Most people have heard that black holes slowly lose mass through cosmic decay, radiating tiny amounts of energy. This idea has circulated for decades and suggests that nothing is truly permanent.



Experts now propose that other extremely dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetar-flares-create-gold-platinum-uranium-in-seconds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">objects</a> might follow a related path. Their findings reveal a shorter timeline for everything, though not short on any human timescale.



Heino Falcke, a black hole researcher at <a href="https://www.ru.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Radboud University</a>, stands at the forefront of this investigation. He collaborated with quantum physicist Michael Wondrak and mathematician Walter van Suijlekom to figure out how quickly these processes might happen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-view-on-cosmic-decay">New view on cosmic decay</h2>



Scientists have long known about ideas related to black hole evaporation through a process first outlined by <a href="https://projecteuclid.org/journals/communications-in-mathematical-physics/volume-43/issue-3/Particle-creation-by-black-holes/cmp/1103899181.full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stephen Hawking</a>. The classic picture involves a black hole shedding mass over an incredibly long interval, eventually leaving no trace. 



Recent <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.14734" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> suggests that dense objects like neutron stars and white dwarfs might follow similar decay patterns, though at a snail’s pace.



Researchers wondered how these timelines compare to old predictions. They took the mathematics behind black hole evaporation and applied it to other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-cosmic-rays-from-supernova-sparked-rapid-earth-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">celestial bodies</a>. The ultimate result? Those bodies still vanish, just more rapidly than many figured before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faster-fade-for-dense-objects">Faster fade for dense objects</h2>



“So the ultimate end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monster-in-the-shadows-giant-black-hole-emerges-from-cosmic-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> comes much sooner than expected, but fortunately it still takes a very long time,” said Heino Falcke. 



That statement might sound contradictory at first, but it sums up the team’s surprising takeaway. Ultimately, for everyday life, these timescales are beyond huge.



There is even a calculation for the disappearance of the Moon. The process would drag on for around 10^90 years. The details rest on <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/physics/research/gravitational-physics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational physics</a> equations and the idea that curving spacetime might gradually convert mass into particles that eventually slip away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-neutron-stars-and-white-dwarfs-reveal">What neutron stars and white dwarfs reveal</h2>



Neutron stars have densities so immense that a teaspoon of their material on Earth would outweigh a mountain. Given their density, cosmic decay could affect these stellar remnants, causing them to evaporate too.



The group uncovered that neutron stars might take about the same time to fade as <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/black-holes/types/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar black holes</a> in the same mass range.



These results highlight a fresh perspective on gravitational physics. They show that events at a star’s surface could mirror those at the fringes of a black hole’s boundary, with subtle differences in how each body might reabsorb part of its own radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-denser-objects-lose-mass-faster">Why denser objects lose mass faster</h2>



Dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blazar-cosmic-objects-defy-classification-can-rapidly-change-its-identity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">objects</a> lose mass through minute particle streams. More density means an object’s gravitational pull is stronger, which changes how energy flows away. 



Draining that stored energy requires creative math, plus insights from quantum mechanics and general relativity.



A white dwarf, much less dense than a neutron star, might hold out for around 1078 years. That timeline sounds wildly big, yet it is significantly shorter than earlier guesses in the range of 101100 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-decay-physics-and-math">Cosmic decay: Physics and math</h2>



“By asking these kinds of questions and looking at extreme cases, we want to better understand the theory, and perhaps one day, we unravel the mystery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-radiation-may-actually-be-a-catalyst-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hawking radiation</a>,” said Walter van Suijlekom, professor of mathematics at Radboud University.



That blend of math, astrophysics, and quantum ideas drives this line of work.



Probing new models can spur lively debates. Some wonder if there are hidden factors that might stretch these rates. 



Others note that experimental tests in labs are tricky at best because these processes are far too slow to detect directly.



Any attempt to grasp cosmic timescales boggles the mind. Changes in star systems usually unfold in billions of years. 



These calculations push things far beyond that, highlighting a universe that still has an expiration, even if it is unimaginably distant.



Better knowledge of exotic decay can guide how we interpret ancient remnants. If these estimates hold, the universe’s inventory of black holes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-two-neutron-stars-collide-kilonova-explosion-very-bad-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron stars</a>, and other dense bodies eventually runs out far earlier than some old predictions claimed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revising-cosmic-timelines">Revising cosmic timelines</h2>



Revising cosmic timelines does not upend everyday astronomy, since these events are so far off. Yet it refines how scientists tally the lifetime of matter. 



Anyone who assumes that a star corpse lasts forever might have to rethink that stance now.



It also raises a question about the deep structure of spacetime. If space itself nudges these bodies toward decay, the nature of gravity might be more flexible than once supposed. 



Each object’s density appears to determine how quickly it joins the dust bin of cosmic history.



The study is published in the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.14734" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics</a>.



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Cosmic decay: The universe will end sooner than we thought

Most people have heard that black holes slowly lose mass through cosmic decay, radiating tiny amounts of energy. This idea has circulated for decades and suggests that nothing is truly permanent. Experts now propose that other extremely dense objects might follow a related path. Their findings reveal a shorter timeline for everything, though not short on any human timescale. Heino Falcke, a black hole researcher at Radboud University, stands at the forefront of this investigation. He collaborated with quantum physicist Michael Wondrak and mathematician Walter van Suijlekom...

Mammals and birds are endotherms – that is, organisms capable of self-regulating their body temperature. Reptiles, on the other hand, are ectotherms since they do not have this ability of self-regulating their temperature metabolically and must rely more heavily on environmental factors to survive.&nbsp;



For many years, scientists believed that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-of-the-dinosaurs-were-warm-blooded/">dinosaurs</a> were ectotherm too – a feature which was often used to explain their extinction at the end of the Cretaceous Period, as they would not have had the capacity to regulate their body temperature to combat the temperature fluctuations of their environment. However, a new study led by <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> has found that dinosaurs and pterosaurs had high metabolic rates, suggesting that they were in fact endothermic.



“This study demonstrates that dinosaurs were real endotherms, and refutes previous ideas that they had an intermediate condition (mesothermia) between ectotherms and endotherms, or that they could maintain their bodily temperature constant thanks to their large bodies, given that there are small dinosaurs with high metabolic rates,” said study lead author Jasmina Wiemann, a molecular paleobiologist at Yale.



Dr. Wiemann and her colleagues used metabolic markers found in fossils to assess the metabolic capacities of dinosaurs. The analysis revealed that these creatures had high metabolic rates, which helped them regulate their body temperature in order to adapt to environmental fluctuations. These findings refute the hypothesis that dinosaurs’ extinction was caused by their incapacity to do this.



“According to the results of this research, being an endotherm is not an advantage in the case of mass extinctions, and we will have to look for causes other than the metabolism they had, which was similar to that of mammals and birds which did survive,” said study co-author Iris Menéndez, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.ucm.es/english">Complutense University of Madrid</a>.



“This study provides us with knowledge about extinct species. Sometimes we have the idea that there are not many discoveries still to be made, but the reality is that many studies in recent decades are continuing to change the ideas we had about what some species were like, and help us understand life in the past better,” she concluded. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04770-6">Nature</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Dinosaurs self-regulated their body temperature

Mammals and birds are endotherms – that is, organisms capable...

Several studies have found that cocoa flavanols are as efficient in lowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-blood-pressure-doubles-risk-of-severe-covid/">blood pressure</a> and arterial stiffness as many blood pressure medication. However, since these studies have been performed in tightly controlled experimental settings, how effective flavanols are in everyday life has remained unknown. Moreover, some scientists voiced concerns that using cocoa as a treatment for high blood pressure could pose health risks by decreasing the pressure when it is not raised.&nbsp;



Now, for the first time, a research team from the <a href="https://www.surrey.ac.uk/">University of Surrey</a> has set out to investigate the effects of cocoa flavanols on lowering blood pressure and arterial stiffness in individuals outside clinical settings. The analysis revealed that cocoa only reduces blood pressure and arterial stiffness when elevated, thus paving the way for it to be safely used in clinical practice.



“High blood pressure and arterial stiffness increases a person’s risk of heart disease and strokes, so it is crucial that we investigate innovative ways to treat such conditions,” said study senior author Christian Heiss, a professor of Cardiovascular Medicine at the University of Surrey. “Before we even consider introducing cocoa into clinical practices, we need to test if the results previously reported in laboratory settings safely translate into real-world settings, with people going about their everyday lives.”



Professor Heiss and his team enrolled 11 healthy participants and asked them to consume, on alternating days, either six cocoa flavanol capsules or six placebo ones containing only brown sugar. The participants were provided with an upper arm blood pressure monitor and finger clip measuring pulse wave velocity (PWV), which shows the levels of arterial stiffness. These measurements were taken before the consumption of the capsules, every 30 minutes after ingestion in the first three hours, and hourly for the remaining nine hours.



The measurements revealed that blood pressure and arterial stiffness were only lowered in participants if it was high, with no effect occurring when the pressure was already low in the morning. Moreover, significant effects in people with initially high blood pressure were identified also at eight hours after taking the pills, which is probably due to how gut bacteria metabolize cocoa flavanols.



“The positive impact cocoa flavanols have on our cardiovascular system, in particular, blood vessel function and blood pressure, is undeniable. Doctors often fear that some blood pressure tablets can decrease the blood pressure too much on some days,” said Professor Heiss.



“What we have found indicates that cocoa flavanols only decrease blood pressure if it is elevated. Working with participants’ personal health technologies showed us how variable blood pressure and arterial stiffness can be from day to day and shows the role of personal health monitors in developing and implementing effective personalized care,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.886597">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Study confirms: cocoa reduces high blood pressure

Several studies have found that cocoa flavanols are as efficient...

Anxiety, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-b6-can-reduce-anxiety-and-depression/">depression</a>, or cluster headaches can be highly debilitating. Recent studies have argued that psychedelic compounds which stimulate serotonin receptors in the brain could act as treatments for these conditions. While clinical trials have indeed shown promising results, not everyone seems to benefit from these substances. 



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.unc.edu/">University of North Carolina Chapel Hill</a> (UNC) has found that a reason for this could be common genetic variations in one serotonin receptor. The experts discovered that seven variants uniquely and differentially impacted this receptor’s in vitro response to four psychedelic drugs - LSD, psilocin, 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), and mescaline.



Serotonin receptors in the brain bind serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) and other similar amine-containing molecules, helping regulate people’s moods, emotions, cognitive processes, and even appetite. One of these receptors (5-HT2A) is responsible for mediating the effects of a variety of psychedelic drugs. However, scientists found that there are several naturally occurring, random genetic variations – known as “single nucleotide polymorphisms” (SNPs) – which can significantly alter the 5-HT2A receptor’s structure and function.



The researchers used a series of assays to investigate the effect that seven different SNPs had on in vitro binding and signaling of the 5-HT2A&nbsp;receptor when in the presence of psilocin, LSD, 5-MeO-DMT, and mescaline. The analysis revealed that some genetic variations – even ones at a significant distance from the binding site – fundamentally alter the ways in which this serotonin receptor interacts with the drugs. For instance, the single nucleotide polymorphism Ala230Th was found to have both increased and reduced responses to the psychedelic substances tested compared to the original version of the gene, while the His452Th mutation exhibited only reduced effects.



These findings suggest that patients with different genetic variations would react differently to psychedelic treatments. Thus, physicians should carefully consider the genetics of a patient’s serotonin receptors in order to reliably identify which psychedelic compound is likely to be the most effective treatment.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00815">ACS Chemical Neuroscience</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Genetics influence the brain's response to psychedelics

Anxiety, depression, or cluster headaches can be highly debilitating. Recent...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, experts report that exposure to extreme heat can lead to chronic and acute malnutrition among infants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-spaces-are-beneficial-for-childrens-lung-health/">children</a> in low-income countries. The researchers say that the impacts of heat exposure threaten to reverse decades of progress.&nbsp;



The study was focused on more than 32,000 West African children between the ages of three to 36 months. The researchers found that average heat exposure had increased the prevalence of stunted growth from chronic malnutrition by 12 percent, and of low weight from acute malnutrition by 29 percent.



“We’re talking about children at a very young age that will have changes for the rest of their lives, so this is permanently scarring their potential,” said Professor Ariel Ortiz-Bobea. “What we are doing to reduce global poverty is being eroded by our lack of action on climate.”



If the average global temperature rises by two degrees Celsius – which could occur without significant reductions in carbon emissions – the average effect of heat exposure on stunting would nearly double, erasing gains recorded during the study period (1993 to 2014).



These findings have greatly concerned researchers, as temperatures in West Africa are rising and will continue to for several decades. The effects of acute and chronic malnutrition in early childhood - linked to higher mortality rates and to lower education and incomes in adulthood - are irreversible.



Meanwhile, improved incomes, infrastructure and child care practices during the study period helped reduce stunting across the five West African countries by 5.8 percentage points on average.



“While this progress has been welcomed in West Africa and in other low- and middle-income countries, it’s occurring against the backdrop of rising temperatures and an increased likelihood of extreme weather events,” said Professor John Hoddinott. “Our work suggests these rising temperatures risk wiping out that progress.”



Strategies to reduce child malnutrition must consider the increased need for programs during periods of prolonged heat exposure.



The researchers acknowledge funding support from the African Development Bank through the <a href="http://barrett.dyson.cornell.edu/staars/index.html">Structural Transformation of African Agriculture and Rural Spaces</a> (STAARS) project.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-environmental-economics-and-management">Journal of Environmental Economics and Management</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heat exposure is worsening the issue of malnourished children

In a new study from Cornell University, experts report that...

Many previous studies have shown that exposure to vegetated areas and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-spaces-are-a-critical-refuge-for-threatened-species/">green spaces</a> can be beneficial to our physical and mental health. Recent research published by the <a href="https://europeanlung.org/en/">European Lung Foundation</a> has now revealed that children whose proximity to vegetation close to their homes increased in the first ten years of life tended to have better lung health. These findings support the idea that families benefit by moving to greener areas, but also highlight the need to create more green spaces in urban areas.



The study, which was led by Dr. Diogo Queiroz Almeida from the University of Porto, was focused on data from the research project known as Geração 21. This initiative began by recruiting over 8,000 mothers and their newborn infants in public hospitals in the Porto Metropolitan Area in 2005 and 2006.&nbsp;



All of the children were invited to be re-evaluated at the ages of four, seven and ten years. However, since not all of the participants ended up giving complete sets of data, the current study on lung health ultimately included data from 3,278 of the children.



Lung function was gauged at ages four, seven and ten using each child’s forced vital capacity (FVC). This is the maximum amount of air a person can blow out after taking in the deepest possible breath and it is a measure of lung volume and size. FVC can indicate how well the lungs are working and help diagnose lung conditions like asthma.&nbsp;



The team used satellite data and maps to assess the amount of vegetation within 100, 250 and 500m of each child’s residence at the time of his or her birth, as well as at the ages of four, seven and ten. In addition, geographical information systems (technology for comparing the geographical locations of different things) were used to determine the distance between children’s home addresses and their nearest park, public garden or other public green spaces at these same ages.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Analysis of the data showed that children whose home surroundings became greener between the time of their birth and their tenth birthday - due either to moving home or to environmental changes - tended to have better lung function.



“Our research suggests the greener, the better. These improvements are modest at around two percent. However, if we look at the whole population, making our neighborhoods greener could have a considerable impact.” Dr. Almeida explained that factors such as differences in physical activity and levels of air pollution were accounted for, but the link between better lung function and increased exposure to vegetated areas persisted.



“We looked at factors like physical activity and air pollution, but the link between lung function and moving closer to green space remained, even after we took these into account,” said Dr Almeida. “It could also be that getting closer to nature reduces stress, which can improve physical health, or it might have a positive effect on children’s microbiomes – the community of different bacteria that live in our bodies.”



“We found that living in greener neighborhoods as children grow up is more important for their breathing than living in a green area when they were born. This may be because babies spend much less time outdoors than children.”



During this study, the researchers also assessed whether there was a link between children’s lung health and the proximity of their homes to rivers and the sea – so-called ‘blue space’. They made use the Portuguese Water Atlas (from the Portuguese “Atlas da Água”) to assess the distance between each child’s residence and the nearest blue space. The researchers found no link with children’s lung health, although it must be noted that less than one percent of the children in the study lived within 800m of any blue space.&nbsp;



"This research strengthens the evidence supporting the benefits of green spaces on respiratory health. Moving to greener areas may be a possible strategy to improve children’s lung function. However, house prices often dictate where families live, any many cannot afford to live in greener neighborhoods," said Dr. Almeida.



"To reduce health inequalities, we need to make our cities greener, especially in areas where there is little or no green space. In particular, we need to involve children and their carers to make sure our parks and gardens suit their needs.”



The researchers will continue to study the role of green and blue spaces in other areas of children’s health. They are also using focus groups to understand how and why green spaces are used by younger people.



“We know that early childhood is a crucial time for lungs to grow and develop, and that a child’s environment and the air they breathe can have an impact on their lung health for the rest of their life," said Professor Marielle Pijnenburg of the European Respiratory Society, who was not involved in the research.



"This study suggests that making sure our children grow up close to parks, gardens and green spaces could help improve their lung health, although as the authors said the mechanisms for this are unknown and may be complex. This finding contributes to a growing number of studies that show health benefits of making our neighborhoods greener and healthier.”



The research is published in the <a href="https://erj.ersjournals.com/">European Respiratory Journal</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Green spaces are beneficial for children’s lung health

Many previous studies have shown that exposure to vegetated areas...

Reducing sugar consumption could aid in combating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-lakes-to-their-boiling-point/">climate change</a>, according to new research carried out by the Institute of Environmental Science and Technology of the <a href="https://www.uab.cat/web/universitat-autonoma-de-barcelona-1345467954774.html">Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona</a> (ICTA-UAB).



The study, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-00934-4">Nature Sustainability</a>, explores alternative uses for sugar cropland in the European Union (EU). The experts looked into three strategies: reforesting current sugar cropland; switching sugar beet crops for ethanol production; and exporting excess sugar to Brazil, allowing Brazil to swap sugar production for ethanol production.



With the first scenario, the researchers estimate that carbon emissions could be reduced by 20.9–54.3 MtCO2e per year. That number could be doubled for the second scenario and quadrupled for the third scenario.



Based on their findings, the experts encourage an agreement between the EU and Brazil, with the understanding that the EU will produce sugar from beets while Brazil will produce ethanol from sugarcane. They feel that the deal would be equitable for both parties because ethanol production has been shown to be just as profitable as sugar production.&nbsp;



“It provides a clear example of how broad collaboration can help direct society in a more sustainable direction," said Jeroen van den Bergh, an ICREA research professor at ICTA-UAB.



The researchers say that governments should also implement a high sugar tax to encourage less public consumption. They point to the United Kingdom, whose tax has been popular and effective. These policies have also encouraged food producers to use less sugar.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“For sustainability policies to be both efficient and effective, we must consider the full impact across the three – environmental, social, and economic – pillars," said study first author Lewis King.



"Changing how we use sugar crops presents an appealing strategy from this perspective as sugar is arguably the least efficient crop to be used as food, apart even from its negative health impacts; moreover, it is the most efficient crop for biofuel from a net energy perspective."



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sugar taxation could help combat climate change

Reducing sugar consumption could aid in combating climate change, according...

Land plants evolved 470 million years ago from algae and, since then, they fundamentally reshaped our planet. During their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-altruism-may-be-key-to-understanding-social-evolution/">evolution</a>, ferns have undergone several changes that helped them survive and thrive on land. Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="http://en.caf.ac.cn/">Chinese Academy of Forestry</a> in Beijing and the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> has managed for the first time to comprehensively study the genomic arrangement of tree ferns, offering new insights into how ferns evolved.



According to the scientists, a major breakthrough in the evolution of land plants involved the “invention” of their vascular systems, which helped them conduct nutrients and water through their bodies. Such systems consist of two tissues: the xylem and the phloem. While the xylem facilitates the transport of water to the stems and leaves, the phloem helps transporting sugars created through photosynthesis to the rest of the plant. Moreover, xylem cells are lined with lignin, a supportive structural material that provides rigidity to wood and bark.



“Ferns are the earliest vascular plants, and lignified cell walls were a key innovation during the evolution of these plants,” said study senior author Ray Ming, a professor of Plant Biology at the University of Illinois. “This study has improved our understanding of how vascular tissues developed in ferns and other land plant species.”



By sequencing the genome of the flying spider-monkey tree fern Alsophila spinulosa, Professor Ming and his colleagues discovered that two vascular-related Mac-Domain genes were highly expressed in this fern’s xylem compared to other tissues, suggesting that they might be key regulators in the formation of xylem-specific cells. The scientists also measured the levels of lignin and secondary metabolites - compounds that are not required for growth and reproduction, but nevertheless offer some benefits – in ferns, and found that lignin makes up 40 percent of the stem cell wall.&nbsp;



Moreover, they identified a new secondary metabolite primarily made in xylem, which they called alsophilin. “This new compound is abundant in the xylem, likely as one of the compounds filling up the cavity of non-functional tracheid cells. We also identified the genes involved in the biosynthesis of alsophilin in the genome,” Professor Ming reported.



To understand how ferns evolved, the researchers compared the genome of A. spinulosa to other members of the same species spread across China. Surprisingly, they identified six distinct populations, with different genomic sequences. Based on these findings, the experts reconstructed the evolutionary history of ferns and discovered that these species underwent a drastic decline twice (35.6 – 34.5 million years ago and 2.5 – 0.7 million years ago).



“This analysis of genomes and lignin composition from a broader collection of ferns will help us understand the role of lignin in the early lineage of vascular plants. In our future studies, we hope to increase the number of locations and the sample sizes for the genomic analysis,” Professor Ming concluded.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-022-01146-6">Nature Plants</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Study sheds light on the evolution of ferns

Land plants evolved 470 million years ago from algae and,...

"Forever chemicals" are everywhere and they are here to stay. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of over 4,700 man-made chemicals that have been around since the 1940s. Manufacturers use PFAS to make products resistant to oil, heat, stains, or water. They are found in everything from electronics and cosmetics to outdoor gear, non-stick pans, heat- and water-resistant clothing and food wrappers. Unfortunately, we probably ingest them when our food contacts wrappings and they are also present in our drinking water and soil. Forever chemicals have been recorded as present in peoples’ blood for decades.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Known by some as the best and worst chemicals, they are very useful in many different contexts, but do not break down under normal environmental conditions. These substances have also been implicated in certain human health problems. They are believed to disrupt the function of hormones, chemical messengers that influence many of our body systems.



New research, led by researchers at <a href="https://med.nyu.edu/our-community/about-us">NYU Grossman School of Medicine</a> has now found that these persistent chemicals, used in the production of many household items, may be linked to the incidence of cancer, thyroid disease, and childhood obesity. Previous research has linked PFAS exposure in mothers to low birth weight in their infants, but the current study considered a much broader range of health consequences for people of all ages.



In fact, the study of roughly 5,000 Americans identified 13 medical conditions that may be linked to PFAS exposure. These include infertility, diabetes, and endometriosis, a painful disorder of the uterus. Together, these health conditions generate significant medical bills and reduce worker productivity across a lifetime to create the costs measured by the study, say the study authors.



“Our findings add to the substantial and still-mounting body of evidence suggesting that exposure to PFAS is harming our health and undermining the economy,” said study co-author Dr. Linda Kahn.



For the investigation, the researchers used blood samples obtained in 2018 from adults and children who took part in the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. This gave them an idea of how many people were exposed to forever chemicals and the levels of exposure. The researchers then reviewed the data and findings from dozens of studies that have explored diseases connected to PFAS exposure in the past decade.&nbsp;



Using this information and existing models from earlier investigations, the researchers then estimated the total national economic cost of the medical bills and lost worker productivity that resulted from the five medical conditions that had the strongest links to PFAS exposure. These included low birth weight, childhood obesity, kidney and testicular cancers, and hypothyroidism.



It was, in fact, childhood obesity that contributed most to the overall economic toll of exposure to forever chemicals. The estimated cost of medical bills and lost productivity associated with this condition was about $2.7 billion. Hypothyroidism in women, a condition in which the thyroid cannot release enough hormones into the bloodstream, was the next highest contributor at $1.26 billion.



When the investigators expanded the scope of their economic estimates to include eight other conditions with preliminary links to PFAS exposure, including endometriosis, obesity in adults, and pneumonia in children, the total costs reached as high as $63 billion.



“Our results strongly support the recent decision by the Environmental Protection Agency to lower the safe allowable level of these substances in water,” said study senior author Dr. Leonardo Trasande. “Based on our estimates, the cost of eradicating contamination and replacing this class of chemical with safer alternatives is ultimately justified when considering the tremendous economic and medical risks of allowing them to persist in the environment.”



According to Dr. Trasande, few studies have explored the effects of PFAS exposure over time, despite the extensive research on the health risks. With this in mind, the research team next plans to examine the long-term risks of exposure to forever chemicals. In addition, they plan to estimate the economic burden of other endocrine-disrupting contaminants, such as bisphenols, which are substances used in many plastics and can linings, fire retardants, and pesticides.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/environmental-exposure">Environmental Exposure</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exposure to "forever chemicals" costs billions in the US

"Forever chemicals" are everywhere and they are here to stay....

We all know that plastic waste is a widespread problem, especially in our water systems. Plastic pollution directly threatens aquatic habitats and the plants and animals that live there.&nbsp;



A study led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> has given us another perspective. After studying 29 European lakes, scientists found that naturally occurring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-fed-raw-meat-may-spread-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/">bacteria</a> in these water bodies grew more quickly and efficiently on a plastic diet than their natural diet, which includes leaves and branches.



"It's almost like the plastic pollution is getting the bacteria's appetite going. The bacteria use the plastic as food first, because it's easy to break down, and then they're more able to break down some of the more difficult food – the natural organic matter in the lake," explained study senior author Dr. Andrew Tanentzap.



"This suggests that plastic pollution is stimulating the whole food web in lakes, because more bacteria means more food for the bigger organisms like ducks and fish."



However, it is essential to note that this process does not affect every lake the same way. The microbial diversity&nbsp; in the lake plays a role, with more bacterial diversity leading to more plastic consumption.&nbsp;



Furthermore, bacteria removed more plastic waste in lakes with fewer natural sources of carbon because there were fewer available food sources. With this knowledge, researchers can prioritize lake remediation using this method. For example, lakes with high plastic pollution but low bacterial diversity and low levels of natural organic compounds will be more susceptible to damage.



"Unfortunately, plastics will pollute our environment for decades. On the positive side, our study helps to identify microbes that could be harnessed to help break down plastic waste and better manage environmental pollution," said Professor David Aldridge.



The researchers emphasize that the research does not imply that plastic is not a problem for our waterways - only that the impact of plastic waste can be unpredictable.&nbsp;



"Our study shows that when carrier bags enter lakes and rivers they can have dramatic and unexpected impacts on the entire ecosystem," said study first author Eleanor Sheridan. "Hopefully our results will encourage people to be even more careful about how they dispose of plastic waste."



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bacteria can remove plastic waste from lakes

We all know that plastic waste is a widespread problem,...

Whale sharks are filter feeders that have long been observed eating krill at the Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia. However, when a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a> (AIMS) analyzed biopsy samples from these sharks, they were surprised to discover that the animals were in fact eating a significant amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-shed-their-flowers-quickly-for-protection-from-microbes/">plant</a> material too. This makes whale sharks – which can be up to 18 meters long – the world’s largest omnivores.



“This causes us to rethink everything we thought we knew about what whale sharks eat,” said study lead author Mark Meekan, a fish biologist at AIMS. “On land, all the biggest animals have always been herbivores. In the sea we always thought the animals that have gotten really big, like whales and whale sharks, were feeding one step up the food chain on shrimp-like animals and small fishes. Turns out that maybe the system of evolution on land and in the water isn’t that different after all.”



In order to find out what the sharks eat, Dr. Meekan and his colleagues collected a variety of samples of possible food sources at the reef, from small plankton to large seaweed. Then they compared the amino acids and fatty acids in the plankton and plant material to those sampled from sharks, and found that the whale shark tissue contained compounds found in Sargassum, a species of brown seaweed common at Ningaloo, which breaks off the reef and floats to the surface of the water.



“We think that over evolutionary time, whale sharks have evolved the ability to digest some of this Sargassum that’s going into their guts,” Dr. Meekan said. “So, the vision we have of whale sharks coming to Ningaloo just to feast on these little krill is only half the story. They’re actually out there eating a fair amount of algae too.”



According to study senior author Andy Revill, a biogeochemist at the <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/about/people/business-units/oceans-and-atmosphere">Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Oceans and Atmosphere</a>, studying shark tissue using compound-specific stable isotope analysis allows scientists to clarify what animals are using for energy and growth, instead of just what they are eating.



“Something like a whale shark, which swims through the water with its mouth open, is going to ingest a lot of different things,” he explained. “But you don’t know how much of that has been used by the animal and how much just goes straight out the other end. Whereas stable isotopes, because they’re actually incorporated into the body, are a much better reflection of what the animals are actually utilizing to grow.”



In the case of whale sharks, such analysis revealed that plant material is essential for providing them energy and helping them grow - perhaps even more so than krill. Further research is needed to better understand the evolution and behavior of these fascinating creatures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.3818">Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Whale sharks are the world’s largest omnivores

Whale sharks are filter feeders that have long been observed...

A team of scientists from <a href="https://plus.cnu.ac.kr/html/en/">Chungnam National University</a> (CNU) in South Korea have recently created two beagle dogs from cloned skin cells altered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grapevine-killer-controlled-through-gene-editing-strategy/">gene-editing</a> technologies. The researchers hope that this technique could be used more broadly in the near future to eliminate disease-causing mutations from pedigree dog breeds.



Because of years of inbreeding, pedigree dogs are frequently susceptible to genetic diseases. For instance, some cocker spaniels are known to have brains too large for their skulls, while boxers are often suffering from epilepsy. By using a gene-editing tool called CRISPR-Cas9, the CNU scientists created the beagles by first editing skin cells to mutate a gene (DJ-1) that is associated with degenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s. They then placed these gene-edited skin cells next to egg cells whose DNA had been removed, and fused them together by using short pulses of electricity. Through this technique, a total of 68 embryos were created and implanted into six surrogate mothers, resulting in two puppies.



The two cloned beagles are now 22 months old and do not show signs of any abnormalities. “DJ-1 KO dogs show partial or complete repression of target gene expression,” the study authors reported.&nbsp;“This technology can be used in further studies to produce pathogenic gene-corrected or disease-modelling dogs.” However, since the diseases linked to the DJ-1 gene are age-related, it is still too early to tell whether the dogs will experience any degenerative diseases as they get older.&nbsp;



Although the first human trials of CRISPR therapies have already been initiated, and scientists hope they are on the brink of reaching the clinics, many researchers remain skeptical about these developments. According to some scholars, gene-editing tools could potentially cause unwanted mutations that may prove dangerous. Others worry that this groundbreaking technology could lead to the creation of “designer babies,” by allowing parents to choose their children’s hair color, height, or even traits such as intelligence. However, regardless of these critical stances, most scientists remain hopeful that these methods could ease the burden of disease in many animals, including humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiotechnol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12896-022-00749-3#Sec3">BMC Biotechnology</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Cloned beagles created for the first time

A team of scientists from Chungnam National University (CNU) in...

Black carbon - or soot – emitted by vehicles, power plants, residential heating, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-exposed-to-wildfires-are-at-risk-of-deadly-blood-clots/">wildfires</a> is a highly potent absorber of solar radiation that converts incoming light to atmospheric heating. However, since soot is usually mixed with other substances, it has been difficult to estimate its effect on the climate.&nbsp;



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.lanl.gov/">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a> has investigated how soot’s light-reflecting and light-absorbing properties evolve as it ages during the dispersal of wildfire smoke, in order to predict more accurately this substance’s contribution to global warming.



“Black carbon or soot is the next most potent climate-warming agent after CO2 and methane, despite a short lifetime of weeks, but its impact in climate models is still highly uncertain. Our research will clear up that uncertainty,” said study lead author James Lee, a climate researcher at the Los Alamos National Lab.&nbsp;



The scientists sampled smoke from several wildfires over two summers in the Western United States, including the Medio Fire in New Mexico in 2020 and aged plumes from fires in California and Arizona. Months after these wildfires were extinguished, the smoke plumes can linger in the upper atmosphere, and form organic aerosols that condense around black carbon particles. Some of these aerosols focus light on the soot, increasing its absorption. However, the quantity of absorbed light depends on the size of the aerosols and how they coat the soot.



“Wildfires emit soot and organic particles that respectively absorb and scatter the sunlight to warm or cool the atmosphere to a varying net effect, depending on the composition of the smoke mixture,” said study senior author Manvendra Dubey, an expert in climate, energy, and air quality research at the Los Alamos Lab. “This mixing evolves over time as smoke from large megafires disperses globally. We discovered a systematic relationship between the increase in light absorption efficiency of soot with age due to the growth in organic coatings.”



By analyzing 60 million smoke particles, the researchers managed to account for variations in the amount of organic coating on each particle, and used existing absorption models to determine how much light energy each particle absorbed in order to infer the total black carbon absorption of the plumes. They found that current climate models generally overestimate how much radiation is absorbed by black carbon, leading to large uncertainties and biases in wildfire climate effects.



“When smoke plumes remain in the lower troposphere and don’t experience temperatures below freezing, black carbon absorption can be predicted by an empirical relationship related to the ratio of coating material to black carbon volume in the plume. This simple parameterization is suitable for incorporation into complex earth systems models to determine the climate impact of black carbon,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="about:blank">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Exploring the climate-warming effects of wildfire soot

Black carbon - or soot – emitted by vehicles, power...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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