<p>Evolution is often framed as a slow process encoded into our DNA. Yet some scientists argue we may be witnessing a shift of a different kind - one driven not by biology but by culture. This idea challenges traditional views of how our species adapts and survives.</p>



<p>At the <a href="https://umaine.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maine</a>, researchers Timothy M. Waring and Zachary T. Wood believe culture is overtaking genetics as the main force of human evolution. Their work suggests that humanity may be experiencing a transition rivaling some of the greatest shifts in evolutionary history.</p>



<p>"We find that culture solves problems much more rapidly than genetic evolution," said Waring. "This suggests our species is in the middle of a great evolutionary transition.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-s-new-driving-force">Evolution’s new driving force</h2>



<p>From <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-neolithic-mountain-settlers-used-complex-farming-methods/">farming methods</a> to legal codes, cultural practices adapt far faster than biological evolution. These changes allow human groups to solve problems and adjust to environments in ways genetics cannot match. </p>



<p>Waring and Wood argue that this transition is not new but is accelerating and could define humanity for millennia. “Cultural evolution eats genetic evolution for breakfast,” said Wood. “It’s not even close.”</p>



<p>Modern life illustrates this vividly. Eyeglasses, surgery, and fertility treatments intervene in challenges once governed by natural selection. Hospitals, schools, and governments have become cultural infrastructures that determine survival more than genetic traits.</p>



<p>“Ask yourself this: what matters more for your personal life outcomes, the genes you are born with, or the country where you live?” Waring said. </p>



<p>“Today, your well-being is determined less and less by your personal biology and more and more by the cultural systems that surround you - your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/community-sleep-health-predicts-success-among-children/">community</a>, your nation, your technologies. And the importance of culture tends to grow over the long term because culture accumulates adaptive solutions more rapidly.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culture-moves-faster-than-dna">Culture moves faster than DNA</h2>



<p>Culture is not just personal; it thrives on shared practices. Evidence from history and anthropology shows that group-level cultural adaptation has long shaped humanity, from the rise of agriculture to the creation of states. </p>



<p>Health systems, sanitation, and education now contribute more to survival than individual intelligence or genetic luck.</p>



<p>The researchers suggest this reliance on shared systems means humans are evolving through culture to become more group-oriented and dependent. Our survival may hinge on cultural evolution and collective adaptation rather than individual genetic advantage.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groups-evolve-beyond-genetics">Groups evolve beyond genetics</h2>



<p>Evolutionary history includes dramatic reorganizations of life, like single cells forming multicellular organisms or insects becoming highly cooperative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-colonies-behave-like-neural-networks-when-making-decisions/">colonies</a>. Waring and Wood argue humans could be undergoing a similar individuality transition.</p>



<p>“Cultural organization makes groups more cooperative and effective. And larger, more capable groups adapt - via cultural change - more rapidly,” said Waring. “It’s a mutually reinforcing system, and the data suggest it is accelerating.”</p>



<p>Societal complexity makes even genetic engineering possible, showing how culture controls biology itself. If this transition continues, future humans may resemble societal “super-organisms” shaped more by cultural systems than genetic evolution.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-culture-to-the-test">Putting culture to the test</h2>



<p>The researchers stress that their theory is testable. They are developing mathematical models and long-term data collection to measure how quickly culture is overtaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tens-of-thousands-of-hidden-dark-genes-discovered-in-humans/">genes</a>. Importantly, they caution against viewing cultural evolution as inevitable progress.</p>



<p>“We are not suggesting that some societies, like those with more wealth or better technology, are morally ‘better’ than others,” Wood said. “Evolution can create both good solutions and brutal outcomes. We believe this might help our whole species avoid the most brutal parts.”</p>



<p>At the University of Maine’s Applied Cultural Evolution Laboratory, Waring’s team continues to expand this work, exploring how cultural patterns can inform humanity’s future.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-culture-and-evolution">Future of culture and evolution</h2>



<p>The implications are vast. If cultural inheritance keeps dominating, human destiny may rest less on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-shows-what-really-spread-the-farming-revolution/">DNA</a> and more on the resilience of our communities, technologies, and institutions.</p>



<p>“If cultural inheritance continues to dominate, our fates as individuals, and the future of our species, may increasingly hinge on the strength and adaptability of our societies,” Waring noted.</p>



<p>In this view, evolution’s future may not be written in genes but in the shared systems and stories that bind us together, shaping our communities, guiding innovation, and influencing how societies survive, grow, and adapt.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaf094/8230384?redirectedFrom=fulltext&amp;login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>BioScience</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Culture is driving human evolution faster than our genes

Evolution is often framed as a slow process encoded into our DNA. Yet some scientists argue we may be witnessing a shift of a different kind - one driven not by biology but by culture. This idea challenges traditional views of how our species adapts and survives. At the University of Maine, researchers Timothy M. Waring and Zachary T. Wood believe culture is overtaking genetics as the main force of human evolution. Their work suggests that humanity may be experiencing a transition rivaling some of the greatest...

<p>In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists have detected seismic waves traveling through the core of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-may-have-finally-discovered-life-on-mars/">Mars</a>, providing crucial information about the Red Planet's composition and leading to new insights about the formation and evolution of terrestrial planets. The study, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2217090120"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a>, reveals that Mars has a completely liquid core, rich in sulfur and oxygen, which differs significantly from Earth's core.</p>



<p>An international research team, including seismologists from the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a> (UMD), used data acquired by the NASA InSight lander to directly measure properties of Mars's core. The study confirms model predictions of the core's composition and provides new details about the geological differences between Earth and Mars. These differences could play a role in the planets' ability to sustain life.</p>



<p>"In 1906, scientists first discovered Earth's core by observing how seismic waves from earthquakes were affected by traveling through it," explained study co-author Professor of Geology Vedran Lekic. "More than a hundred years later, we're applying our knowledge of seismic waves to Mars. With InSight, we're finally discovering what's at the center of Mars and what makes Mars so similar yet distinct from Earth."</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>To uncover these differences, the researchers tracked the progression of two distant seismic events on Mars - one caused by a marsquake and the other by a large impact. They detected waves that traveled through the planet's core and compared the time it took for these waves to travel through Mars with waves that stayed in the mantle.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By combining this information with other seismic and geophysical measurements, the team estimated the density and compressibility of the material that the waves traveled through. Their findings indicate that Mars has a completely liquid core, unlike Earth's combination of a liquid outer core and solid inner core.</p>



<p>Furthermore, the researchers inferred details about the chemical composition of the planet's core, discovering that it contains a surprisingly large amount of light elements such as sulfur and oxygen. The study suggests that a fifth of the core's weight is made up of these elements, a stark contrast to the lower weight proportion of light elements in Earth's core. This indicates that the core of Mars is less dense and more compressible than Earth's core, suggesting different formation conditions for the two planets.</p>



<p>"The properties of a planet's core can serve as a summary about how the planet formed and how it evolved dynamically over time. The end result of the formation and evolution processes can be either the generation or absence of life-sustaining conditions," explained study co-author Professor of Geology Nicholas Schmerr. "The uniqueness of Earth's core allows it to generate a magnetic field that protects us from solar winds, allowing us to keep water. Mars's core does not generate this protective shield, and so the planet's surface conditions are hostile to life."</p>



<p>Although Mars currently lacks a magnetic field, scientists hypothesize that it once had a core-generated magnetic shielding similar to Earth's, based on traces of magnetism found in the Martian crust. According to Lekic and Schmerr, this could imply that Mars evolved from a potentially habitable environment to its current hostile state. The researchers believe that conditions in the planet's interior and violent impacts may have played key roles in this transformation.</p>



<p>"It's like a puzzle in some ways," Lekic said. "For example, there are small traces of hydrogen in Mars's core. That means that there had to be certain conditions that allowed the hydrogen to be there, and we have to understand those conditions in order to understand how Mars evolved into the planet it is today."</p>



<h2 id="h-future-implications-of-the-research">Future implications of the research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The findings of the study have not only provided valuable insights into the Red Planet's composition and evolution, but have also confirmed the accuracy of current modeling estimates that aim to reveal the hidden layers beneath a planet's surface. This groundbreaking research is paving the way for future expeditions to other celestial bodies, including planets like Venus and Mercury.</p>



<p>Jessica Irving, a senior lecturer at Bristol University and first author of the study, described the significance of this research. "This was a huge effort, involving state-of-the-art seismological techniques which have been honed on Earth, in conjunction with new results from mineral physicists and the insights from team members who simulate how planetary interiors change over time. But the work paid off, and we now know much more about what's happening inside the Martian core."</p>



<p>Professor Lekic emphasized the lasting impact of the InSight mission, which ended in December 2022 after four years of seismic monitoring. "Even though the InSight mission ended, we're still analyzing the data that was collected. InSight will continue to influence how we understand the formation and evolution of Mars and other planets for years to come."</p>



<p>The successful application of advanced seismological techniques may present opportunities for future studies on other planets to gain new insights into their formation, evolution, and potential habitability. As scientists continue to analyze data from the InSight mission, they will uncover more information about Mars's geological history and the processes that shaped it. This will help researchers better understand the underlying mechanisms that drive the formation and evolution of planets.</p>



<h2 id="h-signs-of-life-on-mars">Signs of life on Mars</h2>



<p>While there is no definitive evidence of past or present life on Mars, many scientists believe that the planet may have once had conditions suitable for life. There are several lines of indirect evidence that suggest Mars may have harbored life at some point in its history:</p>



<h3 id="h-water">Water</h3>



<p>Liquid water is considered a key ingredient for life as we know it, and there is evidence that Mars had liquid water on its surface in the past. Observations made by various Mars missions show signs of ancient riverbeds, lakes, and even a possible ancient ocean. Today, water is mostly present in the form of ice, but some evidence suggests that liquid water might still exist underground.</p>



<h3 id="h-organic-molecules">Organic molecules</h3>



<p>In 2018, NASA's Mars rover Curiosity discovered complex organic molecules, which are the building blocks of life, in ancient sedimentary rocks. Although the presence of these molecules does not necessarily imply that life existed on Mars, it shows that the planet had the necessary ingredients for life.</p>



<h3 id="h-methane">Methane</h3>



<p>Methane, a gas often associated with biological processes on Earth, has been detected in the Martian atmosphere in varying concentrations. While methane can also be produced through geological processes, the presence of the gas raises the possibility of past or present microbial life on the Red Planet.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitability">Habitability&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Studies of Martian meteorites and data from Mars rovers suggest that the planet's environment may have been more hospitable to life in the past, with a warmer and wetter climate.</p>



<p>Despite these intriguing findings, no direct evidence of past or present life on Mars has been discovered. Future missions, such as NASA's Mars Perseverance rover and the European Space Agency's ExoMars rover, will continue the search for signs of ancient life and help us better understand the habitability of Mars.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Secrets of Mars: Seismic discoveries and the quest for past life

In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists have detected seismic waves traveling...

<p>A new study from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> has found that poor air quality could be causing cognitive deficits in babies and toddlers. The negative impact on children’s brain development could potentially have life-long consequences.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.83876"><em>eLife</em></a>, reveals a link between poor air quality in India and impaired cognition among infants under two years old. The study is the first to demonstrate a link between poor air quality and cognitive problems in babies during the critical period when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fathers-experience-slight-shrinkage-of-the-brain/">brain</a> growth is at its peak and the brain may be particularly sensitive to toxins.</p>



<p>“Very small particulate fragments in the air are a major concern as they can move from the respiratory tract into the brain," said lead researcher Professor John Spencer. "Until now, studies had failed to show a link between poor air quality and cognitive problems in babies, when brain growth is at its peak and the brain may be particularly sensitive to toxins. Our study is the first to show this association. We worked with families in rural India to see how in-home air quality affects infants’ cognition.”</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>The team collaborated with the Community Empowerment Lab in Lucknow, India - a global health research and innovation organization that works with rural communities to engage in science collaboratively. They worked with families from a range of socio-economic backgrounds in Shivgarh, a rural community in Uttar Pradesh. This particular Indian state has been strongly impacted by poor air quality.</p>



<p>The experts assessed the visual working memory and visual processing speed of 215 infants using a specially-designed cognition task from October 2017 to June 2019. On one display, the tots were shown flashing colored squares that were always the same after each ‘blink’. On a second display, one colored square changed after each blink.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers used air quality monitors in the children’s homes to measure emission levels and air quality, and also took into account and controlled for family socio-economic status.</p>



<p>“This research shows for the first time that there is an association between poor air quality and impaired visual cognition in the first two years of life, when brain growth is at its peak,” said Professor Spencer.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Such impacts could carry forward across years, negatively impacting long-term development. Reversely, our research indicates that global efforts to improve air quality could have benefits to infants’ emerging cognitive abilities. This, in turn, could have a cascade of positive impacts because improved cognition can lead to improved economic productivity in the long term and reduce the burden on healthcare and mental health systems.”</p>



<p>The researchers found that air quality was poorer in homes that used solid cooking materials like cow dung cake, with the cooking fuel commonly used at home being one of the key factors the team measured. “Therefore, efforts to reduce cooking emissions in homes should be a key target for intervention," said Professor Spencer.</p>



<p>Consistent with this aim and with the goal of improving maternal and child health, the Government of India has launched a national-level flagship program called the “Ujjwala Yojana” – a scheme that brings LPG fuel to women below the poverty line across the entire country.</p>



<p>The research was led by the University of East Anglia in collaboration with Durham University, the Community Empowerment Lab in Lucknow (India), and Brown University (US). The study was funded in part by the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation. The findings and conclusions contained within are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect positions or policies of the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation.</p>



<h2 id="h-global-efforts-to-improve-air-quality">Global efforts to improve air quality</h2>



<p>There are several global efforts underway to improve air quality. One example is the World Health Organization (WHO) Air Quality Guidelines, which provide recommendations on safe levels of air pollution exposure. Another example is the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, which includes a goal on promoting sustainable cities and communities, including actions to reduce air pollution.</p>



<p>In addition, there are international agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, which aims to limit global temperature rise to well below 2 degrees Celsius and to pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius. This agreement includes commitments from countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to air pollution and climate change.</p>



<p>At the national level, many countries have implemented policies and regulations to improve air quality, such as reducing emissions from transportation and industry, and promoting the use of renewable energy sources.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Overall, global efforts to improve air quality are aimed at reducing the negative impacts of air pollution on human health, the environment, and the economy.</p>



<h2 id="h-additional-health-issues-associated-with-poor-air-quality">Additional health issues associated with poor air quality</h2>



<p>Poor air quality can have a range of negative impacts on human health, including both short-term and long-term effects. Some of the most common health issues associated with poor air quality include:</p>



<h3 id="h-respiratory-problems">Respiratory problems&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Air pollution can irritate the lungs and airways, leading to coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath. It can also trigger asthma attacks and worsen existing respiratory conditions.</p>



<h3 id="h-cardiovascular-disease">Cardiovascular disease</h3>



<p>Exposure to air pollution can increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and other cardiovascular problems. This is because air pollution can cause inflammation in the body, damage blood vessels, and increase the risk of blood clots.</p>



<h3 id="h-cancer">Cancer&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Certain air pollutants, such as benzene and formaldehyde, have been linked to an increased risk of cancer. Long-term exposure to air pollution has also been linked to an increased risk of lung cancer.</p>



<h3 id="h-cognitive-problems">Cognitive problems</h3>



<p>As the recent study from the University of East Anglia showed, poor air quality can be linked to cognitive deficits in infants and toddlers. Studies have also linked air pollution to cognitive problems in adults, including decreased attention, memory, and problem-solving abilities.</p>



<h3 id="h-reproductive-and-developmental-problems">Reproductive and developmental problems</h3>



<p>Exposure to air pollution during pregnancy can increase the risk of premature birth, low birth weight, and birth defects. It can also affect the development of the fetal brain.</p>



<p>Overall, poor air quality is a major public health concern, and efforts to improve air quality are essential for protecting human health and well-being.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Poor air quality linked to cognitive problems in infants

A new study from the University of East Anglia has...

<p>A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.unimelb.edu.au/">University of Melbourne</a> and <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/">Macquarie University</a> has found that, in Australia, nature-based management is currently making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-caused-unprecedented-changes-to-rivers/">rivers</a> more resilient.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts analyzed the articles delivered to the long-running <a href="https://www.rbms.org.au/australian-stream-management-conference/">Australian Stream Management</a> (ASM) conference over a period of 25 years (1996 to 2021) to assess how the structure and approaches of Australia’s river management industry have changed over time.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although the analysis revealed that the industry has significantly matured during the study period, with increasing diversity and collaboration between its different components, unfortunately there has been little expansion of the participation of local communities and the use of adaptive management (“learning by doing” or “learning from mistakes”).</p>



<p>An event such as the flooding of the Wollombi Brook in New South Wales in July 2022 is a good example of sustainable environmental restoration in the management of rivers.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Yes, there was widespread inundation, but the flood waters were slower and the vegetation prevented large scale erosion and sediment movement,” said co-author Kirstie Fryirs, a geomorphologist at Macquarie. “All the hard work that a very active community put into nature-based rehabilitation for more than 20 years, such as continuous streamside revegetation, played a role in this outcome.”</p>



<p>However, the researchers warned that, although Australia is performing rather well at the local level, this work needs urgent upscaling and better resourcing in order to be able to meet the river health goals set by the United Nations in its <a href="https://www.decadeonrestoration.org/">Decade on Ecosystem Restoration</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Adopting UN’s environmental goals as principles in river management is essential for conserving and improving river health, making effective use of diverse and traditional knowledges, integrating grassroot movements to the global action, improving the robustness and cost efficiency of restoration efforts, and securing river resilience to climate change and natural disasters.</p>



<p>On the basis of their analyses, the experts provided five recommendations to boost sustainable development:</p>



<ol>
<li>Practitioners from various areas of management should collaborate among themselves and with other communities (including First Nations communities) holistically.</li>



<li>Nature-based rather than engineering solutions should be found, prioritized, and implemented.</li>



<li>More resources should be devoted to adaptive river management.</li>



<li>Knowledge and understanding should be preserved by institutions.</li>



<li>Practitioners should have more influence in formulating government policies.</li>
</ol>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00748-y"><em>Nature Communications Earth &amp; Environment</em></a>.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Nature-based management increases river resilience

A recent study led by the University of Melbourne and...

<p>By using a web-based questionnaire distributed to 500 medical and 408 nursing students from nine Swedish higher education institutions, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.gu.se/en">University of Gothenburg</a> has surveyed the extent of education and training in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-risk-natural-disasters-doubled/">disaster</a> medicine Swedish students receive.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The investigation revealed that, although most students of medicine and nursing considered their knowledge of disaster medicine inadequate, students with experience from the rescue forces, police, and armed forces were at an advantage.</p>



<p>The experts asked students to state to what extent they regarded themselves well informed about several issues related to disaster medicine, such as organization, law, ethics, prioritization of patients, hospital evacuation, and decontamination after radioactive or chemical exposure.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Respondents with prior experience from the rescue services, police, and/or military service (eight percent of the medical students and 20 percent of the nursing students) had a higher self-rated level of knowledge. Moreover, for medical students close to completing their studies, there was a robust association between their self-reported level of knowledge and the extent of their disaster medicine courses.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the scientists, these findings suggest that 40 hours studying disaster medicine – which is more than the students currently get - should be adequate to properly prepare future doctors and nurses to perform efficiently in such emergencies. The results support the most recent recommendations of the <a href="https://www.government.se/government-agencies/national-board-of-health-and-welfare--socialstyrelsen/">National Board of Health and Welfare</a> encouraging universities to include five days of disaster medicine education in medical and nursing undergraduate programs.</p>



<p>“The results show that both teaching and conscription had a favorable effect on the students’ self-rated knowledge of disaster medicine. Students who received more extensive instruction and those who had been in military service rated themselves as more knowledgeable,” said study lead author Yohan Robinson, an associate professor of Disaster Medicine at Gothenburg and the director of the Department for Total Defense at the <a href="https://www.forsvarsmakten.se/en/about/organisation/training-units-schools-and-centres/armed-forces-centre-for-defence-medicine-fomedc/">Swedish Armed Forces Center for Defense Medicine</a> in Gothenburg.</p>



<p>“The results may provide insights into how to improve education and training for medical and nursing students to enable them to cope with and face crisis situations better, thus helping to make disaster preparedness more robust and effective,” he concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1161114"><em>Frontiers in Public Health</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Future doctors and nurses need more training in disaster medicine

By using a web-based questionnaire distributed to 500 medical and...

Flying,Bat,Hunting,In,Forest.,The,Grey,Long-eared,Bat,(plecotus

<p>A new study led by <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> (TAU) has found that pregnant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-play-an-active-role-in-plant-pollination/">bats</a> experience a decline in their ability for spatial orientation and hunting, stemming from the fact that they produce about 20 percent fewer calls (the sounds that allow them to orient themselves via echolocation) and fly at a slower pace and lower altitude. These findings represent the first known evidence that pregnancy affects the sensory capabilities of mammals.</p>



<p>“At the peak of pregnancy, bats carry about 20 percent more than their normal body weight, and it is clear that this excess weight impacts their flying capacity. In this study, we wanted to check whether and to what extent pregnancy affects bats’ echolocation ability, their sonar,” said lead author Mor Taub, a research assistant in Zoology at TAU.</p>



<p>“Bats’ sonar is based on the emitting and receiving of strong and frequent sounds in order to map their surroundings. To make these sounds, bats, like us humans, need to transfer high-pressure air from the lungs through the vocal cords, or vocal membranes, which involves many muscles, such as the chest and diaphragm. We wanted to see if the excess weight from pregnancy affects the production of sounds.”</p>



<p>To test this, the scientists taught bats of the Kuhl’s pipistrelle species – a common species of bats in Israel that weigh only about six grams and feed mainly on mosquitoes - to search for and land on a small landing pad in the laboratory, and recorded the echolocation of both pregnant and non-pregnant bats. The analysis revealed that the rate at which pregnant bats emitted sounds was lower than that of the control group, with 20 percent larger intervals between each sound. Moreover, they flew slower and lower, an aspect likely to affect their hunting too.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“When a bat makes fewer calls, it gathers less information about the environment, its chance of colliding with objects increases, and its chance of finding food decreases — and this is at a time when the bat needs extra food to sustain the fetus in its womb,” explained senior author Yossi Yovel, an expert in Behavioral Neuroscience at TAU.</p>



<p>Previous studies have found that during their four-month long pregnancies, bats tend to change their diets. While scientists initially thought that this change was caused by their flying difficulties, the current findings suggest that it may also be due to their sensory difficulty in detecting certain types of prey.</p>



<p>“This is the only evidence we found in the professional literature showing that pregnancy affects mammals’ sensory abilities. We assume that there are similar cases in other species as well, but this is the first time that researchers have been able to measure and demonstrate the impairment empirically. Beyond the scientific interest, it is important to preserve mammal species in the wild, especially during pregnancy and newborn care, since animals are particularly vulnerable during this period,” Taub concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12915-023-01557-7"><em>BMC Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>&nbsp;—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Pregnancy affects the sensory abilities of mammals

A new study led by Tel Aviv University (TAU) has...

<p>In a recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0112"><em>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</em></a>, researchers are exploring the phenomenon of multispecies flocks of birds in Southeast Asia that seem to converge on a similar appearance, even when they are distantly related.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Study co-author Scott Robinson of the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> commented on this curious observation: "They all share haphazard traits, like crests or yellow bellies, which makes them almost identical. You can't really tell them apart without looking at their markings."</p>



<p>This similarity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-more-colors-than-all-other-birds-combined/">plumage</a> is thought to be a type of mimicry, which is not uncommon in birds. Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-discoverer of natural selection, was the first to suggest that some bird species engage in mimicry when noting the similarities between orioles and friarbirds in Australia. Birds can mimic one another to reduce aggression from a dominant species, to resemble a more formidable adversary to predators, and in at least one case, to make themselves appear toxic.</p>



<p>However, study lead author Professor Rebecca Kimball from the University of Florida believes that the resemblance in multispecies flocks is a different form of mimicry.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In mimicry, you often want to look like something because there's an advantage to being that other thing. You want species to think you're toxic or low-profitable prey," said Professor Kimball. "In flocking birds, one idea is that this has more to do with a predator's ability to isolate a target. When there are a bunch of birds moving around, it may be easier for predators to identify an individual that has a distinct color pattern."</p>



<p>This idea of unrelated birds finding safety in collective obscurity was first proposed in the 1960s for flocks along the Andes Mountains, but follow-up studies failed to show conclusive evidence of mimicry in Andean multispecies flocks, and the theory was largely abandoned. However, Robinson began observing a similar phenomenon in 2010 while working with a Chinese colleague in Yunnan province. Over the next several years, he and his colleagues documented similarities in China's multispecies flocks, uncovering the same pattern repeatedly.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered</h2>



<p>Robinson and his team found examples of birds that mimic more than one species as they mature, as well as birds whose appearances vary across their range. Somewhat counterintuitively, this conformity within multispecies flocks may be contributing to diversity in the region. If these differences persist long enough, Robinson said, it might ultimately result in one species becoming two.</p>



<p>The researchers believe there are two main ingredients required to create this type of mimicry in flocks, both of which might help explain why this pattern appears to be so prominent in China but absent elsewhere. First, a flock must be composed of just a few species, with some more common than others. Second, the flock must face significant predation pressure, which is the case in Southeast Asia, where the region harbors almost 30% of all raptor species.</p>



<p>The experts plan to conduct wide scale genetic analyses to determine whether similarity among flocking species is the result of mimicry or other potential causes. "Just how widespread mimicry is in birds is something that's only been appreciated recently," Robinson said. "Taxonomy work is based on appearance, with the assumption that birds are closely related if they look similar. Now that we can study DNA, we're realizing they often look alike because they live together."</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-bird-mimicry">More about bird mimicry</h2>



<p>Bird mimicry is a fascinating natural phenomenon where one bird species imitates the appearance, sounds, or behaviors of another species to gain an advantage. There are several forms of bird mimicry, each serving a different purpose:</p>



<h3 id="h-batesian-mimicry">Batesian mimicry</h3>



<p>In this form of mimicry, a harmless bird species imitates the appearance of a dangerous or unpalatable species to deter predators. By resembling a toxic or unprofitable prey, the mimicking bird reduces its risk of being attacked. For example, the Viceroy butterfly mimics the toxic Monarch butterfly, deterring predators that have learned to avoid the Monarch.</p>



<h3 id="h-mullerian-mimicry">Müllerian mimicry</h3>



<p>This occurs when two or more unpalatable or dangerous species resemble each other. Predators learn to avoid both species because of their shared appearance, providing a mutual benefit to both mimicking species. An example of this type of mimicry is found in some species of Heliconius butterflies, which share similar color patterns to warn predators of their unpalatability.</p>



<h3 id="h-aggressive-mimicry">Aggressive mimicry</h3>



<p>Here, a predatory bird species imitates the appearance, sounds, or behaviors of a harmless species to deceive its prey. By blending in with the harmless species, the predator can get closer to its prey without raising suspicion. For instance, the Zone-tailed Hawk resembles the Turkey Vulture in appearance and flight behavior, allowing it to approach prey unnoticed.</p>



<h3 id="h-vocal-mimicry">Vocal mimicry&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Some birds are capable of imitating the songs and calls of other bird species, as well as non-bird sounds. This type of mimicry serves various purposes, such as attracting mates, confusing rival birds, or avoiding predators. Notable vocal mimics include the Northern Mockingbird, which can imitate up to 200 different bird songs, and the Lyrebird, known for its remarkable ability to mimic various sounds, including chainsaws and camera shutters.</p>



<p>Bird mimicry is an adaptive strategy that has evolved in response to various ecological pressures, such as predation, competition, and reproduction. As a result, these remarkable adaptations showcase the complex relationships that exist within bird communities and ecosystems.</p>



<h2 id="h-other-examples-of-remarkable-bird-adaptations">Other examples of remarkable bird adaptations</h2>



<p>Birds have evolved numerous adaptations to help them survive and thrive in diverse environments. These adaptations are often related to their feeding habits, locomotion, reproduction, and other aspects of their biology. Here are some examples of bird adaptations:</p>



<h3 id="h-beak-shape">Beak shape&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Birds have developed various beak shapes to suit their feeding habits. For example, hummingbirds have long, slender beaks for sipping nectar from flowers, while raptors have sharp, hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey. Finches, on the other hand, have strong, conical beaks for cracking seeds.</p>



<h3 id="h-feet-and-leg-structure">Feet and leg structure&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Different bird species have specialized feet and leg structures that enable them to exploit various habitats and food sources. Wading birds like herons have long legs and wide-spreading toes for walking in shallow water, while woodpeckers have zygodactyl feet (two toes facing forward and two backward) for clinging to tree trunks.</p>



<h3 id="h-wing-shape">Wing shape</h3>



<p>The shape and size of a bird's wings can influence its flight capabilities. Albatrosses have long, slender wings for efficient gliding over vast ocean expanses, while birds of prey have broad wings with slotted tips for soaring and maneuvering during hunting. Swifts and swallows have short, tapered wings for rapid, agile flight.</p>



<h3 id="h-camouflage">Camouflage</h3>



<p>Many bird species have evolved coloration and patterns that help them blend into their environment, making them less visible to predators or prey. For example, ground-nesting birds like the Common Pauraque have cryptic plumage that closely resembles leaf litter, while Arctic birds like the Snowy Owl have white feathers that help them blend into snowy landscapes.</p>



<h3 id="h-migration">Migration</h3>



<p>Some birds have adapted to migrate long distances to exploit seasonal resources or escape harsh weather conditions. For example, the Arctic Tern breeds in the Arctic during the summer and migrates to the Antarctic for the southern hemisphere's summer, covering around 25,000 miles each year.</p>



<h3 id="h-nesting-behavior">Nesting behavior</h3>



<p>Birds have developed various nesting strategies to protect their eggs and young from predators and environmental factors. Some birds, like the Weaver, construct elaborate hanging nests from grasses and other materials, while cavity-nesting birds like the Eastern Bluebird use tree cavities or nest boxes for shelter.</p>



<h3 id="h-vocalizations">Vocalizations</h3>



<p>Birds have evolved complex vocalizations to communicate with one another. These vocalizations serve various purposes, such as attracting mates, defending territories, or warning of predators. The intricate songs of the Song Sparrow and the mimicry abilities of the Northern Mockingbird are examples of this adaptation.</p>



<p>These are just a few examples of the countless adaptations that have allowed bird species to survive and flourish in a wide range of environments and ecological niches.</p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Birds "blend in" to adapt to diverse environments

In a recent study published in the journal Philosophical Transactions...

<p>A groundbreaking study led by <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a> sociologist Giovanni Rossi, in collaboration with an international team of researchers from Australia, Ecuador, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, has discovered that humans are intrinsically cooperative and regularly rely on each other for acts of kindness and assistance. </p>



<p>The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-30580-5"><em>Scientific Reports</em></a>, indicate that the human capacity for cooperation transcends cultural differences, contrary to previous research that emphasized the variations in rules and norms governing cooperation.</p>



<p>In this comprehensive investigation, the team of researchers sought to understand the fundamental nature of human cooperation. They discovered that people signal their need for assistance, such as asking someone to pass a utensil, approximately once every couple of minutes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, these requests for help are seldom ignored; across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-not-the-only-animals-that-create-their-own-culture/">cultures</a>, people tend to comply with these small requests much more frequently than they decline them. When individuals do decline to help, they usually provide an explanation for their inability to do so.</p>



<p>Rossi explained the significance of these findings, stating: "Cultural differences like these have created a puzzle for understanding cooperation and helping among humans. Are our decisions about sharing and helping shaped by the culture we grew up with? Or are humans generous and giving by nature?"&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research sheds new light on these questions and demonstrates that the cooperative behavior of humans is more universally similar than previously thought. Acts of kindness are actually commonplace.</p>



<p>Prior anthropological and economic research has emphasized the variation in rules and norms governing cooperation. For example, whale hunters in Lamalera, Indonesia, adhere to established rules for distributing large catches, while Hadza foragers in Tanzania share their food primarily due to concerns about negative gossip.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In Kenya, wealthier Orma villagers are expected to contribute to public goods like road projects, whereas affluent Gnau villagers in Papua New Guinea would refuse such offers, as they create an uncomfortable obligation to reciprocate for their less fortunate neighbors.</p>



<p>To resolve these inconsistencies and explore the core of human cooperation, the researchers examined over 40 hours of video footage of everyday life, featuring more than 350 participants from geographically, linguistically, and culturally diverse locations. These sites included towns in England, Italy, Poland, and Russia, as well as rural villages in Ecuador, Ghana, Laos, and Aboriginal Australia.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



<p>The research analyzed sequences, where one person signaled for assistance and another person responded. This human interaction sheds light on the intrinsic nature of human cooperation.</p>



<p>The study examined more than 1,000 requests for help, occurring on average about once every two minutes. The situations involved "low-cost" decisions, such as sharing everyday items or assisting others with tasks around the house or village.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These low-cost decisions are far more frequent than "high-cost" decisions, like sharing the spoils of a successful whale hunt or contributing to the construction of a village road, which have been shown to be significantly influenced by culture.</p>



<p>The researchers found that people complied with acts of kindness to small requests seven times more often than they declined them and six times more often than they ignored them. The average rates of rejection (10%) and ignoring (11%) were much lower than the average rate of compliance (79%). </p>



<p>This preference for compliance held across all cultures, and was unaffected by whether the interaction was among family or non-family members.</p>



<p>Moreover, when people declined to help, they gave an explicit reason 74% of the time. This implies that while people generally only refuse assistance for a good reason, they offer help unconditionally, without needing to explain why they are doing so.</p>



<p>"A cross-cultural preference for compliance with small requests is not predicted by prior research on resource-sharing and cooperation, which instead suggest that culture should cause prosocial behavior to vary in appreciable ways due to local norms, values, and adaptations to the natural, technological, and socio-economic environment," said study co-author N. J. Enfield from the University of Sydney.&nbsp; "These and other factors could in principle make it easier for people to say 'no' to small requests, but this is not what we find."</p>



<p>Rossi suggested that being helpful and offering acts of kindness is an ingrained reflex in the human species. "While cultural variation comes into play for special occasions and high-cost exchange, when we zoom in on the micro level of social interaction, cultural difference mostly goes away, and our species' tendency to give help when needed becomes universally visible," he said.</p>



<p>The results of this extensive study indicate that, despite the diversity of cultures and backgrounds, humans are fundamentally cooperative and willing to help one another.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This research has significant implications for our understanding of human nature and the role of cultural influences on cooperative behavior. As we continue to navigate an increasingly interconnected world, insights like these become even more valuable in fostering global cooperation and understanding.</p>



<h2 id="h-societal-factors-that-contribute-to-a-person-s-willingness-to-help-others">Societal factors that contribute to a person’s willingness to help others</h2>



<p>There is no single determinative factor for the acts of kindness and generosity found in a particular community or culture, as it can be influenced by a complex interplay of factors. Some of the key factors that might influence kindness and generosity in a community or culture include:</p>



<h3 id="h-cultural-values-and-norms">Cultural values and norms</h3>



<p>The values and norms of a culture play a significant role in shaping people's behavior, including their propensity for kindness and generosity. Cultures that emphasize collectivism, social harmony, and community well-being may foster more kindness and generosity among their members.</p>



<h3 id="h-religion-and-spirituality">Religion and spirituality</h3>



<p>Religion and spirituality often encourage kindness and generosity, as they promote empathy, compassion, and altruism. Communities with strong religious or spiritual beliefs may, therefore, display higher levels of kindness and generosity.</p>



<h3 id="h-socio-economic-factors">Socio-economic factors</h3>



<p>The economic well-being of a community can influence the level of kindness and generosity displayed by its members. People living in economically stable communities may be more likely to share resources and help others, as they feel more secure in their own lives.</p>



<h3 id="h-education">Education</h3>



<p>Education can play a role in shaping people's values and behaviors, including kindness and generosity. Higher levels of education may lead to increased awareness and understanding of social issues, empathy, and a sense of responsibility towards others, which can promote kindness and generosity.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-cohesion-and-trust">Social cohesion and trust</h3>



<p>In communities with high levels of social cohesion and trust, people may be more likely to display kindness and generosity towards one another. Trust fosters a sense of security and encourages cooperation, as people feel more confident that their kindness and generosity will be reciprocated.</p>



<h3 id="h-leadership-and-community-role-models">Leadership and community role models</h3>



<p>The behavior of community leaders and role models can set the tone for the level of kindness and generosity in a community. If leaders and role models consistently display and promote kindness and generosity, others in the community may be more likely to adopt these behaviors.</p>



<p>It is essential to recognize that these factors are interconnected and can have a cumulative effect on the overall level of kindness and generosity in a community or culture. Consequently, the most determinative factor for kindness and generosity in a particular community or culture may vary depending on the specific combination of these factors present in that context.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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People in all cultures offer small acts of kindness to strangers

A groundbreaking study led by UCLA sociologist Giovanni Rossi, in...

<p>The mudskipper, an intriguing amphibious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-confirms-that-fish-can-recognize-themselves-in-a-mirror/">fish</a> with a penchant for blinking, is offering scientists insight into how and why blinking might have evolved as our ancestors made the transition from aquatic to terrestrial life.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> and Seton Hill University, led by Thomas Stewart and Brett Aiello, have been studying this unusual fish and have found that its blinking behavior serves many of the same purposes as our own.</p>



<p>Published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2219900120"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a>, the study suggests that blinking may be one of the key traits that allowed for the evolution of tetrapods - animals including mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians - around 375 million years ago.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Animals blink for many reasons,” said Stewart. “It helps us keep our eyes wet and clean, it helps us protect our eyes from injury, and we even use blinking for communication. Studying how this behavior first evolved has been challenging because the anatomical changes that allow blinking are mostly in soft tissues, which don’t preserve well in the fossil record. The mudskipper, which evolved its blinking behavior independently, gives us the opportunity to test how and why blinking might have evolved in a living fish that regularly leaves the water to spend time on land.”</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



<p>To better understand how mudskippers evolved the ability to blink, the team analyzed their behavior using high-speed videos and compared the anatomy of mudskippers to that of a closely related fish that does not blink.</p>



<p>Like a frog's eyes, the mudskipper's eyes protrude from the top of its head. To blink, the fish retracts its eyes momentarily into sockets, where they are covered by a stretchy membrane known as a "dermal cup." Interestingly, the mudskipper's blink lasts about as long as a human blink.</p>



<p>“Blinking in mudskippers appears to have evolved through a rearrangement of existing muscles that changed their line of action and also by the evolution of a novel tissue, the dermal cup,” said Aiello. “This is a very interesting result because it shows that a very rudimentary, or basic, system can be used to conduct a complex behavior. You don’t need to evolve a lot of new stuff to evolve this new behavior — mudskippers just started using what they already had in a different way.”</p>



<h2 id="h-the-blinking-behavior-of-mudskippers">The blinking behavior of mudskippers</h2>



<p>The researchers investigated the reasons behind the mudskipper's blinking behavior by considering the roles that blinking plays in humans and other tetrapods. In humans, tears keep eye cells healthy and oxygenated, so the team analyzed whether mudskippers also blink to keep their eyes wet.</p>



<p>“We found that, just like humans, mudskippers blink more frequently when confronted with dry eyes,” said Aiello. “What’s incredible is that they can use their blinks to wet the eyes, even though these fish haven’t evolved any tear glands or ducts. Whereas our tears are made by glands around our eyes and on our eyelids, mudskippers seem to be mixing mucus from the skin with water from their environment to produce a tear film.”</p>



<p>Additionally, the researchers tested if blinking in mudskippers could be triggered to protect the eye from injury and if blinking cleaned the fish's eyes of dust or debris. In both instances, the answer was affirmative.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As a result, it appears that blinking in mudskippers serves three primary functions - protecting, cleaning, and maintaining moisture - similar to humans and other tetrapods.</p>



<p>“Our study, which considered the behavior and anatomy of a living fish that underwent a transition to life on land, similar to the earliest tetrapods, helps us to reimagine how and why these early tetrapods might have been blinking,” said Aiello.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Having the opportunity to study how and why this behavior first evolved provides an amazing opportunity to learn more about the way humans came to be as they are and gives us insight into changes associated with major transitions in the history of animals - like inhabiting land.”</p>



<h2 id="h-blinking-may-be-the-earliest-trigger-behind-the-evolution-of-humanity">Blinking may be the earliest trigger behind the evolution of humanity</h2>



<p>Brett Aiello explained that humans and other tetrapods blink constantly throughout the day, often without even realizing it. Despite being a subtle action, blinking is a complex and fascinating behavior that can perform multiple functions, all of which are vital to the health and safety of the vertebrate eye.</p>



<p>“The transition to life on land required many anatomical changes, including changes for feeding, locomotion and breathing air,” said Stewart. “Based on the fact that mudskipper blinking, which evolved completely independently from our own fishy ancestors, serves many of the same functions as blinking in our own lineage, we think that it was likely part of the suite of traits that evolved when tetrapods were adapting to live on land.”</p>



<p>The study was conducted by a multidisciplinary team that included researchers from the Georgia Institute of Technology, Westmead Hospital in Sydney, Australia, and the University of Chicago. Funding for this research was provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation, the Open Philosophy Project, the U.S. National Institutes of Health, the Biological Sciences Division of The University of Chicago, and the Brinson Foundation.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-animal-evolution-from-water-to-land">More about animal evolution from water to land</h2>



<p>The transition from aquatic to terrestrial life is a significant event in the evolutionary history of animals. This process, which took place around 375-360 million years ago during the late Devonian period, involved a group of fish called sarcopterygians (lobe-finned fish) evolving into tetrapods. These are four-limbed vertebrates that include mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.</p>



<p>Several factors and adaptations contributed to this transition:</p>



<h3 id="h-lobe-finned-fish">Lobe-finned fish</h3>



<p>Unlike the ray-finned fish, which are the ancestors of the majority of modern fish species, lobe-finned fish had muscular fins with a robust bone structure. This unique fin anatomy provided the foundation for the development of limbs with digits, which allowed early tetrapods to move and support their body weight on land.</p>



<h3 id="h-lungs">Lungs</h3>



<p>Some early fish had simple lungs in addition to gills, which enabled them to extract oxygen from the air. This adaptation was crucial for survival in oxygen-poor or stagnant waters and later became essential for life on land.</p>



<h3 id="h-skeletal-and-muscular-adaptations">Skeletal and muscular adaptations</h3>



<p>Early tetrapods underwent several skeletal and muscular adaptations to facilitate walking on land. These changes included the development of a stronger spine and ribcage to support their body weight, as well as modifications to the limb bones and joints to allow for efficient movement on land.</p>



<h3 id="h-sensory-adaptations">Sensory adaptations</h3>



<p>As life on land presented new sensory challenges, early tetrapods evolved several adaptations to navigate their new environment. For example, they developed a more advanced hearing system, with modifications to the skull and jawbones, to detect sounds in the air. Additionally, their eyes became positioned higher on the head, allowing for a broader field of vision.</p>



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



<p>Another important aspect of the transition to land was the evolution of reproductive strategies that did not depend on water. Early amphibians, for instance, still laid their eggs in water, but as evolution progressed, amniotic eggs with a protective shell developed in reptiles. This allowed for reproduction on land without the risk of desiccation.</p>



<p>Fossil evidence, such as the discovery of Tiktaalik, a "fishapod" with features of both fish and tetrapods, has significantly contributed to our understanding of this evolutionary transition. While we continue to learn more about the exact sequence of events and the intermediate species involved, the transition from water to land remains a fascinating area of study in the history of life on Earth.</p>



<h3 id="h-more-about-mudskippers">More about mudskippers</h3>



<p>Mudskippers are unique amphibious fish belonging to the family Gobiidae, with around 32 known species. They are primarily found in the intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical regions, such as the shores of the Indo-Pacific, West Africa, and the Atlantic coast of South America.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Mudskippers exhibit a range of fascinating adaptations and behaviors that allow them to thrive in their challenging habitats.</p>



<h2 id="h-some-notable-aspects-of-mudskippers">Some notable aspects of mudskippers</h2>



<h3 id="h-locomotion">Locomotion</h3>



<p>Mudskippers are known for their ability to "walk" on land using their pectoral fins. They can also perform a unique skipping or hopping movement, which gives them their name. These movements allow them to navigate the muddy, slippery terrain of their habitat with ease.</p>



<h3 id="h-respiration">Respiration</h3>



<p>Mudskippers are able to breathe both in water and on land. They have gills for underwater respiration, and when they are on land, they can extract oxygen through their moist skin and the lining of their mouth and throat. To prevent their gills from drying out, mudskippers retain water in specialized gill chambers.</p>



<h3 id="h-vision">Vision</h3>



<p>Mudskippers have excellent vision due to their large, protruding eyes, which are positioned on the top of their heads. This elevated position allows them to maintain a wide field of view both above and below the water surface. As mentioned in the previous answer, mudskippers also have a unique blinking mechanism that helps keep their eyes moist, clean, and protected while they are on land.</p>



<h3 id="h-feeding">Feeding</h3>



<p>Mudskippers primarily feed on small invertebrates such as insects, crustaceans, and worms. They can also consume plant matter and algae. When hunting on land, mudskippers use their specialized mouthparts to create a vacuum, allowing them to quickly suck in their prey.</p>



<h3 id="h-burrowing-and-territorial-behavior">Burrowing and territorial behavior</h3>



<p>Many mudskipper species dig burrows in the soft mud, which serve as shelter and nesting sites. They are known for their territorial behavior and can be aggressive in defending their burrows from rivals. Males often engage in elaborate displays, such as raising their dorsal fins and performing push-ups, to establish dominance and attract females.</p>



<h3 id="h-reproduction-1">Reproduction</h3>



<p>Mudskippers reproduce in burrows, where they lay their eggs. They exhibit unique reproductive behaviors, such as the male aerating the eggs by gulping air and releasing it in the burrow, which helps maintain a suitable oxygen supply for the developing embryos.</p>



<p>Mudskippers are fascinating creatures that have evolved remarkable adaptations to thrive in their unique intertidal environments, and their study can provide valuable insights into the evolutionary history of vertebrates.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Humans may exist because a fish learned how to blink 375 million years ago

The mudskipper, an intriguing amphibious fish with a penchant for...

<p>In a groundbreaking study published today in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41593-023-01307-6"><em>Nature Neuroscience</em></a>, researchers have discovered that monkeys, much like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-their-humans-often-share-similar-personalities/">humans</a>, are capable of complex deliberation and careful decision-making.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This new finding challenges the long-held belief that humans alone possess the ability to think deeply about a problem and consider multiple factors such as costs, consequences, and constraints in order to arrive at optimal outcomes.</p>



<p>"Humans are not the only animals capable of slow and thoughtful deliberation,” said study senior author Dr. William Stauffer from the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a> School of Medicine. “Our work shows that monkeys have a rich mental state that renders them capable of intelligent thinking. It’s a new paradigm for studying the neurophysiological basis for deliberative thought.”</p>



<p>The study raises important questions about the nature of thought processes and decision-making in animals, and whether other species are also capable of engaging in the same level of complexity as humans. It also helps to shed light on the cognitive processes at work when we, as humans, make decisions about various aspects of our lives, such as who to spend time with or what to study in school.</p>



<p>Several decades ago, Dr. Daniel Kahneman, a Nobel Prize laureate, revolutionized the field of behavioral economics with his Prospect Theory. In his seminal book, “Thinking Fast and Slow,” Dr. Kahneman posited that humans employ two distinct systems of thinking: one nearly instantaneous and automatic, and the other much slower and reliant on conscious logical reasoning that requires greater mental effort.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done-with-monkeys">How the study was done with monkeys</h2>



<p>Dr. Kahneman referred to the first type of thinking as "slow" and the second as "fast." Slow, effortful thinking enables us to engage in complex activities such as writing music, developing scientific hypotheses, and balancing our checkbooks. Until now, it was believed that slow thinking was a uniquely human trait.</p>



<p>However, this latest research turns that notion on its head. By presenting monkeys with combinatorial optimization problems, which the researchers dubbed the "knapsack task," and rewarding the animals based on the value of their solutions, the study demonstrated that monkeys employed sophisticated mathematical reasoning and used efficient computational algorithms to tackle complex problems.</p>



<p>The scientists found that the animals' performance and speed of deliberation were dependent on the task's complexity, and that their solutions closely mirrored those generated by efficient computer algorithms specifically designed to solve the optimization problem.</p>



<p>“Results from this work will contribute neurophysiological evidence to enlighten centuries of discussions about dual process theories of the mind, the structure of thoughts, and the neurobiological basis of intuition and reasoning,” wrote Stauffer in an accompanying research briefing.</p>



<p>Tao Hong of Carnegie Mellon University is the lead author of the paper. The study's findings not only provide valuable insights into the cognitive abilities of monkeys but also pave the way for a new paradigm in studying the neurophysiological basis for deliberative thought, with potential implications for better understanding the complex nature of decision-making across various species.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-monkeys">More about monkeys</h2>



<p>Monkeys are a diverse group of primates that belong to the infraorder Simiiformes. They are divided into two major groups: New World monkeys, native to Central and South America, and Old World monkeys, native to Africa and Asia. Monkeys are known for their intelligence, social behavior, and adaptability to different environments.</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics-of-monkeys">Physical characteristics of monkeys</h3>



<p>Monkeys vary greatly in size and appearance, ranging from the tiny pygmy marmoset, which measures just 4.6-6.2 inches (12-16 cm) in length, to the large mandrill, which can reach up to 37 inches (94 cm) in length.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Monkeys typically have forward-facing eyes, flat faces, and dexterous hands with opposable thumbs. Some species also have prehensile tails, which they use to grasp and manipulate objects or to hang from branches.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet-of-monkeys">Diet of monkeys</h3>



<p>Most monkeys are omnivores, eating a diverse diet that includes fruits, leaves, seeds, insects, and small animals. Some species, like the howler monkey, primarily consume leaves, while others, like the capuchin monkey, have a more varied diet.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-behavior-of-monkeys">Social behavior of monkeys</h3>



<p>Monkeys are highly social animals that usually live in groups called troops. These troops can range in size from just a few individuals to hundreds of members. Social hierarchies are common in monkey troops, with dominant individuals enjoying benefits like better access to food and mating opportunities. Monkeys communicate through vocalizations, body language, and facial expressions, and they often engage in grooming behaviors to maintain social bonds.</p>



<h3 id="h-intelligence-and-tool-use">Intelligence and tool use</h3>



<p>Monkeys are known for their cognitive abilities, problem-solving skills, and in some cases, their use of tools. Capuchin monkeys, for example, have been observed using rocks to crack open nuts, while some macaques have been seen using sticks to extract insects from tree bark.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Research has also shown that monkeys are capable of understanding basic arithmetic and recognizing themselves in mirrors, which is considered a sign of self-awareness.</p>



<h3 id="h-conservation-of-monkeys">Conservation of monkeys</h3>



<p>Many monkey species are threatened by habitat loss, hunting, and the illegal pet trade. Conservation efforts are underway to protect these primates and their habitats, including the establishment of protected areas, reintroduction programs, and education campaigns to raise awareness about the importance of monkey conservation.</p>



<p>In conclusion, monkeys are fascinating and intelligent creatures with complex social structures and diverse behaviors. As we continue to study these primates, we gain a greater understanding of their cognitive abilities and the evolutionary links between humans and other primates.</p>



<h2 id="h-other-animals-that-demonstrate-problem-solving-ability">Other animals that demonstrate problem-solving ability</h2>



<p>Yes, numerous animals demonstrate problem-solving abilities, indicating the presence of intelligence and cognitive skills across various species. Some examples of animals with notable problem-solving capabilities include:</p>



<h3 id="h-crows-and-other-corvids">Crows and other corvids</h3>



<p>These birds are known for their exceptional problem-solving skills and have been observed using tools to access food. For instance, they can use sticks to extract insects from tree bark or crevices and even bend wires to create hooks for retrieving food from hard-to-reach places.</p>



<h3 id="h-elephants">Elephants</h3>



<p>Elephants are highly intelligent animals capable of complex problem-solving. They have been observed using sticks and branches to swat flies or scratch hard-to-reach areas and can also recognize themselves in mirrors, suggesting self-awareness. Elephants have displayed the ability to cooperate and work together to solve problems, such as pulling a rope simultaneously to access food.</p>



<h3 id="h-dolphins">Dolphins</h3>



<p>Dolphins are known for their intelligence and problem-solving abilities. They have been observed using tools like sponges to protect their snouts while foraging on the ocean floor. Dolphins can also learn and understand complex commands and have been shown to recognize themselves in mirrors, indicating self-awareness.</p>



<h3 id="h-octopuses">Octopuses</h3>



<p>These highly intelligent invertebrates have demonstrated remarkable problem-solving skills. Octopuses have been observed opening jars, navigating mazes, and escaping from enclosures by manipulating objects and their environment. Their impressive learning and memory capabilities make them formidable problem solvers.</p>



<h3 id="h-dogs">Dogs</h3>



<p>Domesticated dogs have evolved alongside humans and have developed a range of problem-solving skills. They can learn commands, understand gestures, and follow human cues to solve problems, such as locating hidden objects or navigating obstacles. Some breeds, like border collies and poodles, are especially known for their intelligence and problem-solving abilities.</p>



<h3 id="h-chimpanzees">Chimpanzees</h3>



<p>As our closest living relatives, chimpanzees share many cognitive traits with humans. They have been observed using tools, such as sticks to extract termites from their mounds, and leaves as sponges to collect water. Chimpanzees also display complex social behaviors, such as cooperation and deception, which require problem-solving skills.</p>



<h3 id="h-rats">Rats</h3>



<p>Rats are intelligent rodents that have shown the ability to solve problems and learn from their experiences. They can navigate complex mazes, recognize patterns, and demonstrate a rudimentary understanding of cause and effect. Rats have also been observed using tools and adapting their behavior based on previous experiences.</p>



<p>These examples illustrate that problem-solving abilities are not exclusive to humans and can be found across various animal species. Studying these animals and their cognitive skills can provide valuable insights into the evolution of intelligence and the diversity of problem-solving strategies in the animal kingdom.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Study: Monkeys are much smarter than we thought they were

In a groundbreaking study published today in the journal Nature...

<p>Although 92 percent of US adults have already received a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-associated-with-lower-covid-19-vaccine-responses/">Covid-19 vaccine</a>, the rate of vaccination among younger individuals is much lower, with only 39 percent of children aged 5 to 11 and 68 percent of teenagers aged 12 to 17 currently vaccinated, despite efforts by the U.S. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) and pediatric clinicians to increase vaccine uptake among these age groups too.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.usc.edu/">University of Southern California</a> (USC), the main causes why so many children remain unvaccinated are parental concerns about the vaccine’s long-term effects and fears that parents will be deemed responsible if their children get sick after vaccination.</p>



<p>During the first Omicron variant wave between February and March 2022, when pediatric Covid-19 cases peaked, the researchers’ survey of parents in the nationally representative <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/news/stories/3830/time-sensitive-research-at-warp-speed/">Understanding America Study</a> revealed that 45 percent of parents considered that the Covid-19 vaccines’ long-term risks to their children’s health outweighed the risks of not receiving a vaccine.</p>



<p>“Parents’ hesitancy may be partly driven by apprehension about the vaccine, stemming from its rapid development and the use of newer techniques,” explained lead author Ying Liu, a research scientist at USC.</p>



<p>Moreover, 18 percent of parents argued they felt a heightened sense of responsibility if their children became sick after vaccinations. “People often exhibit a more cautious approach when making medical decisions for others, including their own children, than for themselves. Some tend to do nothing rather than vaccinate their child, even though such inaction could result in negative consequences,” Liu said.</p>



<p>These findings highlight the need to address parental perceptions of the safety and efficacy of the Covid vaccines by assuring them that the side effects are rare and mild, while the possible health complications from Covid-19 infections are far more common and severe.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, scientists and health officials should clearly explain that there is no evidence or plausible ways in which vaccines could affect children’s genetic makeup, while emphasizing the potential (and avoidable) negative outcomes from lack of action when delaying or foregoing vaccination.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2022-058971"><em>Pediatrics</em></a>.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Many parents worry about potential effects of the Covid vaccine

Although 92 percent of US adults have already received a...

<p>Scientists previously believed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-chili-peppers-could-save-your-life/">chili peppers</a> - Capsiceae, a group within the nightshade (Solanaceae) family – originated in South America about 15 million years ago. However, a team of botanists and paleontologists led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> has recently discovered several fossil chili peppers in museum collections gathered from the Green River Formation (a geological treasure trove spanning northwestern Colorado and southwestern Wyoming). The discovery suggests that these plants were present in North America at least 50 million years ago.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The nightshade family comprises over 3,000 species from nearly 100 different genera, including the chili pepper. Like the tomato, the chili pepper is technically a fruit because it has seeds on the inside. While the researchers cannot be sure of the ancient chili’s shape or color, it was probably smaller compared to its modern counterparts, but may have still been quite spicy.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts identified the fossils by the unique shape of their calyx teeth – the spikes on the end of the fruiting stems which hold on to the peppers. “The world has maybe 300,000 plant species. The only plants with that kind of calyx is this group of 80 or 90 species,” said senior author Stacey Smith, an associate professor of Evolutionary Biology at CU Boulder.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Low-Res_First-CU-fossil-side-1-v2.JPG.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1917184"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">CU Boulder’s Rocío Deanna and Abel Campos identified this chili pepper fossil in the CU Boulder Museum of Natural History collections by the unique shape of its calyx teeth: spikes on the end of the fruiting stem that hold on to the pepper.<br>Image Credit: R. Deanna</figcaption></figure>



<p>According to Smith and her colleagues, these fossils originated in the Eocene period, between 34 and 56 million years ago, when carbon dioxide levels were twice as high as today and palm trees grew as far north as Alaska.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While scientists have previously assumed that chili peppers and other plants from the nightshade family originated in South America about 10 to 15 million years ago, and then dispersed over land and water to other continents, this new discovery suggests that various plants from the nightshade family – including chili peppers - may have existed in North America 40 to 50 million years ago.</p>



<p>The researchers believe that fruit-eating birds – which roamed the Earth as early as 60 million years ago – may have carried seeds and plants in their migrations around the world in their guts, stuck to their feathers, or in mud on their feet, thus helping to distribute them from continent to continent. However, since birds depended on such plants for sustenance, the relationship between the two groups of organisms was likely mutual.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although further research is needed to clarify whether the nightshade family has started in North America instead of South America, and then dispersed in the other direction, this study clearly shows that some species belonging to this family, such as the chili pepper, are much older than previously thought.</p>



<p>“These chili peppers, a species that we thought arose in an evolutionary blink of an eye, have been around for a super long time. We’re still coming to grips with this new timeline,” Smith concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nph.18904"><em>New Phytologist</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Chili peppers may have existed in North America 50 million years ago

Scientists previously believed that chili peppers - Capsiceae, a group...

<p>A new study led by <a href="https://www.scripps.edu/">Scripps Research</a> has found that chronic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moderate-alcohol-consumption-does-not-increase-risk-of-early-death/">alcohol consumption</a> can make people more sensitive to pain through two different molecular mechanisms - one related to alcohol intake and the other to alcohol withdrawal. These findings could help develop new treatments for alcohol-associated chronic pain and hypersensitivity.</p>



<p>“There is an urgent need to better understand the two-way street between chronic pain and alcohol dependence,” said senior author Marisa Roberto, a professor of Molecular Medicine and Neuroscience at Scripps. “Pain is both a widespread symptom in patients suffering from alcohol dependence, as well as a reason why people are driven to drink again.”</p>



<p>Alcohol use disorder (AUD) encompasses various conditions such as alcohol abuse and alcohol addiction and affects over 29.5 million people in the United States. Extended alcohol use can trigger a variety of chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease, liver disease, and certain cancers. Moreover, over half of people with AUD struggle with persistent pain of some type, such as alcoholic neuropathy, in which nerve damage causes chronic pain.</p>



<p>Previous research has found that AUD is linked to changes in how the brain processes pain signals and how the activation of immune responses occurs. In addition, during withdrawal, people with AUD often experience a condition called allodynia, in which harmless stimuli are perceived as painful.</p>



<p>To clarify the underlying causes of these various types of alcohol-related pain, the experts conducted a series of experiments on three groups of mice: alcohol-dependent mice (excessive drinkers), mice that had limited access to alcohol and were not considered dependent (moderate drinkers), and mice that had never consumed alcohol.</p>



<p>The experiments revealed that, in dependent mice, allodynia developed during withdrawal, but subsequent alcohol consumption significantly lowered pain sensitivity. Nearly half of the mice which were not dependent also exhibited increased pain sensitivity during alcohol withdrawal, but unlike their dependent counterparts, this neuropathy was not reversed by re-exposure to alcohol.</p>



<p>By measuring levels of inflammatory proteins in the mice, the researchers found that, although inflammation pathways were elevated in both dependent and non-dependent animals, certain molecules were only increased in the first group, suggesting that different molecular mechanisms may trigger the two types of pain. These findings may clarify which inflammatory proteins could be useful as drug targets to combat alcohol-related pain.</p>



<p>“These two types of pain vary greatly, which is why it is important to be able to distinguish between them and develop different ways to treat each type,” explained lead author Vittoria Borgonetti, a postdoctoral fellow in Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience at Scripps.</p>



<p>“Our goal is to unveil new potential molecular targets that can be used to distinguish these types of pain and potentially be used in the future for the development of therapies,” concluded co-senior author Nicoletta Galeotti, an associate professor of Preclinical Pharmacology at the <a href="https://www.unifi.it/changelang-eng.html">University of Florence</a>.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.16091"><em>British Journal of Pharmacology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Alcohol consumption can lead to chronic pain

A new study led by Scripps Research has found that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air"><strong>Invisible threat in urban air</strong></h2>



<p>City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge"><strong>Disturbing connections emerge</strong></h2>



<p>Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters"><strong>Timing matters</strong></h2>



<p>The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns"><strong>Genetic vulnerability patterns</strong></h2>



<p>Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications"><strong>Public health implications</strong></h2>



<p>These findings, published in <em><a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a></em>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.</p>



<p>As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



<p>Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



<p>Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.</p>



<p>Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



<p>The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.</p>



<p>Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



<p>Published in the journal <em><a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a></em>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.</p>



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<p>—–</p>

What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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