<p>In Uganda’s Kibale National Park, scientists have spent years doing the slow, unglamorous work of catching tiny wasps. The payoff is big: a clearer map of “dark biodiversity” - the vast share of species that are poorly known or not yet described - and practical clues for how to protect it before it disappears.</p>



<p>Most of Earth’s species have never been formally documented, making them easy to overlook in conservation plans. Biologists call these overlooked lineages “dark taxa.” They are especially abundant in tropical forests, where species, habitats, and ecological roles remain thinly studied.</p>



<p>The Biodiversity Unit at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a> has made a specialty of unveiling this hidden diversity, describing new species each year, and building tools to slow global biodiversity loss.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-living-lab-for-biodiversity">A living lab for biodiversity</h2>



<p>Kibale National Park offers a mosaic of habitats. These include tracts of largely undisturbed forest, areas recovering from past logging, and nearby farmland. That patchwork allowed researchers to ask a simple but powerful question: where, exactly, is the unknown diversity concentrated?</p>



<p>The team focused on ichneumonid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-parasitic-wasps-quietly-crossed-oceans-now-thriving-in-u-s-oak-trees/">wasps</a> - one of the most diverse animal groups on the planet - and, within it, the subfamily Pimplinae.</p>



<p>These wasps don’t just buzz around flowers. They regulate other species by parasitizing the immature stages of insects and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-with-spiders-brain-suggests-arachnids-originated-in-the-sea/">spiders</a>, linking them tightly to the health of entire food webs.</p>



<p>“Ichneumonids are a very poorly known taxon in Africa - we estimate that over half of the species we found are new to science,” said doctoral researcher Emil Österman. </p>



<p>With so little baseline knowledge for tropical ichneumonids, the team used long-term, standardized sampling to see how Pimplinae diversity is distributed across Kibale’s different habitats.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wasps-link-species-and-ecosystems">Wasps link species and ecosystems</h2>



<p>Because parasitoid wasps sit high in food webs, they are sensitive to disruptions below them. If the insects and spiders they rely on decline, parasitoids tend to follow. </p>



<p>That sensitivity makes Pimplinae useful indicators: shifts in their richness and abundance often mirror broader changes in biodiversity. The new work confirms what many ecologists have suspected but struggled to quantify in tropical Africa. </p>



<p>“Many of our finds weren't unexpected, but we didn't have data based on long-term collecting in the field," said Tapani Hopkins, a researcher with the Biodiversity Unit. </p>



<p>"Now we can tell in greater detail how many more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-owl-species-discovered-in-africa/">species</a> there are in natural forest, and to what extent disturbed or logged tropical forest can harbor species.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmland-cannot-match-forest-life">Farmland cannot match forest life</h2>



<p>The headline result is encouraging for conservation: intact forest in Kibale harbors especially rich Pimplinae communities. Secondary forest that is regrowing after logging also supports far more species than adjacent farmland.</p>



<p>In other words, protecting remaining forest is essential, and letting disturbed forest recover pays real biodiversity dividends.</p>



<p>“Our results clearly show that African forest, including forest that is recovering from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforests-replanted-seedlings-after-logging-do-not-recover-well/">logging</a>, maintains a species-rich Pimplinae fauna compared to, say, nearby farmland," Österman said. "Species-rich habitats can be considered especially valuable in conserving unknown dark biodiversity.” </p>



<p>That matters for policy and on-the-ground management. If you want to safeguard the most unknown species, prioritize forests - and don’t write off recovering stands. They’re already doing important work.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-forests-store-hidden-diversity">Global forests store hidden diversity</h2>



<p>The team also asked a bigger biogeographic question: how does African tropical diversity stack up against the New World? </p>



<p>Drawing on their parallel long-term collections in western Amazonia and Brazil’s coastal forests, the researchers found hints that South American rainforests may host even higher Pimplinae richness than Africa. However, African forests still harbor a rich fauna.</p>



<p>“Conserving dark taxa effectively requires a detailed knowledge of how biodiversity is distributed, both locally and at a global scale,” said Professor Ilari E. Sääksjärvi, who leads the Biodiversity Unit.</p>



<p>The comparison underscores a simple lesson: tropical forests on multiple continents are irreplaceable reservoirs of poorly known life.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-biodiversity-loss-accelerates">Forest biodiversity loss accelerates</h2>



<p>Parasitoid wasps are only one window into dark biodiversity. But they tell a familiar story: clearing or simplifying forests causes losses to ripple upward. Protecting or allowing forests to recover lets complex communities rebound - including species we haven’t named yet.</p>



<p>The Kibale study shows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-leaks-conservation-efforts-may-shift-harm-elsewhere/">conservation</a> can succeed despite limited taxonomy: protect habitats that concentrate hidden diversity. It also highlights the value of patient, long-term fieldwork in places where biodiversity is vanishing fastest.</p>



<p>“We will continue our field studies at different tropical forest sites, because that is where biodiversity is disappearing especially quickly. It is a fight against time. When a rainforest is destroyed, we lose countless species which we know nothing about,” Sääksjärvi concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/icad.70017" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Insect Conservation and Diversity</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Wasps shine a light on 'dark biodiversity' in rainforests

In Uganda’s Kibale National Park, scientists have spent years doing the slow, unglamorous work of catching tiny wasps. The payoff is big: a clearer map of “dark biodiversity” - the vast share of species that are poorly known or not yet described - and practical clues for how to protect it before it disappears. Most of Earth’s species have never been formally documented, making them easy to overlook in conservation plans. Biologists call these overlooked lineages “dark taxa.” They are especially abundant in tropical forests, where species,...

<p>Scientists have devised an affordable way to permanently remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by converting common minerals into highly reactive substances that spontaneously lock away CO2. </p>



<p>This breakthrough could play a critical role in curbing global warming by addressing one of its primary causes.</p>



<p>The new technique was developed by chemists at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> Matthew Kanan, a professor of chemistry and senior author of the paper, explained the motivation behind the carbon capture research.</p>



<p>“The Earth has an inexhaustible supply of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinas-rare-earth-jackpot-1-15-million-tons-of-minerals-uncovered/">minerals</a> that are capable of removing CO2 from the atmosphere, but they just don’t react fast enough on their own to counteract human greenhouse gas emissions. Our work solves this problem in a way that we think is uniquely scalable.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-carbon-removal-with-new-chemistry">Rapid carbon removal with new chemistry </h2>



<p>In nature, silicate minerals gradually bind with CO2 through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-rock-weathering-is-a-co2-source-comparable-to-volcanoes/">weathering</a>, forming stable carbonates over hundreds or thousands of years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Researchers worldwide have long sought methods to accelerate this slow process, often referred to as enhanced weathering. </p>



<p>Kanan and Stanford postdoctoral scholar Yuxuan Chen found a way to make silicates rapidly absorb carbon, thanks to what Chen describes as a “new chemistry.”</p>



<p>“We envisioned a new chemistry to activate the inert silicate minerals through a simple ion-exchange reaction,” said Chen, who led the lab work. “We didn’t expect that it would work as well as it does.”</p>



<p>By speeding up mineral reactions that would otherwise unfold over centuries, this approach has the potential to remove significant amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/">carbon dioxide</a> from the air in a fraction of the time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-efficient-mineral-transformation">More efficient mineral transformation</h2>



<p>Existing carbon removal strategies - such as direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capturing-carbon-directly-from-the-air-is-now-much-more-efficient-thanks-to-new-material/">air capture</a> - often rely on energy-intensive equipment, including large fans, chemicals, and other methods to filter out CO2. They can be both costly and difficult to scale. In contrast, the Stanford scientists point to the energy savings of their approach.</p>



<p>“Our process would require less than half the energy used by leading direct air capture technologies, and we think we can be very competitive from a cost point of view,” said Kanan, who is also a senior fellow at the <a href="https://energy.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Precourt Institute for Energy</a> in the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability.</p>



<p>In their experiments, the team heated limestone (calcium carbonate) in a kiln to produce calcium oxide, then combined this material with silicate minerals containing magnesium.&nbsp;</p>



<p>When the two substances were heated together, they exchanged ions and yielded magnesium oxide and calcium silicate - both of which readily take up carbon from the air.</p>



<p>“The process acts as a multiplier,” Kanan noted. “You take one reactive mineral, calcium oxide, and a magnesium silicate that is more or less inert, and you generate two reactive minerals.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trapping-carbon-with-simple-chemistry">Trapping carbon with simple chemistry </h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-crack-resistant-cement-material-inspired-by-nature/">Cement</a> manufacturers have used kilns for centuries, processing limestone at high temperatures to create key ingredients for concrete. The Stanford method adapts this time-tested approach but substitutes part of the cement mixture with magnesium silicates.</p>



<p>When these newly formed minerals are exposed to water and carbon dioxide - even at the relatively low concentrations found in ambient air - they spontaneously convert CO2 into stable carbonates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Laboratory tests showed that wet samples of magnesium oxide and calcium silicate could trap carbon in weeks to months, far outpacing natural weathering.</p>



<p>“You can imagine spreading magnesium oxide and calcium silicate over large land areas to remove CO2 from ambient air,” Kanan said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“One exciting application that we’re testing now is adding them to agricultural soil. As they weather, the minerals transform into bicarbonates that can move through the soil and end up permanently stored in the ocean.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-benefits-for-farmers">Potential benefits for farmers</h2>



<p>Soil treatments commonly include calcium carbonate (lime) to raise pH when it is too acidic. In principle, farmers could switch to these new reactive minerals instead of conventional lime.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Adding our product would eliminate the need for liming, since both mineral components are alkaline,” Kanan explained.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“In addition, as calcium silicate weathers, it releases silicon to the soil in a form that the plants can take up, which can improve crop yields and resilience. Ideally, farmers would pay for these minerals because they’re beneficial to farm productivity and the health of the soil - and as a bonus, there’s the carbon removal.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-up-for-global-impact">Scaling up for global impact</h2>



<p>According to Kanan’s team, ramping up production to a meaningful scale would require converting millions of tons of silicate minerals each year.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Each year, more than 400 million tons of mine tailings with suitable silicates are generated worldwide, providing a potentially large source of raw material,” Chen said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It’s estimated that there are more than 100,000 gigatons of olivine and serpentine reserves on Earth, enough to permanently remove far more CO2 than humans have ever emitted.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-carbon-solution">Nature's carbon solution</h2>



<p>After factoring in emissions from heating kilns using natural gas or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofuels-may-eliminate-90-of-black-smoke-emissions-from-cars/">biofuel</a>, the researchers estimate that each ton of their final material can remove one ton of CO2 from the atmosphere.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For context, fossil fuel emissions of carbon dioxide surpassed 37 billion tons in 2024, demonstrating the pressing need for large-scale solutions.</p>



<p>“Society has already figured out how to produce billions of tons of cement per year, and cement kilns run for decades,” Kanan said. “If we use those learnings and designs, there is a clear path for how to go from lab discovery to carbon removal on a meaningful scale.”</p>



<p>Work is also underway to develop electric-powered kilns in collaboration with electrical engineering associate professor Jonathan Fan. </p>



<p>If successful, this innovation could reduce or eliminate the carbon footprint of the heating process, further boosting the climate benefits.</p>



<p>By combining well-established industrial methods with a novel chemical reaction, this approach could offer a promising and relatively low-cost way to draw down billions of tons of CO2 from the atmosphere - and help mitigate the accelerating effects of climate change.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08499-2"><em>Nature</em></a>.</p>



<p>Image Credit: Renhour48 via Wikimedia</p>



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Common rocks turned into great carbon trappers with new technology

Scientists have devised an affordable way to permanently remove carbon...

<p>Stars are born in dense clouds of gas and dust, but new evidence suggests that conditions in the early universe may have shaped their formation in surprising ways.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In a recent study, observations of the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) revealed that about 40% of the star-forming clouds in this distant dwarf galaxy exhibit a “fluffy” shape.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This discovery potentially alters our understanding of how many stars - similar to our own Sun - came into being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-across-cosmic-history">Star formation across cosmic history </h2>



<p>The research was led by Kazuki Tokuda, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a>’s Faculty of Science. The findings may shed new light on the evolution of star formation across cosmic history.</p>



<p>In the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/">Milky Way</a> today, stars generally form within elongated, filamentary molecular clouds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Astronomers believe our own Solar System originated in such a structure, where a large filament broke apart into smaller cores - often called “stellar eggs.” </p>



<p>Over hundreds of thousands of years, gravity pulled gas into each core to forge a new star.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conditions-of-the-early-universe">Conditions of the early universe</h2>



<p>Tokuda noted that our understanding of star formation is still developing, and comprehending how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-formation-reignited-in-the-galaxy-leo-p-after-billions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars formed</a> in the earlier universe is even more challenging. </p>



<p>“The early universe was quite different from today, mostly populated by hydrogen and helium. Heavier elements formed later in high-mass stars," explained Tokuda.</p>



<p>"We can’t go back in time to study star formation in the early universe, but we can observe parts of the universe with environments similar to the early universe.”</p>



<p>The Small Magellanic Cloud meets these conditions. It lies about 20,000 light-years from Earth - very close by cosmic standards - and contains only one-fifth the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-white-dwarf-stars-eat-heavy-metals/">heavy elements</a> (sometimes called “metals” by astronomers) found in the Milky Way.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This makes the SMC an excellent proxy for conditions that would have been prevalent around 10 billion years ago, when the universe itself contained fewer heavy elements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-fluffy-molecular-clouds">Observing fluffy molecular clouds </h2>



<p>Despite the SMC’s usefulness, it has proven challenging to gather high-resolution data on its star-forming regions. </p>



<p>Astronomers need to distinguish whether filaments - like those that give rise to stars in the Milky Way - also exist in the SMC, or if some entirely different process might govern star formation there.</p>



<p>Fortunately, new observations from the ALMA radio telescope in Chile offered the resolution needed to analyze molecular clouds in the Small Magellanic Cloud. </p>



<p>“In total, we collected and analyzed data from 17 molecular clouds. Each of these molecular clouds had growing baby stars 20 times the mass of our Sun,” Tokuda said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We found that about 60% of the molecular clouds we observed had a filamentary structure with a width of about 0.3 light-years, but the remaining 40% had a ‘fluffy’ shape. Furthermore, the temperature inside the filamentary molecular clouds was higher than that of the fluffy molecular clouds.”</p>



<p>Higher temperatures in the filamentary clouds appear to reflect a more recent formation. After their initial collisions, these clouds start off relatively hot, with weak turbulence.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As the gas cools, the incoming energy from further collisions creates increased turbulence, which can smooth out the filamentary structure - resulting in the “fluffy” clouds that Tokuda’s team observed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colossal-star-forming-factories">Colossal star-forming factories</h2>



<p>The shift from filamentary to fluffy shapes could have profound implications for the stars that eventually emerge. If the filaments remain intact, they tend to fragment along their lengths, producing many stars (some of them low-mass stars like the Sun).&nbsp;</p>



<p>On the other hand, if the clouds lose their structure too quickly and become fluffy, the formation of these stellar cores may be disrupted, potentially affecting how many Sun-like stars (and planetary systems) can form.</p>



<p>The difference in temperature between filamentary and fluffy clouds is likely linked to their age. Initially, all molecular clouds formed as filamentary structures with high temperatures, primarily due to the impact of cloud collisions. In this heated state, turbulence within the cloud remains weak.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, as the cloud cools over time, the kinetic energy from incoming gas increases turbulence, gradually breaking down the filamentary structure and transforming it into a more diffuse, fluffy cloud.</p>



<p>Such differences highlight the importance of heavy elements in stabilizing molecular clouds - elements that play a key role in radiative cooling and help regulate the dynamics within these colossal star-forming factories.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This study indicates that the environment, such as an adequate supply of heavy elements, is crucial for maintaining a filamentary structure and may play an important role in the formation of planetary systems,” Tokuda added.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-star-formation">Mysteries of star formation </h2>



<p>Given that heavy elements were far scarcer in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-monsters-challenge-what-we-know-about-the-early-universe/">early universe</a>, these findings hint that many primordial stars might have formed under conditions more akin to the “fluffy” clouds in the SMC. That scenario could alter our perspective on the first generations of stars and the overall evolution of galaxies in the cosmos.</p>



<p>“In the future, it will be important to compare our results with observations of molecular clouds in heavy-element-rich environments, including the Milky Way galaxy. Such studies should provide new insights into the formation and temporal evolution of molecular clouds and the universe,” Tokuda said.</p>



<p>Whether filamentary or fluffy, molecular clouds remain at the heart of one of astronomy’s greatest questions: How, and under what circumstances, do stars emerge?&nbsp;</p>



<p>By studying the SMC and beyond, researchers aim to map out these stellar birthplaces more completely, revealing how different cosmic eras might have shaped the countless stars that fill our skies today.</p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ada5f8"><em>The Astrophysical Journal</em></a>.</p>



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‘Fluffy’ molecular clouds may change our understanding of star formation

Stars are born in dense clouds of gas and dust,...

<p>Flowers that lose their initial charm often end up in the trash. This might seem normal when the petals wither, yet many of these blooms are still valuable.</p>



<p>Scientists are exploring opportunities to use edible varieties of these flowers. They are checking their nutrients, flavors, and possible effects on food quality and shelf life.</p>



<p>“Rose flowers are still going to be rose flowers on Valentine’s Day. But we are looking at what happens the day after Valentine’s Day to those flowers,” said Anand Mohan, associate professor in UGA’s College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences.</p>



<p>Some flowers offer natural pigments that could replace synthetic colorants. Others contain antioxidants and proteins that might strengthen nutritional content in everyday meals.</p>



<p>Flowers with broad petals sometimes carry protective compounds that can guard meats, cereals, or even beverages against spoilage. These qualities are drawing attention in food science.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-promise-of-ultrasound">The promise of ultrasound</h2>



<p>Researchers highlight that ultrasound waves help process many foods with less time and resource use. They also see the potential for ultrasound to extend a flower’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-crisis-why-u-s-goals-remain-out-of-reach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">usability</a> beyond a typical bouquet’s lifespan.</p>



<p>Ultrasound equipment works by sending waves into the material. Those waves move water away more efficiently and release beneficial compounds locked inside the petals.</p>



<p>When handled properly, this low-frequency technology can disrupt cell walls and let colorants, proteins, and vitamins flow into a solution. Once extracted, these compounds can be turned into powders or liquids.</p>



<p>Ultrasound may open up new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-freezer-can-play-a-key-role-in-reducing-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prospects</a> for turning leftover petals into color boosters or dietary enhancements. This shift could reduce waste and get more mileage out of every bloom.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-petals-as-food-ingredients">Flower petals as food ingredients</h2>



<p>“We are trying to use edible flowers as a source of protein, food colorant and vitamins,” said Mohan. </p>



<p>Some species of broccoli flowers have protein content that can be blended into cereals. Others, like hibiscus, yield a vibrant color that can replace artificial dyes.</p>



<p>Much of the effort involves pinpointing the right flower for the right purpose. Roses might suit meat preservation, while marigolds might fit as an ingredient in certain sauces.</p>



<p>Scientists also look at how different varieties thrive in changing climates. The goal is to identify flowers that stay strong and maintain a steady supply for the food <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-labels-help-grocers-cut-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">market</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-flavor-and-shelf-life">Balancing flavor and shelf life</h2>



<p>Edible flowers might shift taste profiles. Some bring a delicate note, while others contribute a mild bitterness or herbal kick.</p>



<p>Preserving these flowers isn’t always easy. Traditional drying can be slow and may destroy color and aroma.</p>



<p>Hot air drying often leads to a dimmer petal hue. Ultrasound pretreatment shortens drying time and cuts the browning that heat can trigger.</p>



<p>The result is a dried ingredient that can be crushed or powdered. This form is simple to ship and store, making it perfect for large-scale food production.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-color-intact">Keeping color intact</h2>



<p>Many edible flowers get their bright appearance from anthocyanins or other plant chemicals. Heat can degrade these compounds, turning a vibrant petal into a dull one.</p>



<p>Ultrasound can reduce this risk by aiding quick water removal and limiting direct high-heat exposure. It also stalls enzymes like polyphenol oxidase, which spark browning.</p>



<p>A mild ultrasound phase maintains crucial pigments. The finished product retains most of its original shade.</p>



<p>Manufacturers see this as a bonus since vibrant natural colors attract consumers who want fewer artificial additives.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extracting-beneficial-compounds">Extracting beneficial compounds</h2>



<p>Beyond color, certain petal extracts carry valuable antioxidants that can guard against cell damage in the body. Ultrasound helps release these compounds into a friendly solvent.</p>



<p>Shorter extraction times mean less chance of thermal stress. This helps safeguard delicate vitamins or volatile oils.</p>



<p>Blue butterfly pea flower is one example. Studies show ultrasound extraction can bolster its antioxidant content while preserving its bright blue color.</p>



<p>Manufacturers can incorporate these concentrates into teas or juices. They gain both natural coloring and potential health perks in one go.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-advanced-techniques">Other advanced techniques</h2>



<p>Microwave drying is another approach that rapidly heats petals. While quick, it can cause uneven heat distribution that may damage fragile flowers.</p>



<p>Infrared drying works at lower temperatures and keeps more nutrients intact. Its reach is shallower, so thicker petals might need extra time.</p>



<p>Ionizing radiation shows promise for sterilizing edible flowers. Yet consumer perception around radiation remains skeptical.</p>



<p>Ultrasound stands out for its mild thermal impact, which protects fragile compounds and saves energy. It has its own set of hurdles, but the results are enticing enough to keep it in the spotlight.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safe-consistent-results">Safe, consistent results</h2>



<p>Ultrasound tools can be loud. The process involves intense vibrations that could affect hearing if workers aren’t shielded or if machines aren’t set up properly.</p>



<p>High-powered waves might also damage petal tissues if misused. Researchers must find the ideal treatment for each flower type.</p>



<p>The scale of production equipment is another factor. Small labs produce small batches, but bigger systems must ensure even coverage. Careful regulation of wave intensity and duration is essential for safe, consistent results.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-flowers-into-food-products">Turning flowers into food products</h2>



<p>Companies in the beverage sector can look into floral extracts that add aroma or color. Start-ups might explore using leftover wedding or holiday flowers as raw material.</p>



<p>Supermarkets that toss out unsold blooms could partner with local facilities to transform them into new products. This idea saves money and reduces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-age-group-is-responsible-for-the-most-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trash</a>.</p>



<p>Shoppers might soon see ready-to-use flower powders or meal-ready petals in store aisles. The next step involves marketing that resonates with people looking for color and flavor without synthetic additives.</p>



<p>Many chefs are already known for edible petals on plates. Scaling this practice for everyday consumers is the bigger challenge.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edible-flowers-can-reduce-waste">Edible flowers can reduce waste</h2>



<p>Flowers are grown year-round and shipped worldwide, but not all get purchased. Food scientists are pointing to these extras as a wasted resource.</p>



<p>Turning unsold flowers into extracts or powders addresses sustainability goals. It also recovers part of the cost that might otherwise vanish.</p>



<p>This loop of repurposing reduces the carbon footprint of the floral industry. People who want environmentally friendly options appreciate any step that rescues edible raw materials. Ultrasound-based processing could be a central tool in achieving that.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-in-food-and-skincare">Flowers in food and skincare</h2>



<p>Scientists are testing how flower-derived proteins boost nutritional value in everyday items like bars, cereals, or wraps. Others are exploring their potential in functional drinks or skincare lines.</p>



<p>The synergy between vitamins in certain petals and antioxidants in others might produce new solutions to common nutritional gaps. Such breakthroughs hinge on fine-tuning extraction and drying methods.</p>



<p>As more labs share positive data, companies could invest in research for large-scale production. This shift might reshape how we treat floral byproducts across multiple industries. </p>



<p>Consumers might not see the behind-the-scenes processes, but they’ll notice new labels highlighting real flower extracts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-edible-flowers">The future of edible flowers</h2>



<p>Some researchers see a future where local florists have partnerships with local food processors. The idea might grow as the data becomes more widely circulated.</p>



<p>Regulatory bodies need to establish clear guidelines for these new ingredients. Safety checks and labeling rules must be in place so that shoppers can trust the products.</p>



<p>Ultrasound might remain popular because of its non-destructive nature. Expanding beyond flowers, it might someday help reclaim other items that go to waste. For now, the excitement around edible flowers keeps building.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.70012" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Journal of Food Process Engineering</em></a>.</p>



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Flowers as food: How ultrasound makes it possible

Flowers that lose their initial charm often end up in...

iron ore deposit - 1

<p>Far away, on a remote island in the northwestern Pacific, stands a volcano that many people have never heard of. It quietly shaped global events nearly two centuries ago by sending clouds of ash high into the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This imposing feature is known as Zavaritzki, a caldera that rests within the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kuril-Islands" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kuril Islands</a>. Once overlooked by explorers and mapmakers, it recently drew attention when scientists linked it to a mysterious weather shift in the early 1800s.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/earth-sciences/people/wh39/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">William Hutchison</a>, a volcanologist at the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St. Andrews</a>, matched sulfur-laden ice core samples with the distinct rock chemistry found on Zavaritzki’s slopes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-zavaritzki-puzzle">Unraveling the Zavaritzki puzzle</h2>



<p>Ice cores preserve chemical and mineral traces that help researchers identify old volcanic explosions. For decades, one major blast from 1831 baffled experts because they could not figure out <a href="https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=290180" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">which volcano</a> triggered such dramatic cooling.</p>



<p>Historical journals from that year described unusual hues in the sky, including a Sun that took on a greenish cast. </p>



<p>Many reports also noted a stark drop in temperature, which pointed to a significant injection of volcanic material into the air. </p>



<p>Scientists suspected that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/faster-global-warming-linked-to-fewer-aerosols-in-ship-pollution/">sulfur aerosols</a> had reflected sunlight, but pinpointing the exact source to Zavaritzki proved challenging.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potassium-poor-ash-as-the-key">Potassium-poor ash as the key</h2>



<p>Clues emerged when geologists examined tiny shards of minerals, from the cores, under powerful microscopes. </p>



<p>Tests showed these particles were low in potassium, which indicated a composition unlike many of the well-known volcanoes in Iceland or Alaska.</p>



<p>The discovery led researchers toward the Kurils, a remote chain of islands bridging northern Japan and Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula. </p>



<p>Additional analysis revealed that these shards mirrored fresh samples from the slopes of the Zavaritzki caldera, which led to a breakthrough.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cinder-cones-from-the-zavaritzki-caldera">Cinder cones from the Zavaritzki caldera</h2>



<p>Zavaritzki’s complex includes several <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/cinder-cones.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cinder cones</a>, which arise when gas-charged lava splatters and cools in steep mounds. These clusters often form around larger vents, adding layers of material each time an eruption occurs.</p>



<p>Cinders and ash accumulate at angles that can reach around 30 degrees, sometimes forming cones a few hundred feet tall. </p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Zavaritski-Caldera_volcanic-eruption-1800s_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Zavaritski-Caldera_volcanic-eruption-1800s_nasa_1s.webp" alt="The Zavaritskogo volcano (also called Zavaritskii) is a striking feature on Simushir Island, in the middle of the archipelago. It is made up of nested, steep-walled calderas surrounding a central lake. The OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8 captured these images of Zavaritskogo and its complex edifice on September 12, 2024. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1960590"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>The Zavaritskogo volcano (also called Zavaritskii) is a striking feature on Simushir Island, in the middle of the archipelago. It is made up of nested, steep-walled calderas surrounding a central lake. The OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8 captured these images of Zavaritskogo and its complex edifice on September 12, 2024. Credit: NASA</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>These structures can collapse inward if lava flows breach the sides, creating a patchwork of vents and channels.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/monogenetic-volcanic-fields.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monogenetic cones</a> typically appear during a single eruptive phase, but multiple cones can punctuate the same region. </p>



<p>The presence of these features in Zavaritzki’s caldera indicates a history of intermittent volcanic episodes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-eruption-s-impact">Tracing the eruption’s impact</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-volcanoes-chaos-poisoned-ferns-for-millions-of-years/">Volcanoes</a> that push sulfur aerosols into the stratosphere can affect temperatures far from their origin. In 1831, the fallout is believed to have caused widespread weather anomalies and a notable chill.</p>



<p>Diarists in Europe described summer storms and hail that damaged crops, while some regions reported an early onset of colder spells. </p>



<p>These conditions aligned with the timeline suggested by scientists from their ice core studies.</p>



<p>Radiocarbon analysis offered further confirmation that a major event happened around that date. By matching carbon signatures in volcanic deposits with those in dated materials, experts pieced together a more accurate chronology.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threats-and-modern-lessons">Invisible threats and modern lessons</h2>



<p>Remote volcanoes can create havoc when they erupt, as they often remain off the usual monitoring grids. </p>



<p>William Hutchison pointed out that blasts in higher latitudes can still impact worldwide climate by spreading sulfate aerosols.</p>



<p>Historic examples, like the 1991 <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/1510/pinatubo-erupts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pinatubo eruption</a> in the Philippines, illustrate how a single volcano can lower global temperatures for months or years. </p>



<p>Even with modern satellite data, it is easy to overlook the activities of lesser-known peaks.</p>



<p>Scientists now prioritize collaborative efforts to expand surveillance networks. Improving early detection could reduce the toll of such eruptions on agriculture, infrastructure, and public health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-beneath-the-waves">Peering beneath the waves</h2>



<p>Some Kuril volcanoes lie partially submerged, forming flooded calderas where the ocean flows in. Others have steep-walled basins dotted with cinder cones and small lakes, as seen in Zavaritzki’s terrain.</p>



<p>During the Cold War, parts of this archipelago hosted submarines and hidden bases. Today, geologists map remnants of older eruptions to better grasp how these islands evolved over time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-zavaritzki-eruption-matters">Why the Zavaritzki eruption matters</h2>



<p>Powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/">volcanic eruptions</a> can leave behind evidence in ice cores, tree rings, and written accounts. These clues reveal how the planet responds to sudden injections of ash and gases.</p>



<p>Distant events can disrupt harvests, freeze waterways, and shift weather patterns, reminding us that we share a connected atmosphere. </p>



<p>Understanding these processes helps us plan for future episodes that might catch us unprepared.</p>



<p>Zavaritzki highlights the importance of watching every corner of our planet, no matter how remote, in order to avoid the disasters associated with surprise volcanic eruptions. </p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2416699122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a>.</p>



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Volcanic eruption that cooled the Earth and turned the Sun green

Far away, on a remote island in the northwestern Pacific,...

<p>For years, scientists have been eager to tune in to the subtle vibrations sent across the universe by cataclysmic events. Gravitational-wave observatories provide that opportunity, but capturing the weakest signals demands innovative advancements.</p>



<p>A newly developed optical system offers a possible route to higher laser power levels, which is crucial for capturing more distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-particles-solution-gravitational-wave-mystery-bose-einstein-condensate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>.</p>



<p>Jonathan Richardson, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Riverside</a>, noted that the research represents a leap forward in our ability to control the heat-related distortions that hamper current detectors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ring-like-targeted-heating">Ring-like targeted heating</h2>



<p>The new system directs infrared radiation onto mirrored surfaces with carefully shaped patterns. The ring-like approach corrects the warping that arises from intense laser power.</p>



<p>Each main mirror weighs about 88 pounds, so minimizing distortions is not easy. With precisely controlled heating zones, the system keeps the reflections crisp and stable, which is a major benefit for detecting faint <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gravitational-waves-dark-matter-big-bang-breakthrough/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a>.</p>



<p>Conventional adaptive optics in astronomy often corrects atmospheric blurring, but controlling thermal effects on a massive mirror is a different challenge. </p>



<p>Engineers must ensure that the heating pattern doesn't add noise or degrade the device's sensitivity.</p>



<p>By shaping the heat precisely, the technique preserves the optical path. This safeguard is essential for measuring tiny disturbances in spacetime without spurious signals creeping in.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-faint-gravitational-wave-signals">Detecting faint gravitational wave signals</h2>



<p>The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (<a href="https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LIGO</a>) has already recorded events involving black holes and neutron stars, broadening our knowledge of cosmic collisions. </p>



<p>The path to even fainter signals involves pushing laser power beyond 1 megawatt inside the detectors.</p>



<p>"We expect this technology, and future versions of it, will be able to achieve more power in the interferometer," said Professor Richardson. This boost brings greater heat, which introduces more distortion.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Quantum noise presents another obstacle, since gravitational-wave detectors rely on laser beams that exhibit quantum fluctuations. </p>



<p>Researchers use techniques like light squeezing to reduce these uncertainties and gain clearer measurements.</p>



<p>Larger laser power amplifies the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-cosmic-object-detected-gravitational-wave-signal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum effects</a>, making it vital to have stable mirrors. The new ring-like heating control is expected to help maintain mirror quality in those high-power conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-vision-for-tomorrow">A vision for tomorrow</h2>



<p>Moving beyond current facilities, the proposed <a href="https://cosmicexplorer.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cosmic Explorer</a> aims for arms about 25 miles in length. That vast distance should help capture gravitational ripples from earlier chapters in the universe.</p>



<p>Researchers predict that such a facility could show us signals when the cosmos was a small fraction of its present age. </p>



<p>This might clarify puzzling details about the <a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2302.05709" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expansion rate</a> of the universe, which has two conflicting measurements right now.</p>



<p>Cosmic Explorer's design is guided by lessons learned from LIGO's upgrades. Each expansion in size and power requires solutions that can handle more severe thermal and quantum effects.</p>



<p>Scientists are also evaluating materials that can endure higher energy levels without warping. Selecting the right substrates and coatings can make or break the performance of next-generation observatories.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-unlocked-with-gravitational-waves">Secrets unlocked with gravitational waves </h2>



<p>Accurate gravitational-wave observations might offer new insights into how general relativity works under extreme conditions. </p>



<p>Researchers also see a chance to confirm or challenge alternative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-draco-1es-1927-654-just-awoke-is-spewing-material-at-incredible-speeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theories</a>, especially near the boundaries of a black hole.</p>



<p>"If you look at the history of astronomy, every time we’ve developed electromagnetic telescopes that can observe a different wavelength, we have discovered new objects," said Professor Richardson, who hopes gravitational waves will reveal something equally unanticipated.</p>



<p>By detecting more subtle signals, researchers can gather data on the evolution of black holes, including their spins and possible interactions with nearby objects. This might reveal patterns that haven't been visible with current methods.</p>



<p>Gravitational waves can also function as a different kind of cosmic ruler. When combined with traditional light-based observations, they could refine distance measurements to far-off galaxies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-gravitational-wave-detection">New era of gravitational wave detection</h2>



<p>Experts plan to pair advanced optical systems with quantum-enhanced lasers to open new frontiers in detection. </p>



<p>Studies show that combining these methods can lower noise across multiple frequency bands, allowing for the detection of weaker signals.</p>



<p>This work highlights the value of practical engineering in exploring cosmic mysteries. It also strengthens the case for building next-generation observatories that demand intense laser power and precise mirror control.</p>



<p>Ongoing experiments aim to integrate adaptive heating with other sensor improvements. Scientists are testing prototypes that can switch heating patterns in real time for different operating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/detecting-warp-drives-extraterrestrial-spacecraft-using-gravitational-waves-experiment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>.</p>



<p>A coordinated global network of detectors might share insights on mirror shaping techniques, so the entire community benefits from every development. This synergy could accelerate our progress toward capturing signals from even more distant events.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-worldwide-network">Creating a worldwide network </h2>



<p>Other projects, like Europe's proposed <a href="https://www.et-gw.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Einstein Telescope</a>, aim to use underground tunnels arranged in a triangular shape to reduce seismic noise. </p>



<p>This approach could complement what Cosmic Explorer attempts on a larger scale, creating a worldwide network.</p>



<p>Such coordination increases the odds of catching elusive signals and pinning down their sources. By comparing data across different detectors, scientists can refine their estimates of where in the sky a gravitational wave originated.</p>



<p>Collaborative data analysis is crucial, as it confirms detections and further refines estimates of each signal's origin.</p>



<p>Upgrades to existing facilities are already showing how small engineering tweaks can sharpen our vision of the cosmos. The adaptive heating approach is one such tweak, but it sets the stage for more ambitious changes.</p>



<p>Each incremental improvement broadens our view of gravitational-wave sources, whether they lurk billions of light-years away or hide in our local cosmic neighborhood. </p>



<p>As these technologies advance, new mysteries might emerge that redefine our understanding of space and time.</p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Physical Review Letters</em></a>.</p>



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New technology dramatically boosts gravitational wave detection

For years, scientists have been eager to tune in to...

<p>Animals are not just wandering around aimlessly. They’re rearranging dirt, redirecting water, and influencing ecosystems in ways that scientists once considered impossible. </p>



<p>New research reveals that animals of all shapes and sizes make surprising contributions to landscape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-losing-the-battle-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formation</a>. The sheer variety of these living movers and shakers has never been so carefully documented.</p>



<p>According to Professor Gemma Harvey, a geography specialist at Queen Mary University of London, this comprehensive look at animals as engineers changes how we view habitat dynamics.</p>



<p>Professor Harvey worked alongside collaborators in an effort to pinpoint exactly where and how these organisms move sediment, build structures, or alter waterways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-reshaping-landscapes">Animals reshaping landscapes </h2>



<p>Scientists first noticed <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-abstract/38/11/753/294302?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beaver dams</a> having a major impact on river flow and wetland formation decades ago. They observed notable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-a-mix-of-habitats-are-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a> in water chemistry, fish populations, and flood patterns.</p>



<p>Since then, additional discoveries have spotlighted unexpected players like ants, <a href="https://gorongosa.org/hippos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippos</a>, and a wide range of fish species. Each creature modifies its surroundings in a specific way by shifting soil, building mounds, or even rerouting stream channels.</p>



<p>The research team gathered data on 603 distinct species, genera, or families that measurably change the earth’s surface.</p>



<p>The experts calculated that at least 76,000 gigajoules of energy are channeled into shaping landscapes every year, putting these activities on par with enormous flood events.</p>



<p>This figure is almost certainly on the lower side, because many regions such as tropical zones remain understudied. Many of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> are home to countless organisms that have yet to be fully documented.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-insects">A closer look at insects</h2>



<p>Termites stand out for constructing intricate networks of mounds, sometimes visible over large distances. Their excavation and relocation of soil alter drainage, create microhabitats, and may even influence plant growth patterns.</p>



<p><a href="https://portal.nifa.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/1022904-environmental-dynamics-of-ecosystem-engineering-ants-and-their-modifications-of-soil-structure.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ants</a> also manipulate their environment with small yet frequent digs that reshape the topsoil. This has implications for water infiltration and nutrient cycling - two factors that determine how plants thrive or struggle. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-and-flowing-waters">Fish and flowing waters</h2>



<p>Salmon rearrange the gravel in streams when they prepare spawning sites, creating areas known as redds. This digging changes sediment composition, oxygen flow, and even nutrient distribution.</p>



<p>Other fish, such as certain species of catfish, disturb riverbeds while feeding or nesting. The effects can ripple out, sometimes encouraging different plants and invertebrates to settle in the newly created pockets of calm or fast water.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-animals-could-disrupt-landscapes">Losing animals could disrupt landscapes</h2>



<p>The study reveals that nearly 30% of these identified species are rare, <a href="https://www.iberdrola.com/sustainability/endemic-species" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endemic</a>, or threatened. If these animals disappear, their unique ways of moving earth and water could disappear along with them.</p>



<p>Environmental groups often focus on big predators or charismatic mammals, but these natural shapers deserve attention too. A collapse in their activities might lead to significant shifts in erosion, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-different-habitats-greatly-increase-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> formation, and nutrient flow.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-for-restoration">Strategies for restoration</h2>



<p>Projects that introduce or protect earth-moving species are gaining momentum, especially in places grappling with flooding and soil erosion. By giving these organisms room to be productive, communities might tap into a natural way to slow down water or stabilize fragile ground.</p>



<p>Conservationists have looked at <a href="https://rewildingeurope.com/what-is-rewilding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rewilding</a> efforts involving beavers in various U.S. states. The results hint that their dam-building can help recharge aquifers and keep precious water from draining away too quickly.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-animal-landscapes-from-above">Viewing animal landscapes from above</h2>



<p>Advanced satellite <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07459-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> has opened our eyes to the large-scale patterns created by species like termites. Their sprawling mounds can sometimes stretch for hundreds of miles, forming patchwork landscapes that affect everything from water runoff to vegetation growth.</p>



<p>High-resolution imagery also shows how animals alter terrain in desert regions and mountainous areas. Such observations confirm that our planet’s architecture is shaped by claws, mandibles, and hooves as much as by wind or rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthier-landscapes-for-the-future">Healthier landscapes for the future</h2>



<p>Conserving these animal-engineered systems may become a critical part of climate resilience strategies. They offer a low-cost way to manage floods, maintain fertile soils, and preserve the diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-caps-may-only-exist-because-of-unusual-climate-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> that humans rely on.</p>



<p>Studies suggest that reintroducing certain species or encouraging their return could be more effective than large-scale engineering fixes. There is growing optimism that these surprising architects might help us secure healthier landscapes for the future.</p>



<p>“This research shows that the role of animals in shaping Earth’s landscapes is much more significant that previously recognized,” noted Professor Harvey.</p>



<p>Experts suspect that losing certain species might disrupt vital processes, including how wetlands form and how soils develop.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed </h2>



<p>Large-scale community engagement could encourage solutions that blend nature’s own building crews into restoration projects. Whether it’s constructing wetlands or improving soil quality, allowing animals to continue their ancient routines might cut costs and preserve biodiversity.</p>



<p>Some regions have already embraced these approaches, but further research is needed to confirm their long-term viability. More insights will likely emerge as technology helps us keep an eye on these ecosystem architects from space.</p>



<p>Moving ahead, scientists aim to map more species that churn soil, channel water, or shape habitats in overlooked corners of the planet. These efforts may add fresh scientific insights that see animals not only for their beauty, but also for their indispensable role in steadily shaping our world.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2415104122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a>.</p>



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Animals secretly reshape landscapes in powerful ways

Animals are not just wandering around aimlessly. They’re rearranging dirt,...

<p>Blue whales, the largest creatures on Earth, remain remarkably elusive despite their immense size. One of the most intriguing mysteries about them is their reproductive cycle.</p>



<p>Only two blue whale births have ever been recorded in human history - both decades ago. This is puzzling, considering that the global blue whale population is estimated at between 10,000 and 25,000 individuals, and they give birth every two to three years.</p>



<p>With so many births expected over time, why have so few been documented? Sightings of calves remain significantly low, raising concerns among marine biologists.</p>



<p>A University of Washington study may explain why blue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-predicts-whale-movements-to-reduce-deadly-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> calves are rarely seen. The researchers analyzed long-term data and historical records to explore this mystery.</p>



<p>The findings suggest that blue whale calves are out there - but scientists may not be looking in the right place at the right time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-sightings-of-blue-whale-calves">Rare sightings of blue whale calves</h2>



<p>Blue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-whales-use-songs-to-hide-from-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> calves are rarely seen, even though pregnancies are common. They are sometimes spotted with their mothers, but far fewer pairs are recorded than expected.  </p>



<p>Many theories have attempted to explain this mystery. Some scientists have speculated that blue whale calves have low survival rates. Others have proposed that many pregnancies do not reach full term. </p>



<p>Another theory suggests that mother and calf pairs avoid areas where researchers typically conduct studies. Each of these possibilities has been considered, but none fully explains why calves are so rarely observed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-theory-emerges">A new theory emerges</h2>



<p>Trevor Branch, a professor of aquatic and fishery sciences at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>, analyzed multiple hypotheses to determine why so few blue whale calves are sighted. His research points to a simple but often overlooked factor: the seasonal timing of field studies.</p>



<p>Most blue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale research</a> takes place in the summer months when these massive creatures gather in feeding grounds to consume krill. However, blue whale births occur in fall and winter, when they migrate to warmer waters. </p>



<p>By the time researchers return to their usual study areas in summer, the calves have already grown and separated from their mothers, making them much harder to identify.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-migration-patterns">Seasonal migration patterns </h2>



<p>Blue whales follow a well-established migratory pattern. During the summer, they travel to colder waters to feed on dense populations of krill. </p>



<p>Locations such as the California coast serve as primary feeding grounds. However, when it is time to give birth, they move toward warmer waters, such as the Gulf of California and the eastern tropical Pacific.</p>



<p>Calves remain with their mothers for about seven months after birth. By the time they return to feeding areas in the summer, they are already independent and no longer travel alongside their mothers. </p>



<p>This could explain why researchers, who focus on summer feeding grounds, rarely encounter mother-calf pairs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-blue-whale-calves">Observations of blue whale calves </h2>



<p>Pregnancy rates among different blue whale populations range from 33% to 50% annually. However, recorded sightings of mother-calf pairs make up only about 3.1% of all blue whale observations.</p>



<p>This gap has raised concerns about the health of blue whale populations. Some researchers feared that the species might be experiencing high calf mortality or declining birth rates, but the new findings suggest that this may not be the case. </p>



<p>"My conceptual model can explain the mystery of the missing calves: Blue whales produce calves, or give birth, shortly after departing their summer feeding grounds, and wean their calves seven months later, just before they return,” explained Professor Branch.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-blue-whale-populations">Monitoring blue whale populations </h2>



<p>Professor Branch analyzed long-term field studies and whaling records. He found more blue whale calves in wintering regions than in summer feeding areas. This suggests calves are born and raised in places that are rarely studied.</p>



<p>Branch is now coordinating a large-scale collaboration to gather data across different months and locations. His goal is to confirm this pattern by tracking calf sightings and estimating their size throughout the year. </p>



<p>If successful, this study could reshape how scientists monitor and protect blue whale populations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-hopeful-outlook-for-blue-whales">A hopeful outlook for blue whales</h2>



<p>Instead of indicating a population crisis, the low sightings of blue whale calves could be a result of research bias. If scientists shift their focus to winter and spring habitats, they may discover that more calves exist than previously thought.</p>



<p>"This new idea provides an alternative explanation for why some blue whale populations appear to produce very few calves: It's not a failure of calf production, it's because fieldwork in those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-poop-is-a-natural-fertilizer-that-keeps-the-ocean-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> is understandably concentrated in easily accessible summer feeding areas," noted Professor Branch.</p>



<p>The findings highlight the importance of adjusting research methods to account for seasonal migration patterns.</p>



<p>If researchers focus more on wintering regions, they may gain a better understanding of blue whale reproduction and calf survival rates.</p>



<p>This study, supported in part by the <a href="https://iwc.int/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Whaling Commission</a>, could change how scientists study blue whales. Expanding research beyond summer feeding areas may reveal more about their births and improve their protection.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/esr/v56/p53-67/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endangered Species Research</a>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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Why blue whale calves are rarely seen in the wild

Blue whales, the largest creatures on Earth, remain remarkably elusive...

<p>Scientists have been investigating colossal structures that exist deep inside of Earth's mantle. Located beneath Africa and the Pacific Ocean, the underground "islands" were first discovered in the late 20th century.</p>



<p>These vast areas, positioned more than 1,242 miles (2,000 kilometers) below the surface, are about the size of a continent and are estimated to be at least half a billion years old.</p>



<p>The location and staggering age of these subsurface features has drawn attention from geophysicists. </p>



<p>A recent study led by Professor Arwen Deuss from Utrecht University suggests that the massive structures may be more stable than previously thought.</p>



<p>The research challenges the long-held idea that Earth’s mantle is a rapidly mixing environment. Instead, the results suggest that there is much less flow within the mantle than previously believed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-mantle-structures">Mysterious mantle structures </h2>



<p>Earth’s mantle is the thick layer between the crust and the core. It includes a graveyard of <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/news/science-snippet/earthword-subduction">subducted tectonic plates</a> that have been pushed downward over millions of years by plate collisions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Experts have been using seismic signals from large earthquakes to examine the hidden structures. Deuss and her colleague at Utrecht University, Dr. Sujania Talavera-Soza, incorporated a novel approach to studying seismic waves. </p>



<p>Beyond analyzing how much waves slow down, they also measured “damping,” or how much energy the waves lose as they travel through the Earth.</p>



<p>“Nobody knew what they are, and whether they are only a temporary phenomenon, or if they have been sitting there for millions or perhaps even billions of years,” said Professor Deuss.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-zones-inside-earth-s-mantle">Hidden zones inside Earth's mantle</h2>



<p>Researchers call these deep regions Large Low Seismic Velocity Provinces (<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-22185-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LLSVP</a>) because seismic waves lose speed as they pass through them. However, the new study has introduced an extra piece of information about just how much energy the waves lose.</p>



<p>“Against our expectations, we found little damping in the LLSVP, which made the tones sound very loud there. But we did find a lot of damping in the cold slab graveyard, where the tones sounded very soft,” explained Dr. Talavera-Soza.</p>



<p>This difference could be explained by larger mineral grains in the LLSVPs compared to the smaller grains present in old slabs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-clues-about-earth-s-mantle">New clues about Earth’s mantle</h2>



<p>The presence of large, ancient features suggests the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-brittle-star-tissue-could-transform-regenerative-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a> is not fully churning everything into a uniform mixture. </p>



<p>Slower convection in these deep sections challenges assumptions found in standard textbooks, and offers a new perspective on Earth’s dynamics.</p>



<p>Mantle motions feed processes such as vulcanism and mountain formation. Hot blobs, known as plumes, may start at the edges of these big structures and eventually cause volcanic activity on the surface, as observed in spots like Hawaii.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-into-the-past-with-earthquakes">Peering into the past with earthquakes</h2>



<p>Ultra-strong earthquakes have been vital in probing our planet’s deep interior. One classic case is the 1994 Bolivia quake, which struck at a depth of around 403 miles (650 kilometers).</p>



<p>Seismometers collect data on how Earth “rings” following such events. Researchers analyze this ringing to detect wave speed changes and energy losses, which helps form a detailed picture of what lurks far beneath our feet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-grains-ancient-foundations">Large grains, ancient foundations</h2>



<p>Older slabs sink, recrystallize, and become full of tiny grains. These small particles cause waves to lose more energy because the wave boundaries are more frequent. </p>



<p>Meanwhile, the huge underground “islands” appear to have larger grains that likely took a very long time to develop. </p>



<p>The discrepancy in grain size implies that these deep features have been around for many millions of years, adding weight to the theory that they predate much of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-hole-drilled-into-earths-mantle-scientific-goldmine-magma-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>’s modern surface geography.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



<p>New observations may reveal how these hidden structures influence surface geology. Shifts in Earth's mantle flow might lead to changes in volcanic patterns over millennia, and the alteration of landscapes and ecosystems.</p>



<p>Scientists also aim to investigate whether similar deep pockets exist elsewhere. If further research uncovers more ancient zones, it could lead geologists to refine their understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a> convection and the formation of continents.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08322-y"><em>Nature</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Hidden mountains: The mysterious structures deep inside Earth's mantle

Scientists have been investigating colossal structures that exist deep inside...

<p>In a world where gender roles are continually shifting, a fresh study illuminates the unexpected benefits of extended paternity leave.</p>



<p>According to the research, an extended break for dads after the arrival of a new baby can enhance their co-parenting dynamics with mothers in a rather significant manner. However, the effects of longer paternity leave aren't just limited to the fathers.</p>



<p>The study was led by Reed Donithen and Professor Sarah Schoppe-Sullivan at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ohio State University</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extended-paternity-leave-and-co-parenting">Extended paternity leave and co-parenting</h2>



<p>Mothers have been reported to interfere less with the father's involvement in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/child-care-quality-has-direct-impact-on-later-success-in-science-and-math/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childcare</a> when the fathers take an extended break from work after the birth of their child.</p>



<p>"When fathers take longer leaves, mothers might take that as a sign that fathers are more interested in being an active parent and be less likely to try to prevent them from participating in childcare," said Donithen, the lead author of the study.</p>



<p>In addition, longer leave for fathers is linked to mothers changing their attitudes about fathers and child care, noted Professor Schoppe-Sullivan.</p>



<p>When dads take more time off after the birth of their baby, moms relax unrealistically high standards for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-give-children-an-educational-advantage-by-playing-with-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">father's parenting</a> and are less reliant on others’ evaluations about their fulfillment of the maternal role.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-parental-roles">Redefining parental roles </h2>



<p>Remarkably, a more extended paternity leave not only modifies mothers' reaction to fathers' involvement in childcare but also their perception of parental roles. </p>



<p>"It is difficult to change people’s attitudes. But a longer paternity leave appears to change not only how mothers respond to fathers’ involvement in child care but how they view <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parent-children-relationships-are-key-to-lifelong-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parental roles</a>," said Professor Schoppe-Sullivan. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-how-new-parents-adjust">Studying how new parents adjust </h2>



<p>The researchers based their findings on data from the New Parents Project, a long-term study led by Professor Schoppe-Sullivan.</p>



<p>The project investigates how dual-earner couples adjust to becoming parents and how families and children evolve over time. </p>



<p>The study involved 182 couples who were predominantly married and white. The participants were assessed four times: once during the mother's third trimester of pregnancy, and then when the baby was 3, 6, and 9 months old.</p>



<p>When the baby was nine months old, both parents were questioned about their behaviors and attitudes regarding "maternal gatekeeping."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-dynamics-with-paternal-leave">Shifting dynamics with paternal leave</h2>



<p>The term "maternal gatekeeping" describes the extent to which a mother either inhibits or encourages a father's involvement in childcare.</p>



<p>Here, "gateopening behaviors" include encouraging the father's engagement in parenting, for example, by seeking his opinion on childcare behaviors. </p>



<p>Conversely, "gateclosing behaviors" include instances when moms discourage dads, such as through criticism.</p>



<p>Interestingly, when fathers took longer leaves, both parents agreed that mothers were less likely to employ gateclosing behaviors. </p>



<p>However, the researchers noticed that it didn't necessarily lead to increased gateopening by the moms, which was unexpected.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-societal-expectations-of-moms">Societal expectations of moms</h2>



<p>Donithen noted that this reluctance could possibly be attributed to the societal perception that mothers should predominantly handle childcare.</p>



<p>"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moms-are-more-worried-about-chores-and-its-a-heavy-mental-load/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mothers</a> may think they are the default main parent and so they don't go out of their way to encourage dads to get more involved," noted Donithen.</p>



<p>However, Professor Schoppe-Sullivan suggests a more optimistic interpretation - mothers observing fathers take longer paternity leaves and assume a more active parenting role might not feel the need to push for further involvement.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-balanced-parenting">The future of balanced parenting</h2>



<p>In essence, the study signifies that longer paternity leave could trigger a series of changes to reduce the load new mothers usually carry in childcare. </p>



<p>Professor Schoppe-Sullivan believes this could be a pathway towards establishing more balanced parental roles.</p>



<p>"This study suggests that a longer paternity leave may be a way out of the trap, that it may lead to a situation where fathers do have more of an equal role in parenting," she explained.</p>



<p>In conclusion, the benefits of extended paternity leave extend beyond the fathers. As we progressively move towards a society keen on gender equality, we may need to pay more attention to strategies that encourage balanced co-parenting.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-025-01565-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sex Roles</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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How paternity leave changes parenting dynamics

In a world where gender roles are continually shifting, a...

<p>Imagine navigating the intricate pathways of your mind, deciphering the signals that shape your decisions. Whether it's choosing where to eat or making a life-changing move, your brain is constantly balancing risk and reward.</p>



<p>The complex puzzle of how the brain navigates these choices continues to inspire extensive research and remarkable discoveries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-reward-based-decisions">Navigating reward-based decisions </h2>



<p>Recently, a team of researchers from <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a> made a compelling discovery. The study connected machine-learning concepts to mouse experiments to explore deeper into the brain circuitry that governs reward-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/navigating-uncertainty-how-to-make-transformative-life-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decisions</a>.</p>



<p>The experts identified two distinct groups of neurons in the brains of mice. One group aids in learning about outcomes that are above-average, while another associates with below-average results.</p>



<p>Together, these neurons grant the brain the capacity to assess the entire spectrum of potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-brain-identify-rewards-and-punishments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rewards</a> linked with a decision.</p>



<p>Jan Drugowitsch is the co-senior author of the study and an associate professor of neurobiology at the Blavatnik Institute at Harvard Medical School.</p>



<p>"Our results suggest that mice - and by extension, other mammals - seem to be representing more fine-grained details about risk and reward than we thought before," explained Professor Drugowitsch.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-approach-to-risk-and-reward">A new approach to risk and reward</h2>



<p>Neuroscience has long explored how past experiences influence future decisions. Yet, as Professor Drugowitsch pointed out, traditional theories often fall short in capturing the intricate patterns and subtle complexities of real-world behavior.</p>



<p>For instance, choosing between familiar good food at a known restaurant or testing a new place with a mix of good and not-so-good dishes is a choice that goes beyond mere averages. Existing theories fail to account for such risk-seeking or safe-playing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>.</p>



<p>A new theory of decision-making borne out of machine learning research has begun to address these gaps. The new algorithm learns from the entire distribution of outcomes rather than just focusing on averages.</p>



<p>This approach significantly enhances performance, as observed in Atari video games and several other tasks involving multiple potential outcomes for each decision.</p>



<p>"They basically asked what happens if rather than just learning average rewards for certain actions, the algorithm learns the whole distribution, and they found it improved performance significantly<em>,</em>" explained Professor Drugowitsch.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decisions-and-potential-rewards">Decisions and potential rewards</h2>



<p>In the latest study, Drugowitsch collaborated with Naoshige Uchida, a professor of molecular and cellular biology at Harvard University. The goal was to gain a better understanding of how the potential risks and rewards of a decision are weighed in the brain.</p>



<p>The experts devised experiments with mice to unravel how the decision-making process unfolds within the ventral striatum - a region of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-brain-decides-which-memories-to-remember/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> that stores data about potential rewards linked with a decision.</p>



<p>"We used high-density probes (neuropixels) to record striatal activity from mice performing a classical conditioning task in which reward mean, reward variance and stimulus identity were independently manipulated," explained the researchers.</p>



<p>The team trained mice to associate different odors with varying extents of rewards, effectively teaching mice about the range of potential outcomes for each decision.</p>



<p>The researchers then observed the mice's licking behavior (an indication of their anticipation for better rewards) alongside recordings of neural activity in the ventral striatum. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-neurons-that-make-decisions">The neurons that make decisions </h2>



<p>The results were remarkable. The experts identified two distinct groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> that were guiding decisions made by the mice.</p>



<p>When the researchers silenced "optimistic" neurons, mice acted as if they anticipated lesser rewards. Conversely, when "pessimistic" neurons were silenced, the mice behaved as if they expected a more valuable treat.</p>



<p>Professor Drugowitsch compared this to "having an optimist and a pessimist in your brain, both giving you advice on what to do next<em>.</em>"</p>



<p>Continuing the exploration of these intriguing findings will provide insights into how the brain makes decisions in situations of greater uncertainty.</p>



<p>"These two groups of brain cells work together to form a representation of the full distribution of potential rewards for a decision," explained Drugowitsch.</p>



<p>He believes that these insights could help us understand why people with conditions like depression or addiction struggle with assessing risks in decisions.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08488-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em>.</p>



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<p></p>

Our decisions are shaped by optimistic and pessimistic neurons

Imagine navigating the intricate pathways of your mind, deciphering the...

<p>A recent study has unveiled how chemical elements and powerful winds shape the atmosphere of a planet far beyond our solar system.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By examining separate layers of the planet’s atmosphere in 3D, the researchers have revealed an intricate system of jet streams and temperature contrasts.</p>



<p>The discovery was made by astronomers at the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Southern Observatory</a> (ESO) in Chile and other institutions, who combined multiple telescope units to obtain a detailed view.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weather-conditions-on-a-distant-world">Weather conditions on a distant world</h2>



<p>The research focused on WASP-121b (also called Tylos), a so-called “ultra-hot Jupiter” about 900 light-years away in the constellation Puppis. The results offer an unprecedented glimpse into the weather conditions of a distant world.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This planet’s atmosphere behaves in ways that challenge our understanding of how <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08664-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> works - not just on Earth, but on all planets. It feels like something out of science fiction,” said Julia Victoria Seidel, a researcher at the European Southern Observatory (<a href="https://www.eso.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESO</a>) in Chile and lead author of the study.</p>



<p>WASP-121b completes an orbit around its host star in roughly 30 hours, hugging it so closely that one side is perpetually scorched while the opposite side remains significantly cooler. </p>



<p>This extreme temperature difference results in what scientists describe as a violent and highly unusual climate.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-layers-of-the-exoplanet-s-atmosphere-nbsp">Distinct layers of the exoplanet’s atmosphere&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research team used high-resolution observations of starlight passing through the exoplanet’s atmosphere to deduce how distinct layers move and mix.</p>



<p>“What we found was surprising: a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-turbulent-atmosphere-includes-a-high-speed-jet-stream/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jet stream</a> rotates material around the planet’s equator, while a separate flow at lower levels of the atmosphere moves gas from the hot side to the cooler side. This kind of climate has never been seen before on any planet,” Seidel explained.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By tracing iron and other gases at different heights, the scientists identified powerful winds racing across Tylos’s skies. “Even the strongest hurricanes in the Solar System seem calm in comparison,” she added.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-the-planet-in-3d">Viewing the planet in 3D</h2>



<p>To map out these winds and their distribution of elements, the astronomers made use of the Very Large Telescope (VLT), merging the light from four of its units into a single signal via a specialized instrument.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The goal was to capture enough detail to distinguish chemical signatures at various altitudes - all within a single transit of WASP-121b in front of its host star.</p>



<p>“The VLT enabled us to probe three different layers of the exoplanet’s atmosphere in one fell swoop,” said study co-author Leonardo A. dos Santos, an assistant astronomer at the <a href="https://www.stsci.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Telescope Science Institute</a> in Baltimore, United States.&nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/exoplanet-Tylos_atmospheric-structure_3d-view_illustration_ESO_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/exoplanet-Tylos_atmospheric-structure_3d-view_illustration_ESO_1s.webp" alt="This diagram shows the structure and motion of the atmosphere of the exoplanet Tylos (WASP-121b). The exoplanet is shown from above in this figure, looking at one of its poles. The planet rotates counter-clockwise, in such a way that it always shows the same side to its parent star, so it's always day on one half of the planet and night on the other. The transition between night and day is the &quot;morning side&quot; while the &quot;evening side&quot; represents the transition between day and night; its morning side is to the right and its evening side to the left. Credit: ESO" class="wp-image-1960368"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>This diagram shows the structure and motion of the atmosphere of the exoplanet Tylos (WASP-121b). The exoplanet is shown from above in this figure, looking at one of its poles. The planet rotates counter-clockwise, in such a way that it always shows the same side to its parent star, so it's always day on one half of the planet and night on the other. The transition between night and day is the "morning side" while the "evening side" represents the transition between day and night; its morning side is to the right and its evening side to the left. Credit: ESO</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>By monitoring how iron, sodium, and hydrogen moved within these layers, the team reconstructed the flow of material from the planet’s deep interior to its outermost atmospheric regions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It’s the kind of observation that is very challenging to do with space telescopes, highlighting the importance of ground-based observations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a>,” noted dos Santos.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metals-and-other-compounds">Metals and other compounds</h2>



<p>The deeper parts of WASP-121b’s atmosphere feature intense heat, while the upper layers experience a dynamic interplay between cooler regions and strong winds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The combined data indicate that metals and other compounds are shuttled around by swift jets, leading to the unfamiliar climate patterns seen on Tylos.</p>



<p>Alongside iron, sodium, and hydrogen, the researchers uncovered titanium in levels just beneath the high-altitude jet stream - an unexpected finding, given that previous attempts to locate titanium in WASP-121b’s atmosphere had come up short.&nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/exoplanet_WASP-121b_Tylos_atmosphere-layers_weather_eso_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/exoplanet_WASP-121b_Tylos_atmosphere-layers_weather_eso_1s.webp" alt="The atmosphere of Tylos (WASP-121b) is divided into three layers, with iron winds at the bottom, followed by a very fast jet stream of sodium, and finally an upper layer of hydrogen winds. This kind of climate has never been seen before on any planet. Credit: ESO" class="wp-image-1960558"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>The atmosphere of Tylos (WASP-121b) is divided into three layers, with iron winds at the bottom, followed by a very fast jet stream of sodium, and finally an upper layer of hydrogen winds. This kind of climate has never been seen before on any planet. Credit: ESO</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>“It’s truly mind-blowing that we’re able to study details like the chemical makeup and weather patterns of a planet at such a vast distance,” said Bibiana Prinoth, a PhD student at Lund University, Sweden, and ESO.</p>



<p>Prinoth led a companion study published in the journal <a href="http://aanda.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202452405" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</em></a> and co-authored the <em>Nature</em> paper.</p>



<p>The newly detected titanium, hidden at lower altitudes, indicates the planet’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-finds-a-water-rich-planet-with-a-steamy-atmosphere-named-gj-9827d/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a> is even more complex than once thought.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it remains unclear exactly how these metals form and move around Tylos, one possibility is that temperature gradients and the planet’s day-night contrast help determine where certain elements accumulate.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-insights-on-alien-climates">Future insights on alien climates</h2>



<p>The fact that WASP-121b’s jets and temperature distributions can be traced in such detail from light-years away marks a significant leap in exoplanet science.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Yet, as astronomers look to study smaller, rockier planets with potentially milder climates, even more powerful instruments will be required.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The ELT will be a game-changer for studying exoplanet atmospheres,” Prinoth said, referring to the <a href="https://elt.eso.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extremely Large Telescope</a> currently under construction in Chile’s Atacama Desert.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This experience makes me feel like we’re on the verge of uncovering incredible things we can only dream about now.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probing-the-atmospheres-of-exoplanets">Probing the atmospheres of exoplanets</h2>



<p>Using next-generation telescopes such as the ELT, researchers hope to probe the atmospheres of Earth-like planets and see if they harbor any hints of habitability.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By refining techniques already showcased in this study, astronomers aim to decode the layers, winds, and potentially life-supporting chemistry of still more distant worlds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The success of this recent work on WASP-121b foreshadows a new era in which entire atmospheric systems - weather, chemical cycles, and beyond - can be revealed in detail, unveiling the dynamic nature of far-off environments that were once the stuff of pure speculation.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08664-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature</em></a>.</p>



<p>Image Credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser</p>



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"Out of science fiction" - Weather on an alien planet viewed for the first time ever

A recent study has unveiled how chemical elements and powerful...

Icebergs,In,Jokulsarlon,Glacial,Lagoon.,Vatnajokull,National,Park,,Southeast,Iceland,

<p>The world has long operated under the assumption that achieving climate goals would prevent the worst impacts of global warming, such as the melting of Arctic ice.</p>



<p>In 2016, nearly 200 world leaders committed to keeping global temperatures from rising beyond 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 degrees Fahrenheit) above pre-industrial levels. </p>



<p>This agreement has shaped policies across nations, and driven efforts to cut emissions and transition toward cleaner energy.</p>



<p>Yet, despite those commitments, scientists now confirm that Earth's temperature increase crossed the 1.5-degree threshold in 2024. Not only has the planet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drastic-warming-will-transform-the-arctic-beyond-recognition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warmed</a> faster than expected, but the changes already in motion cannot be undone.</p>



<p>The consequences are affecting every continent in a variety of ways, from intensifying storms to record-breaking heat waves.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paris-agreement-pledges">Paris Agreement pledges</h2>



<p>A new study published in the journal <em>Science</em> reveals an even starker reality. If all countries follow through on their <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paris Agreement</a> pledges - which is a big assumption in itself - the planet is still on track to warm by an average of 2.7 degrees Celsius by the end of the century.</p>



<p>This level of warming will reshape economies, displace populations, and alter ecosystems in ways that humans have never before experienced.</p>



<p>"This is a reality check: we took a first step by signing the Paris Agreement, but we're already living in the 'changed world' we are attempting to prevent," noted Ted Schuur, a professor at <a href="https://nau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>.</p>



<p>"It's time to take the next step to adjust our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-permafrost-melt-devastating-role-accelerating-global-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate goals</a> to accommodate this new reality."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-s-role-in-accelerated-warming">Arctic's role in accelerated warming</h2>



<p>One of the reasons the planet passed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/costs-of-reversing-climate-change-multiply-after-a-tipping-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1.5 degrees of warming</a> so much sooner than expected lies far to the north. The Arctic, which once seemed distant and isolated, is now a central driver of climate shifts around the world.</p>



<p>Research shows that the Arctic is warming nearly four times faster than the rest of the planet. This is largely because ice, once a defining feature of the region, is disappearing at an alarming rate.</p>



<p>Sea ice, which used to form reliably every winter and partially melt in summer, is now melting at an accelerating pace. As more ice disappears, more of the ocean remains exposed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-and-dark-arctic-waters">Warming and dark Arctic waters</h2>



<p>Since dark ocean water absorbs more sunlight than white ice, this change amplifies the warming trend, creating a feedback loop that speeds up ice loss year after year.</p>



<p>"The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-industrialization-how-will-it-impact-delicate-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> seas have already become unrecognizable," Schuur said. "The amount of ice we're left with at the end of the summer keeps declining over time. Soon enough, summer ice could become a thing of the past."</p>



<p>This transformation will have far-reaching consequences. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-is-no-longer-permanent-arctic-communities-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coastal Arctic communities</a> depend on sea ice for hunting, transportation, and protection from storm surges. </p>



<p>As ice disappears, shipping routes will open, altering global trade patterns and potentially creating new geopolitical tensions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thawing-permafrost-crisis">Thawing permafrost crisis</h2>



<p>While melting sea ice is a visible reminder of climate change, another transformation is unfolding on land that is less obvious. </p>



<p>Beneath the Arctic’s surface lies permafrost - frozen ground that has locked away massive amounts of carbon for thousands of years.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/arctic-meltdown_global-warming-acceleration_credit-Victor-Leshyk_1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/arctic-meltdown_global-warming-acceleration_credit-Victor-Leshyk_1s.webp" alt="How 2.7 degrees of warming could accelerate permafrost thaw, ice melt and sea level rise in the Arctic. Credit: Victor Leshyk" class="wp-image-1959572"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>How 2.7 degrees of warming could accelerate permafrost thaw, ice melt and sea level rise in the Arctic. Credit: Victor Leshyk</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>As temperatures rise, this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thawing-permafrost-may-release-billions-of-tons-of-carbon-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">permafrost is thawing</a> and releasing carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. </p>



<p>These greenhouse gases intensify global warming, making it even harder to slow the planet’s temperature increase.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exponential-warming-acceleration">Exponential warming acceleration</h2>



<p>Scientists estimate that, as this organic material decomposes, it will emit carbon at a rate that is comparable to that of industrialized nations.</p>



<p>Despite the scale of this threat, Schuur explained that policymakers in 2016 did not fully account for these Arctic-driven emissions.</p>



<p>"We're talking about a place that's remote to many people, but changes in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-may-be-ice-free-sooner-than-we-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> don't stay in the Arctic," Schuur said.</p>



<p>The warming Arctic is shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-influences-us-weather-patterns-ai-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather patterns worldwide</a>, intensifying droughts, and increasing the likelihood of wildfires worldwide.</p>



<p>The effects of permafrost thaw are already being felt far from the Arctic. Extreme heat events, like the 70 days of 110-degree temperatures in Phoenix last summer, are partially linked to these additional greenhouse gas emissions. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-arctic-warming-impacts-the-world">How Arctic warming impacts the world</h2>



<p>The rapid transformation of the Arctic is not just an environmental issue - it is an economic and social challenge that will affect millions of people.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cost-coastal-cities-over-1-trillion-in-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coastal cities</a>, which are already vulnerable to rising seas, will face even more frequent flooding as ice sheets continue to melt. </p>



<p>Fisheries that support millions of livelihoods will struggle to adapt as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-broke-records-for-450-straight-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean temperatures</a> rise and ecosystems shift.</p>



<p>The disappearance of Arctic ice is also reshaping the world’s energy landscape. As previously unreachable oil and gas reserves become accessible, some countries may push to exploit these resources, potentially increasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-co2-emissions-rise-as-nations-tackle-fossil-fuel-dependence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuel production</a> at a time when emissions need to be cut.</p>



<p>Schuur emphasized that the world must recognize this new reality and respond accordingly. The past assumption that global warming could be controlled easily is no longer valid.</p>



<p>The task ahead is twofold: adapt to the inevitable changes that are already happening and work to prevent the worst-case scenarios from unfolding.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-an-unavoidable-future">Preparing for an unavoidable future</h2>



<p>The latest projections show that, if current policies remain unchanged, the planet will warm by 2.7 degrees Celsius before 2100. </p>



<p>That means there will be more extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and ecosystems pushed beyond their limits.</p>



<p>"We can't stop change from happening; it's already happening," Schuur said. "But we can slow the change by reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-greenhouse-gas-detecting-satellite-is-now-in-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a> and managing the change as best as we can so that people and ecosystems are better positioned for the future."</p>



<p>Governments must strengthen infrastructure, improve disaster preparedness, and develop climate-resistant agriculture. </p>



<p>Individuals can push for policies that prioritize renewable energy, sustainable urban planning, and conservation efforts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-is-needed-at-every-level">Action is needed at every level</h2>



<p>While global policies play a crucial role, local action can often have a more immediate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-ice-free-day-in-the-arctic-may-arrive-in-2027/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a> against Arctic warming. </p>



<p>Schuur encouraged people to engage with their city, county, or state <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-food-systems-are-gaining-momentum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainability efforts</a>. Getting involved can mean attending meetings, proposing new policies, or supporting climate initiatives through voting.</p>



<p>Individual actions also matter. Choosing cleaner transportation, reducing energy use, and supporting businesses that prioritize sustainability all contribute to slowing climate change. </p>



<p>These choices may not reverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, but they can delay its effects and provide communities with more time to adapt.</p>



<p>"Don't give up, even in the face of change," Schuur said. "Instead, change your thinking. Say to yourself: I live in a new, changed world. What can I do to help adapt and slow the change so we have more time to adjust?"</p>



<p>The challenge ahead is immense, but action at every level - global, national, and local - will determine how well the world navigates this new era. </p>



<p>The time for waiting has passed. Now is the moment to prepare for the world that is already here.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads1549" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science</em></a>.</p>



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Earth is already changing in 'unimaginable ways' due to rapid Arctic meltdown

The world has long operated under the assumption that achieving...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air"><strong>Invisible threat in urban air</strong></h2>



<p>City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge"><strong>Disturbing connections emerge</strong></h2>



<p>Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters"><strong>Timing matters</strong></h2>



<p>The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns"><strong>Genetic vulnerability patterns</strong></h2>



<p>Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications"><strong>Public health implications</strong></h2>



<p>These findings, published in <em><a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a></em>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.</p>



<p>As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.</p>



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Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



<p>Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



<p>Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.</p>



<p>Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



<p>The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.</p>



<p>Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



<p>Published in the journal <em><a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a></em>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.</p>



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What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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