors. 



These events often trigger sudden starbursts or reshape galaxies completely. Over time, the group’s conditions shape what each member becomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-the-glow-of-ancient-objects">Detecting the glow of ancient objects </h2>



The X-ray data gathered by older telescopes captures scorching clouds of gas in these galaxy groups. That hot gas would be invisible without specialized instruments. 



Separately, Hubble's visible and infrared <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/image-detail/hubble-monkeyhead-ngc2174-vis-ir-stsci-01evvkxvw1mwr1g6h844xm5p03/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> capture stars within closer galaxies and the shimmering cores of far-off ones. 



Webb pushes even deeper by detecting the faint infrared glow from ancient objects that might otherwise slip by unnoticed.



Scientists compare all these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-detected-in-the-most-distant-and-primitive-galaxy-ever-analyzed/">observations </a>to identify each galaxy’s distance, shape, and star content. Younger stars shine with a bright blue appearance, while older stars glow red.&nbsp;



“The more distant a galaxy, the redder it appears,” noted the COSMOS-Web team. Each color variation helps confirm ages and reveals star formation rates across vast eras.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-of-the-early-universe">A glimpse of the early universe</h2>



The COSMOS-Web initiative spans 0.54 square degrees of sky, which may sound small, but it covers an area over twice the size of three full moons put side by side. 



This 255-hour program employs <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/nircam/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb’s Near-InfraRed Camera</a> to gather data that can support multiple studies on galaxy assembly, <a href="https://elt.eso.org/science/cosmodm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and star formation.



Researchers want to pinpoint galaxies born during the <a href="https://www.mpia.de/en/gc/research/epoch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epoch of reionization</a>, a critical era when early stars reionized hydrogen in the young universe. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/COSMOS-Web_thousands-galaxies_Webb-telescope_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/COSMOS-Web_thousands-galaxies_Webb-telescope_NASA_1s.webp" alt="An area of deep space with thousands of galaxies in various shapes and sizes on a black background. Most are circles or ovals, with a few spirals. More distant galaxies are redder in color and smaller, down to being mere dots, while closer galaxies are a bit larger and white or blueish. A few gold-colored galaxies are bunched closely together in the center. Bright stars surrounded by spikes lie in our galaxy. Credit: NASA/ESA" class="wp-image-1973689"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An area of deep space with thousands of galaxies in various shapes and sizes on a black background. Most are circles or ovals, with a few spirals. More distant galaxies are redder in color and smaller, down to being mere dots, while closer galaxies are a bit larger and white or blueish. A few gold-colored galaxies are bunched closely together in the center. Bright stars surrounded by spikes lie in our galaxy. Credit: NASA/ESA</figcaption></figure>



This project also seeks insights on how the mass of a galaxy’s stars connects with the mass of its broader <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/galactic-halos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galactic halo</a>.



Unraveling that relationship can illuminate how galaxies stay stable and where new stars might spring up. While many questions remain open, this collaborative effort has enlarged our ability to examine the vast landscape of space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxies-change-over-time">Galaxies change over time</h2>



The sheer variety of galactic forms in Webb’s new image stands out. Some swirl elegantly with spiral arms, others are smooth like bright blobs, and still others appear to interact or overlap in intricate ways. 



Each arrangement tells a story of turbulence, star birth, or gravitational tug-of-war that shaped its final outline.



Astronomers <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-galaxies-discovery-would-upend-current-understanding-of-universe/">track</a> these structural clues to see how galaxies change with time. Observing group environments is part of that puzzle. 



When multiple galaxies crowd together, they can share resources or disrupt one another’s development, adding layers to the cosmic tapestry unfolding across billions of light-years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-galaxy-evolution">Future research on galaxy evolution</h2>



Future research will keep refining distance measurements, star formation histories, and the distribution of dark matter across these new galactic groupings. 



Webb is already inspiring new hypotheses about how quickly galaxies reach maturity, and fresh data can confirm or correct these early models.



Experts rely on synergy among instruments like the NASA/ESA <a href="https://esahubble.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a>, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/chandra-x-ray-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory</a>, and <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/XMM-Newton" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA’s XMM-Newton</a>, making each mission’s contribution vital. 



Piecing together all of these perspectives enriches our understanding of the galactic web that stretches beyond our home in the Milky Way.



You can find more photos from this study <a href="https://esawebb.org/images/potm2504a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">on the ESA website here...</a>



Image Credit: ESA



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Thousands of galaxies captured in a single photograph by the Webb telescope

It is astounding how a single image can hold such...

Nearly every modern gadget relies on metals that behave exactly as textbooks predict. Gallium refuses to play along. Nearly 150 years after French chemist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul-%C3%89mile_Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran</a> added the element to the periodic table, researchers are still sorting out why this silvery liquid shifts its personality when the heat is on. 



A spoon made of gallium will liquefy in a cup of tea, yet the same element anchors semiconductors, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floating-solar-panels-could-power-every-home-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar panels</a>, and laser diodes that withstand scorching factory conditions.



For more than 30 years, physicists have wrestled with gallium’s structure in the liquid state. Competing studies have offered clashing explanations, especially around the role of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/covalent-bond" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">covalent bonding</a> - a type of electron-sharing connection that metals rarely show. 



Fresh simulations have now stitched the puzzle pieces together and point to what scientists believe to be the decisive proof they've been searching for.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-gallium-melts-early">Why gallium melts early</h2>



Gallium melts at 85 °F, far below the temperature of a warm summer day. That quirky transition happens because solid gallium forms tiny two-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chemistry-of-wine-what-actually-shapes-its-texture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atom pairs</a> called dimers, and those pairs pack less densely than the liquid. The moment the dimers break apart, density rises and the metal flows. 



The story becomes stranger at higher heat. At temperatures well above the phase change, the dimers re-form, but not in ways scientists expected.



“Thirty years of literature on the structure of liquid gallium has rested on a fundamental assumption that is evidently not true,” says Professor Nicola Gaston of Waipapa Taumata Rau, <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Auckland</a>, and the <a href="https://www.macdiarmid.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MacDiarmid Institute</a> for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology. 



Her team combined ab initio molecular-dynamics data with decades of experimental records to see how individual atoms mingle at several checkpoints on the thermometer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-gallium-myths-overturned">Liquid gallium myths overturned</h2>



Conventional wisdom held that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-molecule-discovery-will-force-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">covalent bonds</a> fade out once gallium liquefies and play only a minor role afterward. 



The fresh computational work shows the opposite: covalency matters more as the temperature climbs. In other words, the tighter electron sharing that disappears at 85 °F re-emerges and strengthens when the metal is pushed hundreds of degrees hotter.



The insight explains a long-standing electrical oddity. Gallium’s resistivity dips as it first passes the melting line - counter to most metals - then creeps upward in a nonlinear fashion. 



If covalent bonds regroup at elevated heat, they create a conduction bottleneck that raises resistivity, squaring experimental curves with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poorly-understood-force-helps-keep-atomic-nuclei-stable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atomic-level theory</a>.



Textbook melting points depend on the tug-of-war between internal order and random motion. When the dimers dissolve, entropy shoots up, giving atoms the freedom to shift. 



That entropy spike accounts for gallium’s unusually low melt point without invoking mysterious bonding tricks at 85 °F. 



Once the liquid sits comfortably above the transition, the atomic sea settles just enough for bonds to snap back together - only this time within a looser, more disordered framework.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zinc-crystals-from-liquid-gallium">Zinc crystals from liquid gallium</h2>



Gallium’s renewed covalency at high temperatures also clarifies why the liquid can pull other metals into solution with minimal energy input. 



The shared-electron environment encourages elements such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zinc-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-ocean-processes/">zinc</a>, copper, and tin to mix, forming room-temperature liquid alloys that engineers mold into stretchable circuits, heat-free solders, and microfluidic pumps.



A few years ago, researchers crystallized zinc inside a bath of molten gallium and watched delicate six-sided plates snowball outward. That project hinted at liquid gallium’s knack for directing complex shapes without external templates. 



The new structural roadmap shows that covalent rebonding supplies the subtle forces that align dissolved atoms as they solidify, making it easier to predict - and exploit - growth patterns.



Gallium-based liquids already act as catalysts that shuffle reactants into greener chemical pathways. The updated model will help chemists tune alloy recipes for faster charge transfer or sharper selectivity. 



In battery prototypes, thin films of gallium alloys spread across electrodes, filling microscopic cracks that normally kill capacity. Knowing when the liquid switches bonding modes could lengthen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-created-carbon-14-battery-that-lasts-5700-years-without-a-recharge/">battery lifetimes</a> and lower manufacturing temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quirks-in-fabrication">Quirks in fabrication</h2>



Gallium’s solid compounds, including gallium arsenide and gallium nitride, drive radio-frequency amplifiers, high-brightness LEDs, and fast chargers. 



Fabricating those compounds sometimes involves droplets of pure gallium that remove heat or transport precursor atoms. 



Process engineers need precise viscosity, density, and conductivity data at every stage, and the re-emergence of covalent links at high heat feeds directly into those parameters.



Understanding gallium’s behavior also safeguards supply chains. The metal is mined as a by-product of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposing-the-hidden-climate-costs-of-everyday-materials/">aluminum production</a>, mainly from bauxite ore. 



Global output hovers around 460 tons per year, and demand surges whenever display or photovoltaic markets expand. Tailoring alloys that use less gallium, yet keep its liquid perks, will ease strain on future inventories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Beyond Earth, gallium could help planetary scientists sniff out ancient microbes. Because the element forms stable bonds with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-volcanoes-left-sparkling-clues-behind-in-form-of-tiny-glass-beads/">oxygen and sulfur</a>, it may lock biosignatures into Martian rock layers. 



Some geochemists argue that gallium traces could outlast fragile carbon compounds, providing a longer-lived clue to life. The revamped structural picture supplies the chemical logic behind that durability.



As liquid metals step into flexible electronics, soft robotics, and low-carbon chemistry, knowing exactly how gallium’s atoms dance under heat will pay dividends.



Gallium still bends spoons for party tricks, but its greater trick lies in how a simple temperature dial rewrites atomic rules. 



By showing where covalent bonds vanish and return, the research clears fog from a field that fuels countless technologies, from phone screens to satellite links. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/mh/d4mh00244j/unauth" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Materials Horizons</a>.



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Previously unknown properties discovered in a metal that is crucial to modern life

Nearly every modern gadget relies on metals that behave exactly...

Steel is the skeleton of modern life, yet the iron that makes it has a backstory far older than the first nail. For decades, geologists thought the world's richest and largest iron ore deposits formed not long after breathable oxygen spread through Earth’s air some 2.2 billion years ago.



Fresh evidence now knocks that timing sideways, suggesting the world-class reserves in the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Simplified-geological-map-of-the-Hamersley-Province_fig1_366035930" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pilbara’s Hamersley Province</a> of Australia are about 1.4 to 1.1 billion years younger than previously believed.



The billion-year gap isn’t a rounding error - it reshapes both scientific thinking and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinas-rare-earth-jackpot-1-15-million-tons-of-minerals-uncovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mining strategy</a>.



Across the red plains east of the coastal town of Karratha, open-pit mines peel back ancient rock like pages in a weather-worn diary. Their iron feeds furnaces from Indiana to India. 



Western Australia alone supplied 38 percent of global iron ore in 2023, far out-muscling every other region on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-1-3-billion-year-iron-ore-correction">A 1.3 billion-year iron ore correction</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-the-heck-is-iron-ore/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hematite</a>, the lustrous mineral that drives these operations, occasionally traps a whisper of uranium inside its lattice. That radioactive speck decays into lead at a steady pace, letting scientists read the mineral’s “birth certificate.” 



Using that method, Dr. Liam Courtney-Davies and colleagues from <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> dated crystals from every major banded iron formation in the Hamersley. Their clock pointed stubbornly to a younger era, long after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxidation Event</a>. 



“The energy from this epic geological activity likely triggered the production of billions of tons of iron-rich rock across the Pilbara,” Dr. Courtney-Davies said.



The team’s timeline ties high-grade ore to a stretch when the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X17300485" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supercontinent Columbia</a> had ripped apart and new continental mash-ups were brewing. 



Crustal plates heaved, mountains rose, and faults opened, pumping hot, oxygen-laden fluids through pre-existing iron beds. 



Those fluids stripped out silica, leaving hematite that tops 60 percent iron - twice the grade of the original sea-floor rust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tectonics-forged-treasure">How tectonics forged treasure</h2>



Plate motion rarely draws headlines, yet its fingerprints sit on everything from fossil-fuel reservoirs to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geologists-discover-the-largest-copper-gold-and-silver-deposit-in-the-last-three-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">copper belts</a>. The Hamersley story adds one more chapter: bulk commodities. 



Associate Professor Martin Danišík, part of the Curtin University group, noted, “Our research indicates these deposits formed in conjunction with major tectonic events, highlighting the dynamic nature of our planet’s history and the complexity of iron ore mineralization.”



Before that remark, his team spelled out the scale of the upgrade. 



“Until now, the exact timeline of these formations changing from 30 percent iron as they originally were, to more than 60 percent iron as they are today, was unclear, which has hindered our understanding of the processes that led to the formation of the world's largest ore deposits,” Danišík continued.



Their solution - a fine-point uranium-lead probe inside single grains - sidesteps the guesswork of dating surrounding rocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-this-helps-iron-ore-miners">How this helps iron ore miners</h2>



Age is more than trivia. If a deposit formed in a tectonic “sweet spot” 1.3 billion years ago, explorers can hunt elsewhere for the same recipe: ancient banded iron reworked by heat and fluid flow during that window. 



In practice, that means following suture zones and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-dangerous-part-of-this-west-coast-earthquake-fault-cascadia-subduction-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fault corridors</a> that lit up when Columbia fell apart and its successor, Rodinia, took shape.



For the industry, timing meets money. The value of Western Australia’s iron ore exports hit $136 billion in the 12 months to June 2024, with China absorbing about four-fifths of that haul. 



Federal forecasters expect Australia’s iron ore earnings to fall to about $107 billion in 2024–25 as prices retreat. Efficiency matters when margins tighten, so guidance on where to drill next carries real weight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-highways-in-ancient-rock">Fluid highways in ancient rock</h2>



To grasp why fluids matter, picture an interstate highway system beneath solid rock - not a puddle here or there, but branching paths that cut through thousands of feet of crust. 



When supercontinents crunch or tear, pressure and heat send chemically rich water racing along those paths. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/iron-ore_deep-blue_Hamersley-Province-Map_credit-Curtin-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/iron-ore_deep-blue_Hamersley-Province-Map_credit-Curtin-University_1s.webp" alt="Geologic map of the Pilbara craton with sample locations marked by blue stars (Left). Stratigraphic column (Right) showing the Hamersley Group, which hosts all martite-microplaty hematite deposits and overlying groups hosting hematite ore clasts. Credit: Curtin University" class="wp-image-1974248"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Geologic map of the Pilbara craton with sample locations marked by blue stars (Left). Stratigraphic column (Right) showing the Hamersley Group, which hosts all martite-microplaty hematite deposits and overlying groups hosting hematite ore clasts. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Curtin University</figcaption></figure>



In the Pilbara, such pulses ferried extra oxygen, converting magnetite and siderite into hematite far purer than the original mix. 



Those same highways are visible in other cratons, from Brazil’s Quadrilátero Ferrífero to India’s Singhbhum region, hinting that younger ages could emerge elsewhere once geochronologists put them under the microscope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-iron-ore-ripples">Economic iron ore ripples</h2>



Global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decarbonizing-worlds-industrial-emissions-possible-with-current-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">steel demand</a>, already recovering after pandemic doldrums, is forecast to edge up 1.2 percent to about 1.815 billion metric tons in 2025. 



Meeting that appetite without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chatgpts-carbon-footprint-is-astronomical-and-not-sustainable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ballooning emissions</a> pushes producers toward higher-grade feedstock; richer ore needs less coke per ton of metal. Western Australia’s stash, upgraded by billion-year-old fluids, stands out in that carbon calculus.



Green-steel projects now pepper feasibility studies on three continents. Australia believes converting its ore into hydrogen-reduced “green iron” before shipping could more than double export value - potentially topping $250 billion a year. 



While those numbers rely on policy shifts and infrastructure build-outs, the geologic backstory underpins the commercial lure: ore that almost smelts itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-detective-work-never-ends">The detective work never ends</h2>



“By using an emerging technique to date <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/phantom-nutrient-the-secret-force-that-fuels-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iron oxide minerals</a> through uranium and lead isotope analysis within the mineral grains, we directly dated all the major giant BIF-hosted iron ore deposits in the Hamersley Province.” 



That line from the research team reads like a footnote, yet it signals a methodological leap. Asking the rocks directly, rather than their neighbors, can overturn decades of assumption in a single lab session.



“The discovery of a link between these giant iron ore deposits and changes in supercontinent cycles enhances our understanding of ancient geological processes and improves our ability to predict where we should explore in the future.” 



With that, Dr. Courtney-Davies closes the loop between academic insight and drill-bit decisions. The story of iron is still being written, one crystal at a time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2405741121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Earth's largest iron ore deposits exposed a 1.3-billion-year-old secret to geologists

Steel is the skeleton of modern life, yet the iron...

Every year, mosquito-borne diseases cut short more than a million lives across the globe, outpacing every other animal threat to humanity. The rising toll has public-health teams scrambling for fresh combat tools, especially as traditional chemical sprays lose their edge.



That loss stems from two hard truths. First, the very <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7692614/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyrethroid insecticides</a> that once worked wonders now linger in soil and water, nudging delicate ecosystems off balance. 



Second, mosquitoes adapt fast. Larvae soaking in tainted puddles and adults drifting through treated neighborhoods increasingly shrug off doses that once killed them. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-repellents-that-actually-work-yes-thanks-to-ai-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Controlling the pests</a> at their waterborne stage is vital, yet options that stay potent without harming everything else remain limited.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-cbd-and-mosquitoes">Cannabis, CBD, and mosquitoes</h2>



Recent research published in the journal Insects points to a solution hiding in plain sight: the hemp plant, Cannabis sativa. 



After air-drying and grinding ordinary hemp leaves, scientists at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ohio State University</a> led by Erick Martinez Rodriguez extracted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-reduces-the-unwanted-side-effects-of-thc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabidiol (CBD)</a> and added the concentrate to cups of water teeming with yellow fever mosquito larvae. 



Within 48 hours, both a strain that laughs at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-could-make-insect-repellents-less-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">common insecticides</a> and a non-resistant strain were wiped out.



“Mosquitoes are one of the deadliest animals in the world, mainly because as adults they serve as vectors of disease,” Rodriguez explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-resistance-to-vulnerability">From resistance to vulnerability</h2>



Two important findings jumped out. The first was total mortality: every mosquito larva exposed to sufficient CBD died by the two-day mark, regardless of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-learn-how-mosquitoes-use-sound-to-outsmart-and-evade-human-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">its genetic armor</a>. 



The second was efficiency. While industrial chemicals often push resistance higher with every generation, CBD’s effect cut straight through those defenses. Doses varied, but even modest concentrations proved lethal to all mosquito larvae.



“If you compare the amount of hemp extract needed to kill 50 % of the population to other synthetic conventional insecticides, it is on the high side, but when you compare it side by side to other natural extracts we have tested in our lab, only a relatively low amount is required to produce high mortality values in larvae,” said Martinez Rodriguez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cbd-kills-mosquitoes">How CBD kills mosquitoes</h2>



Chemical sleuthing showed that CBD dominated the hemp extract, and terpene fractions did little damage on their own. 



Larvae were judged dead once they stopped moving under a gentle nudge, confirming the cannabinoid’s direct impact on vital systems.



Insects lack the endocannabinoid receptors that give <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-can-help-ease-chronic-pain-anxiety-and-mood-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CBD its wellness reputation</a> among humans, so the compound must strike different molecular targets - possibly ion channels that govern nerve impulses or enzymes tied to muscle control. 



Whatever the route, CBD skirts the metabolic tricks that shield many larvae from pyrethroids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hemp-economics-meet-public-health">Hemp economics meet public health</h2>



Hemp is no niche crop. U.S. farmers planted about 27,680 acres in 2023, and the total value of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hemp-seeds-could-be-a-game-changer-as-an-alternative-protein-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hemp products</a> topped $291 million.



Leaves, often left as low-value waste after flowers and seeds are harvested, could become raw material for larvicides. 



Turning those leaf cast-offs into mosquito-control pellets would give growers an extra revenue stream while trimming refuse piles.



The crop’s adaptability sweetens the deal. Hemp thrives across a wide climate range, grows quickly, and rarely needs harsh pesticides of its own. 



Rural communities looking to diversify incomes and urban growers cultivating indoor micro-hemp could both feed a supply chain aimed at vector-control programs from Texas to Tanzania.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strains-and-waterway-safety">Strains and waterway safety</h2>



Field trials must still answer hard questions: How long does CBD linger in ponds? Does it bother tadpoles, fish fry, or helpful insects? 



Early lab work hints at selectivity, yet natural habitats are complex. Regulators will demand data showing that CBD pellets, briquettes, or slow-release films silence mosquito larvae without tipping aquatic ecosystems.



A second layer of testing will match different hemp strains for efficacy. Plants bred for fiber deliver more stalk than cannabinoid, while floral varieties boast <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Cannabidiol" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">richer CBD profiles</a>. 



Selecting cultivars that maximize larvicidal punch and minimize unwanted compounds will keep costs down and environmental margins wide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-cbd-and-mosquito-control">Next steps for CBD and mosquito control</h2>



Scientists plan to refine dosage, explore formulations that stick to the water’s surface, and probe how CBD interacts with other biocontrol measures like Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis. Combining modes of action could slow resistance even further. 



Teams will also map out manufacturing pipelines - picture hemp-leaf extract concentrated at regional facilities, then shipped as shelf-stable granules to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-people-are-mosquito-magnets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito-control districts</a>.



Policy makers, meanwhile, need clear guidelines. Approving a botanical larvicide means balancing urgent disease threats against conservation goals. Transparent monitoring and community engagement will help keep public trust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-another-weapon-in-the-mosquito-wars">Another weapon in the mosquito wars</h2>



Hemp-derived CBD will not single-handedly end malaria, dengue, or Zika. Yet the discovery that a familiar wellness compound doubles as a larval assassin widens the playbook. 



By uniting agriculture, chemistry, and entomology, researchers have opened <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a practical path</a> toward safer mosquito control. 



If larger-scale tests confirm the promise seen in the lab, those humble hemp leaves could soon guard countless backyard birdbaths, drainage ditches, and rice paddies - one cup of water at a time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/15/7/517" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insects</a>.



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Cannabis extract proves to be highly effective at killing the most dangerous animals in the world

Every year, mosquito-borne diseases cut short more than a million...

Feeling fulfilled and in control might help preserve memory as you age. A major study tracking over 10,000 UK adults aged 50 and older for 16 years found a clear trend. Those with higher well-being consistently scored better on memory tests.



The research used data from the English Longitudinal Study of Aging (ELSA). Participants without dementia at baseline were tested every two years on memory and self-reported well-being. 



The results showed that higher well-being predicted better memory, but not the other way around.



“In the context of an aging population, understanding factors that may protect and maintain healthy cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-happiness-come-from-it-depends-on-who-you-are/">function</a> is critical for enhanced population health and health policy development,” said lead author Dr. Amber John from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-well-being-supports-memory">Emotional well-being supports memory</h2>



Well-being included four dimensions: control, autonomy, self-realization, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/judging-your-happiness-makes-you-less-happy/">pleasure</a>. Each domain had its own influence on memory.



Control was consistently tied to both immediate and delayed recall across nearly all time points. Autonomy and self-realization followed a similar pattern, with strong ties to future memory performance. Pleasure also showed predictive value, especially in delayed recall.



This adds nuance. It's not just “feeling good” in general that matters. Specific aspects of well-being, like having choices or enjoying life, each play roles in protecting memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-memory-does-not-boost-well-being">Good memory does not boost well-being</h2>



The team used cross-lagged models to check whether memory influenced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/">well-being</a>. Their results showed no consistent evidence that memory scores predicted later well-being.



Dr. John explained this in the paper. The lack of evidence may reflect that memory loss must reach a certain threshold before it affects well-being. People in this study had healthy brain function when it started.



Delayed memory scores at a few early waves did predict well-being at the next round, but the pattern was not stable across all nine waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-link-remains-after-adjusting-factors">Memory link remains after adjusting factors</h2>



One key strength of the research is its handling of other influencing factors. The authors adjusted for depression, age, gender, ethnicity, and education. They also excluded participants who later developed dementia or died during the follow-up.



Even after these adjustments, the link between higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/">well-being</a> and better memory was consistent. This suggests that the association is not merely due to low mood or health decline.



The study authors also noted that people with lower baseline well-being, poorer memory, and lower education were more likely to drop out. This highlights the real-world challenge of studying ageing populations over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-against-memory-loss">Protecting against memory loss</h2>



The results support the view that emotional and psychological resources matter for brain health. They add to earlier findings that link positive mental health with lower dementia risk.



Well-being may serve as a protective buffer against memory decline. It may support brain health through biological mechanisms like reduced inflammation or healthier cardiovascular systems.



This finding echoes previous studies showing that depression and anxiety speed up cognitive decline. Promoting well-being might serve as a protective measure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-limitations-and-future-research">Study limitations and future research </h2>



Although the study spans 16 years and includes over 10,000 participants, it has limits. The well-being measure was self-reported, and the memory tests were simple.



The results show association, not causation. As the authors note, future research could use methods like Mendelian randomization to explore causality. Genetic data may reveal whether well-being plays a direct role in protecting memory.



Also, third factors such as lifestyle habits or socioeconomic background might influence both well-being and memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeted-mental-wellness-programs">Targeted mental wellness programs</h2>



“This study represents an important step toward understanding the interplay between wellbeing and memory over time,” said Professor Joshua Stott.



“Going forwards it would be fantastic if this research can build on the foundations of ongoing memory research to potentially inform strategies supporting cognitive health in aging populations - that is the aim,” noted Dr. Emily Willroth.



The findings open up the possibility of designing targeted mental wellness programs. Structured mindfulness, increased social connection, and life-purpose coaching could become tools for healthy cognitive aging.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13607863.2025.2468408" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aging &amp; Mental Health</a>.



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Positive life outlook helps protect memory in later life

Feeling fulfilled and in control might help preserve memory as...

Echidna,In,The,Zoo

Tiny, spiny echidnas and the duck‑billed platypus already look like misfits, but the bigger oddity hides in their DNA. For most mammals, a gene on the Y chromosome called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22246/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SRY</a> flips the switch for testis formation and sets sex development in motion.



Researchers have now shown that these <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/monotreme.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monotremes</a> wield a completely different master key: a Y‑linked copy of anti-Müllerian hormone (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4654491/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMHY</a>). 



<a href="https://researchers.adelaide.edu.au/profile/linda.shearwin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Linda Shearwin</a> of the University of Adelaide’s School of Biological Sciences led the international team that cracked the case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-sex-gene-in-monotremes">Different sex gene in monotremes</h2>



Platypuses carry five X and five Y <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2413164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chromosomes</a> that line up in an alternating chain during male meiosis, a structure unlike anything in other mammals. 



Females hold five paired X chromosomes, yet the species thrives, proof that complicated does not always mean fragile.



Genomic clocks place the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/obl4he/vertebratediversity/monotremes.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monotreme split</a> from other mammals at roughly <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8081666/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">187 million years ago</a>, long before SRY arose in placental and marsupial lineages. 



Their last common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/">ancestor</a> with us never carried SRY, so a different mechanism had to evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monotremes-have-10-sex-chromosomes">Monotremes have 10 sex chromosomes</h2>



Monotreme males don’t just have an X and a Y. They juggle a system with up to 10 sex chromosomes, five Xs and five Ys in platypuses, and a slightly smaller set in echidnas. 



These chromosomes form a chain during sperm production, a configuration that looks more like a daisy chain than the standard X–Y pair mammals typically carry.



This odd setup baffled scientists for decades. Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">therian mammals</a>, monotreme sex chromosomes share homology with bird Z chromosomes, not with the mammalian Y. 



That raised suspicions early on that monotremes must use a completely different trigger to determine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-evolution-kicked-off-with-daring-experiments/">sex</a>, but proving it required access to rare developmental stages.



Anti‑Müllerian hormone normally turns off female tract development in male embryos and later guides <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2024.1468364/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ovarian follicle growth</a>. In people, doctors measure AMH to gauge fertility or predict menopause timing.



Most mammals keep AMH on an ordinary chromosome, far downstream of SRY and <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a>. In echidnas and platypuses, evolution duplicated the gene, parked the copy on a Y chromosome, and rewired its control panel to switch on early in male gonads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-starts-outside-the-cell-s-nucleus">Sex starts outside the cell’s nucleus</h2>



“This new understanding fills a significant knowledge gap and ultimately can be used to support conservation of these iconic Australian mammals. AMHY would be the first known example of a growth factor playing a sex‑determining role in mammals,” said Dr. Shearwin. 



Her team tracked AMHY activity in developing echidna testes well before visible sex differences appeared. 



The protein works outside the nucleus, binding a surface receptor and relaying signals rather than directly steering DNA. 



That makes monotremes the only known mammals where a secreted factor, not a transcription factor, calls the first shot in sex development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-amhy-different-from-amhx">What makes AMHY different from AMHX</h2>



Although a X‑linked copy of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMHX) and AMHY both belong to the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4325469/">TGF-β protein family</a> and share key structural features, they diverged significantly after an ancient gene inversion. 



The two proteins are only 52% identical, with differences concentrated in regions that affect hormone cleavage and signaling.



Their promoter regions also diverge. AMHY lacks the usual <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/2626" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GATA4</a>, and <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=SF1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SF-1</a> binding sites seen in AMHX and other mammalian AMH genes. 



Instead, AMHY uses unique transcription factor sites, like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2820524/%5C" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DMRT1</a> and <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC548021/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GATA1</a>, which are active only in male gonads, suggesting a custom regulatory setup designed for sex determination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-view-of-sex-genes">Wider view of sex genes</h2>



AMH duplications have taken over sex determination more than once. A male‑specific <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5555456/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMHY</a> copy steers testis formation in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11907690/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Patagonian pejerrey fish</a> and old‑world silversides. 



Some amphibians use the same trick, showing that hormones can win the evolutionary race against classic DNA‑binding proteins.



The discovery also underlines how fragile Y chromosomes can be. SRY itself did not appear until about 160 million years ago and was identified in humans only in <a href="https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/sex-determining-region-y-mammals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1990</a>. 



If SRY could pop up late, there is no reason other genes cannot step in when needed, as monotremes demonstrate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-monotreme-sex-matters">Why monotreme sex matters</h2>



Platypus populations face habitat loss and climate change, and captive breeding programs struggle because eggs are delicate and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/">reproductive cycles</a> poorly understood. 



Knowing that AMHY, not SRY, dictates sex gives biologists a tool for early‑stage sexing of embryos in conservation labs.



The work also helps physicians dissect AMH’s many roles in humans. Because monotreme AMHY triggers an entire sex pathway on its own, comparing its sequence to human AMH may spotlight sites essential for receptor binding or signal strength. That insight could refine AMH‑based fertility tests or therapies.



To test AMHY's function, researchers tried introducing platypus AMHX and AMHY into developing chicken embryos, a model known to respond clearly to sex-determining signals. 



Overexpressing chicken AMH in females causes visible masculinization, so scientists hoped platypus versions might do the same.



But nothing changed. The monotreme proteins didn’t cause male traits in chickens, even when highly expressed. 



Structural analysis showed that key binding sites between mammalian AMH and the bird receptor don’t line up well. 



This mismatch confirms that early mammalian changes in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34155118/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMH–AMHR2 interaction</a> likely limit cross-species functionality.



The full study is published in <a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-025-03546-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genome Biology</a>.



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Platypus and echidnas break mammal rules with weird sex system

Tiny, spiny echidnas and the duck‑billed platypus already look like...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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