<p>A recent analysis of the Sapphire Canyon mudstone core, drilled by NASA’s Perseverance rover in July 2024, adds new and convincing evidence to the ongoing search for life on Mars.</p>



<p>The study describes minerals and textures that - on Earth - are often linked to microbial activity. At the same time, the authors stress that some unknown, nonbiological chemistry could also explain the signals.</p>



<p>“This finding by Perseverance is the closest we have ever come to discovering life on Mars. The identification of a potential biosignature on the Red Planet is a groundbreaking discovery, and one that will advance our understanding of Mars,” said acting NASA Administrator Sean Duffy. </p>



<p>“NASA’s commitment to conducting Gold Standard Science will continue as we pursue our goal of putting American boots on Mars’ rocky soil.”</p>



<p>The core was taken from a rock named "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-finds-best-evidence-yet-life-on-mars-cheyava-falls-rock/">Chevaya Falls</a>" in Neretva Vallis, an ancient river channel about a quarter mile wide that once fed Jezero Crater’s lake. </p>



<p>After drilling, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-captures-a-surprise-dust-devil-while-taking-high-resolution-selfie-on-mars/">Perseverance</a> sealed the sample for possible return to Earth, where laboratory instruments can perform tests far beyond the rover’s onboard capabilities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-martian-mudstone">Inside the Martian mudstone</h2>



<p>Lead author Joel A. Hurowitz of <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a> (SBU) reports a fine-grained mudstone with circular reaction fronts informally called leopard spots, plus small nodules embedded in layered sediments.</p>



<p>Perseverance’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/jpl/the-detective-aboard-nasas-perseverance-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SHERLOC</a> and <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/heres-how-ai-is-changing-nasas-mars-rover-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PIXL</a> instruments mapped organic carbon with phosphate, iron, and sulfur arranged in distinct, repeating patterns.</p>



<p>Two minerals stand out: vivianite and greigite. Vivianite is an iron phosphate, while greigite is an iron sulfide associated with iron and sulfur cycling in oxygen-poor settings.</p>



<p>These features show up in rocks that settled from<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/"> water</a>, not in lavas. The site on Mars lies along Bright Angel, a set of outcrops that preserve layers and veins consistent with slow changes after the mud was laid down.</p>



<p>Textures and chemistry point to low temperature reactions that reorganized elements already present in the mud. </p>



<p>That detail matters because low temperatures fit environments that life can handle, while very hot conditions tend to erase delicate signals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-microbes-leave-similar-traces">Earth microbes leave similar traces</h2>



<p>On Earth, vivianite often forms where microbes reduce iron in water-rich sediments and trap phosphorus in blue-green nodules. </p>



<p>Laboratory and field work document biologically mediated vivianite through extracellular electron transfer.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/greigite" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greigite</a> frequently appears where sulfate reducing bacteria drive chemistry in anoxic muds. In controlled experiments, greigite was detected only in live biotic setups after months of incubation.</p>



<p>The Martian rock shows rims rich in vivianite surrounding small cores enriched in greigite. That bullseye pattern matches a sequence of electron transfer reactions seen in some Earth sediments.</p>



<p>None of this proves metabolism happened in Bright Angel mud, but it shows the chemistry is right for it. That is a subtle point, and it is the reason scientists keep the language cautious.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-life-on-mars">Evidence of life on Mars</h2>



<p>A potential biosignature is a feature that might have a biological origin but still needs more data to rule out nonbiological sources. </p>



<p>NASA points mission teams and the public to the Confidence of Life Detection, or CoLD scale, which encourages staged claims and independent checks.</p>



<p>The CoLD mindset is simple in practice. First detect a signal, then exclude contamination, then tackle alternatives, and only then talk about life on Mars with high confidence.</p>



<p>The Bright Angel work sits early on that ladder. It clears several necessary steps but leaves demanding tests for the lab.</p>



<p>Organic compounds can also arrive by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-meteorites-tell-us-about-their-birthplace-in-space/">meteorites</a> or form without biology. The authors note those routes and describe how future analyses could tell paths apart.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-signals-but-no-certainty">Organic signals, but no certainty</h2>



<p>The Mars rover detected organic carbon in several targets within Bright Angel. Reaction fronts rimmed with vivianite surround cores richer in greigite, a pairing consistent with iron and sulfur cycling recorded in the paper.</p>



<p>Mineral veins include calcium sulfate, while the mudstone remains fine-grained and low in magnesium and manganese. There is no sign of intense heating that would reset the rock or scramble tiny textures.</p>



<p>The outcrop sits within layered sediments deposited by water flowing through Neretva Vallis. That channel spans roughly a quarter mile across, which implies sustained flow into Jezero’s ancient lake.</p>



<p>Low temperature context favors life-compatible chemistry, but it does not require life. Abiotic organics and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mineral-discovery-sheds-light-on-mars-fiery-past/">mineral</a> reactions can sometimes copy the same shapes and signals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-proof-but-potential-life-on-mars">Not proof, but potential life on Mars</h2>



<p>“It’s not life itself,” said Nicky Fox, associate administrator for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, stressing that this is a potential biosignature, not proof of life. The lead author echoed that caution.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We cannot claim this is more than a potential biosignature,” said Hurowitz. Other officials also underscored the stakes and the limits.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“[But] this very well could be the clearest sign of life that we’ve ever found on Mars,” said Sean Duffy, acting NASA administrator. </p>



<p>Caution is not hedging for its own sake. It is how science avoids false alarms when the question is this important.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/mars-life_olivine_leopard-spot_Cheyava-Falls_Perseverance-rover_NASA_1big.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/mars-life_olivine_leopard-spot_Cheyava-Falls_Perseverance-rover_NASA_1s.webp" alt="NASA’s Perseverance rover discovered leopard spots on a reddish rock nicknamed “Cheyava Falls” in Mars’ Jezero Crater in July 2024. Scientists think the spots may indicate that, billions of years ago, the chemical reactions in this rock could have supported microbial life; other explanations are being considered. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS" class="wp-image-1985874"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>NASA’s Perseverance rover discovered leopard spots on a reddish rock nicknamed “Cheyava Falls” in Mars’ Jezero Crater in July 2024. Scientists think the spots may indicate that, billions of years ago, the chemical reactions in this rock could have supported microbial life; other explanations are being considered. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-habitability">Implications for habitability</h2>



<p>If the vivianite and greigite formed through microbe-like metabolisms, then <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-begins-steep-climb-up-martian-crater-rim-jezero-crater/">Bright Angel</a> captures a period when surface waters supported the same chemical strategies some cells use for energy today. </p>



<p>That would extend Mars's habitability into a window when this part of Jezero was still wet.</p>



<p>If abiotic paths made the same pattern, the rock still records redox organization of iron, sulfur, and phosphorus in Martian mud. That is a window into how the planet cycles key elements without biology.</p>



<p>Either outcome matters for the bigger story. Mars did not just dry out, it changed its chemistry over time, and these samples let researchers track that change layer by layer.</p>



<p>The work also flags what to measure next. Isotopes, microtextures, and the exact structure of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-atoms-in-your-body-took-a-400000-light-year-journey-through-space/">carbon</a> in the core can separate metabolic signatures from chemical lookalikes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-for-life-on-mars-moves-forward">Search for life on Mars moves forward</h2>



<p>The authors lay out lab experiments and field analogs on Earth to test whether nonbiological reactions can reproduce these textures and mineral pairings. </p>



<p>They also point to analyses that require the sample in a clean Earth lab, including isotope ratios that biology tends to skew.</p>



<p>Sample return planning will shape how fast those tests happen. Meanwhile, the rover can keep mapping where these features cluster and how they relate to other rock units nearby.</p>



<p>PIXL and SHERLOC have shown enough sensitivity to guide that search. The pairing of elemental maps and Raman detections gives a consistent picture that can be applied to other outcrops.</p>



<p>As new targets are logged, the CoLD framework will help communicate progress without getting ahead of the data. That is how a potential biosignature becomes a result people can trust.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/ieJKWW8sp2A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>This animation depicts water disappearing over time in the Martian river valley Neretva Vallis, where NASA's Perseverance Mars takes the rock sample named “Sapphire Canyon” from a rock called “Cheyava Falls,” which was found in the “Bright Angel” formation. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09413-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature</em></a>.</p>



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NASA announces "groundbreaking discovery" of life on Mars

A recent analysis of the Sapphire Canyon mudstone core, drilled by NASA’s Perseverance rover in July 2024, adds new and convincing evidence to the ongoing search for life on Mars. The study describes minerals and textures that - on Earth - are often linked to microbial activity. At the same time, the authors stress that some unknown, nonbiological chemistry could also explain the signals. “This finding by Perseverance is the closest we have ever come to discovering life on Mars. The identification of a potential biosignature on...

<p>A groundbreaking study by a team of psychology and education researchers has discovered that students who exhibit "brain-to-brain synchrony" with their classmates and teachers are more likely to learn effectively.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This research, recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/09567976231163872"><em>Psychological Science</em></a>, presents novel insights into the learning process and its underlying neurological factors.</p>



<p>Ido Davidesco, the study's lead author and an assistant professor at the University of Connecticut's Neag School of Education, emphasized the novelty of the findings. “This is the first study to show that the extent to which students’ and teachers’ brainwaves are in sync during real-world learning can predict how well students retain information from class.” The study was conducted while Davidesco was a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a> (NYU).</p>



<p>“Much of human learning happens when we interact with others, but very little is known about how this process is reflected in the brain activity of students and teachers. This work reveals that students whose brainwaves are more in sync with their peers and teacher are likely to learn better," said study senior author Professor Suzanne Dikker.</p>



<p>Traditionally, understanding how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-may-have-long-term-effects-on-the-brain/">brain</a> supports learning in a social context has been limited due to the controlled laboratory settings in which individual participants are studied. However, this study aimed to explore brain function in a real-world, group context.</p>



<p>To accomplish this, the research team employed electroencephalography (EEG), a method involving a cap with electrodes placed on the head to track electrical brain activity. Using this technique, the researchers monitored the brain activity of small groups of undergraduate students and an instructor - none of whom knew each other prior to the study. </p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/low-res-2.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1916773"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The researchers used portable electroencephalogram (EEG) technology (pictured above) to measure the brainwaves of students and instructors.<br>Image courtesy of Diane Quinn, © 2015 Trevor Day School.</figcaption></figure>



<p>The instructors delivered short lectures on various scientific topics, and both the students' and instructors' brainwaves were monitored throughout.</p>



<p>Following the lectures, students took multiple-choice tests to evaluate their learning. The research team observed that as students listened to the lecture, their brainwaves synchronized with one another. They also noted this "brain-to-brain synchrony" - similar brain-activity patterns over time - when comparing students' brainwaves to the teacher's brainwaves.</p>



<p>Crucially, students whose brain activity was more in sync with their peers and with the teacher displayed better learning outcomes, as evidenced by higher post-lecture test scores. The researchers were even able to predict which test questions students would answer correctly based on the synchrony of their brainwaves during the corresponding moments of the lecture.</p>



<p>The study authors stress that the connection among students and between students and their instructor is key to understanding the learning process. In fact, they could not determine how well students retained information by examining individual students' brainwaves alone - only synchrony in brainwaves between students and teachers predicted learning success.</p>



<p>“Brain data collected simultaneously from groups of students can be more informative than data collected from individual students," said Davidesco.</p>



<p>This pioneering research involved collaboration among experts from various institutions, including Emma Laurent, a doctoral student at Harvard University, Henry Valk, a data scientist at Pison Technology, Inc., Tessa West, a professor in NYU's Department of Psychology, Catherine Milne, a professor in NYU's Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, and David Poeppel, a professor in NYU's Department of Psychology and managing director of the Ernst Strüngmann Institute for Neuroscience in Frankfurt, Germany.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-brain-synchrony">More about brain synchrony</h2>



<p>Brain synchrony, or brain-to-brain synchrony, refers to the phenomenon where the neural activity of two or more individuals becomes synchronized, exhibiting similar patterns over time. While research on this topic is still in its early stages, several studies have explored the potential implications and underlying mechanisms of brain synchrony in various contexts.</p>



<ol>
<li>Social interactions: Research has shown that brain synchrony can occur during social interactions, such as conversations or shared experiences. This synchronization may play a role in empathy, understanding, and cooperation among individuals. For instance, studies have found increased neural synchrony between individuals during eye contact, storytelling, and joint attention.</li>



<li>Emotional connection: Brain synchrony has been observed in romantic partners, close friends, and family members, suggesting that it may be associated with emotional bonding and connectedness. When individuals have a strong emotional connection, their brain activity may become more similar, facilitating shared experiences and mutual understanding.</li>



<li>Learning and education: As demonstrated in the study mentioned in the previous answer, brain synchrony between students and teachers can predict learning outcomes. This finding suggests that the degree of synchrony between individuals may be an important factor in the learning process, possibly promoting better understanding and retention of information.</li>



<li>Group dynamics and teamwork: Brain synchrony has also been explored in the context of group dynamics and teamwork. Research has shown that synchronized brain activity among team members can lead to improved group performance, better problem-solving, and enhanced cooperation.</li>



<li>Neural mirroring: One possible mechanism for brain synchrony is neural mirroring, which occurs when the brain activity of one individual mirrors that of another. This is thought to be facilitated by mirror neurons—specialized cells in the brain that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action. Neural mirroring may contribute to empathy, imitation, and understanding of others' intentions and emotions.</li>
</ol>



<p>Despite these insights, the precise mechanisms underlying brain synchrony and its implications in various contexts remain an active area of research. Further studies are needed to fully understand the significance of brain-to-brain synchrony and its potential applications in education, therapy, and interpersonal communication.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Students learn better when their brain waves are in sync

A groundbreaking study by a team of psychology and education...

<p>Decadal variations in sea surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific have major impacts on the global climate, such as variations in precipitation and severe weather. Thus, accurate predictions are needed to provide community leaders, farmers, and water managers with critical climate information that would allow them to plan years in advance. Unfortunately, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> (NCAR), the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-aspect-of-volcanic-eruptions-observed-for-the-first-time/">volcanic eruptions</a> are represented in climate models may be masking their ability to accurately predict variations in sea surface temperatures unfolding over multiple years.</p>



<p>“Near-term climate prediction on annual to decadal timescales is a rapidly growing and important field in the climate community because it bridges the gap between existing seasonal forecasts and centennial climate projections,” said lead author Xian Wu, a postdoctoral researcher at NCAR. “When we rely on models to make these predictions, it’s important to carefully consider the model’s fidelity. In this case, we found that model errors in simulating the response to volcanic eruptions degraded our prediction skill.”</p>



<p>The experts used two parallel collections of climate simulations from the <a href="https://www.cesm.ucar.edu/community-projects/dple#:~:text=The%20CESM%20Decadal%20Prediction%20Large,.%2C%202014%2C%202015).">Decadal Prediction Large Ensemble</a> - a dataset produced using the NCAR-based Community Earth System Model – which were run as hindcasts, covering the period 1954-2015 and thus allowing researchers to compare the simulations with what really occurred and evaluate their ability to forecast future climate variations. While one collection included the three largest volcanic eruptions which occurred during the period - Agung (1963), El Chichón (1982), and Pinatubo (1991) – the other did not.</p>



<p>Since large volcanic eruptions can have long-term cooling effects on the climate, the scientists expected that the collection including the eruptions would produce more accurate predictions. To their surprise though, the inclusion of the eruptions in fact degraded the model’s predictive capacities, particularly in the tropical Pacific region, where the model predicted a cooling of the sea surface temperatures while, in reality, the regions warmed after the eruptions.</p>



<p>These findings emphasize the difficulty of accurately representing the complex climate impacts following volcanic eruptions. Although scientists are aware that volcanoes can lift sulfur gases into the stratosphere where they often transform into sunlight-reflecting aerosols, how the resulting cooling ultimately affects our entire planet, including sea surface temperatures, is still poorly understood.</p>



<p>“We just don’t have enough observations. And our methods to observe what is happening in the stratosphere have only been available since the satellite era, which means we only have Chichón and Pinatubo,” Wu said.</p>



<p>Nonetheless, the researchers hope that representations of volcanic eruptions and their impacts in models will improve over time, along with our ability to forecast major climate events years in advance. “Decadal variability in the tropical Pacific is an important source of predictability worldwide. It affects climate over the surrounding continents, as well as marine ecosystems. Better predictions will provide important information for stakeholders,” Wu concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add9364"><em>Science Advances</em></a>.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Volcanic eruptions impede the predictive power of climate models

Decadal variations in sea surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific...

<p>Factors such as population growth, climate change, natural resource depletion, soil erosion, and fossil fuel use in farming lead to increased concerns about food security and a need to fundamentally rethink traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/developing-climate-smart-agricultural-practices/">agricultural practices</a>. By using groundbreaking computational tools, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.usc.edu/">University of Southern California</a> (USC) has recently investigated new ways to help farmers design, develop, and manage sustainable farming methods.</p>



<p>This new area of research, called “computational agroecology,” aims to combine technology and farming expertise to develop a variety of agricultural landscapes based on natural ecosystems in order to allow farmers explore thousands of potential designs of optimizing food production without fossil fuel-derived pesticides.</p>



<p>“How can we design an ecosystem that is as productive and sustainable as a natural forest, but instead of producing food for wildlife, it’s producing food for people?” said senior author Barath Raghavan, an associate professor of Computer Science at USC.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It’s an incredibly hard problem because designing an ecosystem is a super complex, dynamic, natural system. We’re trying to build computing tools that can figure out how ecosystems work, so we can grow food plentifully and sustainably.”&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Raghavan and his colleagues reconceptualize agriculture as a search through a “state space” representing all possible configurations of agricultural systems. This state space consists of all the possible variables an agricultural system can take, including crop or soil type, irrigation methods, weather conditions, fertilization, or pest control, which allows agricultural researchers and farmers to explore a variety of farming paths and strategies in order to increase crop yield, improve sustainability, and find new combinations of crops which grow well together.</p>



<p>“Once we can conceive of a farm this way, we can then reframe many research questions and farming planning questions as a search through the space of all possible states the farm could possibly end up in, with certain states being more desirable than others,” Raghavan explained.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This allows us to compare and contrast different approaches to farming, explore and combine techniques, and then search the state space in simulation for new farming techniques that have never been tried before and where trial and error in the real world would be far too expensive and time-consuming.”&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>With this conceptual and eventually software framework, farmers could spell out objectives, such as diversified harvest with high yield and profit for a specific piece of agricultural land, and have the system explore the state space and provide advice about possible plant mixtures, placement, and management techniques that would meet the farmer’s criteria.</p>



<p>“You’re making moves on the chessboard, which is your land, and nature is making moves too. Pests are going to eat one crop; a flood is going to damage another. What we are building is a computational framework that allows you to explore all the different ways that you might ‘play’ this game of chess with nature so that we can come up with the best one for your land,” Raghavan concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad084">PNAS Nexus</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Computational tools may improve the future of farming

Factors such as population growth, climate change, natural resource depletion,...

<p>After lightning struck a tree in New Port Richey, Florida, a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.usf.edu/">University of South Florida</a> (USF) discovered that this strike led to the formation of a new phosphorous material in a rock. This is the first time such a material has been found in solid form on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-extraterrestrial-origins/">Earth</a> and could represent a member of a new mineral group.</p>



<p>“We have never seen this material occur naturally on Earth – minerals similar to it can be found in meteorites and space, but we’ve never seen this exact material anywhere,” said study lead author Matthew Pasek, a geoscientist at USF.</p>



<p>According to the researchers, high-energy events such as lightning can sometimes cause unique chemical reactions which, in this particular case, have led to the formation of a new material that seems to be transitional between space minerals and minerals found on Earth.</p>



<p>“When lightning strikes a tree, the ground typically explodes out and the surrounding grass dies, forming a scar and sending electric discharge through nearby rock, soil and sand, forming fulgurites, also known as ‘fossilized lightning,’” Pasek explained.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-lightning-created-this-phosphorous-material">How lightning created this phosphorous material</h2>



<p>In wet environments such as Florida, iron frequently accumulates and encrusts tree roots, and lightning strikes can combust both this iron and the naturally occurring carbon in the tree. In New Port Richey, the combustion of these two elements created a fulgurite resembling a metal ‘glob’ and containing a colorful, crystal-like matter. </p>



<p>The scientists failed in their attempts to recreate this material in the laboratory, suggesting that it likely forms quickly under precise conditions and, if heated too long, transforms into a mineral usually found in meteorites.</p>



<p>Previous studies have argued that lightning reduction of phosphate had been a widespread phenomenon on early Earth and could have played a significant role in the development of life on our planet. However, further research is needed to understand the frequency of such events and the role they played in Earth’s evolution.</p>



<p>The experts concluded that it is unlikely for this material to be mined for uses similar to those of other phosphates (such as fertilizer), considering the rarity of it occurring naturally. </p>



<h2>Lightning - nature's electrifying spectacle</h2>



<p>Lightning, one of nature's most powerful and captivating phenomena, has enthralled humanity for centuries. These brilliant displays of raw energy punctuate stormy skies, simultaneously inspiring awe and fear. This short-form article delves into the science behind lightning, its formation, and the importance of understanding and respecting this natural wonder.</p>



<h3>The Science of Lightning</h3>



<p>Lightning is the result of a complex process involving electrical discharges in the atmosphere. It occurs when there is a build-up of electrical energy within a storm cloud, usually a cumulonimbus cloud. This energy accumulates due to the separation of charges within the cloud, where ice crystals in the upper region become positively charged, and heavier, negatively charged particles sink to the lower region.</p>



<p>When the charge separation grows large enough, the electrical potential between the cloud and the ground, or between two different regions within the cloud, reaches a critical threshold. The atmosphere can no longer act as an insulator, and an electrical discharge occurs in the form of a lightning bolt.</p>



<h3>Lightning Varieties</h3>



<h4>There are several types of lightning, including:</h4>



<ol>
<li>Intracloud Lightning (IC): Occurs within a single cloud, between regions of differing electrical charges. This is the most common type of lightning.</li>



<li>Cloud-to-Ground Lightning (CG): Strikes between the cloud and the ground, with negatively charged leaders connecting to positively charged streamers from the ground.</li>



<li>Cloud-to-Cloud Lightning (CC): Flashes between two separate clouds.</li>



<li>Ground-to-Cloud Lightning (GC): A less common, upward-moving discharge that originates from the ground.</li>
</ol>



<h3>Safety and Precautions</h3>



<p>Lightning is both beautiful and dangerous, causing numerous fatalities and injuries worldwide each year. It is crucial to take precautions and practice lightning safety during thunderstorms. Some general guidelines include:</p>



<ol>
<li>Seek shelter: Find a sturdy, enclosed building or vehicle.</li>



<li>Avoid tall structures and open spaces: Lightning tends to strike the tallest object in the area.</li>



<li>Stay away from water: Water is a conductor of electricity, increasing the risk of injury.</li>



<li>Unplug electronics: Power surges from lightning can damage electronic devices.</li>
</ol>



<h3>Conclusion</h3>



<p>Lightning is a fascinating natural phenomenon that showcases the immense power of atmospheric electricity. By understanding its formation and taking necessary precautions, we can appreciate and respect this awe-inspiring spectacle from a safe distance.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-023-00736-2#Sec3"><em>Nature Communications: Earth &amp; Environment</em></a>.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Lightning strike creates a material seen for the first time on Earth

After lightning struck a tree in New Port Richey, Florida,...

<p>New research is shedding light on the remarkable ability of pollinators such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybee-virus-has-a-new-strain-that-is-even-more-lethal/">honeybees</a> to detoxify defense chemicals produced by plants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Scientists from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> and Bayer AG have discovered that these insects, which belong to the Hymenoptera order, have a unique set of enzymes allowing them to break down harmful alkaloid toxins found in plant nectar and pollen. This critical trait has been preserved across nearly 300 million years of evolution and is shared by various species within this order, including bees, wasps, ants, and sawflies.</p>



<p>Alkaloids are chemical compounds that many plants produce as a defense mechanism against herbivores. However, these toxins can also be found in the nectar and pollen that pollinators rely on for nourishment.&nbsp;</p>



<p>To better understand how these insects can tolerate such substances, the researchers examined the genes of several hymenopteran species. They found that all of the tested species produce the same group of enzymes, known as the CYP336 family of cytochrome P450 enzymes, which helps them tackle alkaloid toxins.</p>



<p>Dr. Angie Hayward, from Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall, explained the significance of this discovery: “These species differ greatly, but one thing they share is this ability to detoxify alkaloids. We were fascinated to discover this family of genes has been preserved across almost 300 million years of evolution by a whole order of insects with very diverse lifestyles.”</p>



<p>Interestingly, the research also revealed that even species with minimal contact with certain key alkaloids, such as nicotine, have retained the ability to metabolize them. Dr. Hayward compared this to the human tailbone or appendix, which are remnants of our evolutionary past.</p>



<p>To further investigate the enzyme's capabilities, the researchers extracted the enzymes produced by the hymenopteran species and placed them in a cell-line to observe their reaction with alkaloids. The results confirmed that these enzymes do indeed detoxify the toxins.</p>



<p>Dr. Bartek Troczka, also from the University of Exeter, emphasized the importance of understanding how insects react to specific toxins: “Understanding how insects react to specific toxins is vital – it should inform how we produce any new chemicals such as pesticides and insecticides. To avoid environmental damage, we need very specific compounds that do very specific things.”</p>



<p>This study contributes to the broader attempt to understand how chemicals are broken down by insects and the extent to which the genes responsible for this process persist across insect groups.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. Julian Haas, insect toxicologist at Bayer AG, praised the multidisciplinary nature of the research, stating that it "highlights the promise of multidisciplinary teamwork to better understand the molecular and evolutionary basis of detoxification mechanisms in insects, which will ultimately aid with the understanding of their interaction with other toxins, including insecticides.”</p>



<p>The study received funding from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and Bayer AG.</p>



<h2 id="h-types-of-plant-toxins">Types of plant toxins</h2>



<p>Plants have developed various types of toxins as defense mechanisms against herbivores and pathogens. Some of the most common types of plant toxins include:</p>



<ol>
<li>Alkaloids: These are nitrogen-containing compounds found in various plants, such as nightshade, poppy, and tobacco. Examples of alkaloids include nicotine, caffeine, morphine, and atropine. Alkaloids often have pharmacological effects on humans and animals, which may be toxic at high concentrations.</li>



<li>Glycosides: These are compounds that consist of a sugar molecule bonded to another functional group, often with toxic properties. Examples of toxic glycosides include cyanogenic glycosides, which release toxic hydrogen cyanide when broken down, and cardiac glycosides, which can have toxic effects on the heart.</li>



<li>Terpenoids: These are a large and diverse group of compounds derived from isoprene units. Some terpenoids, such as pyrethrins found in chrysanthemum flowers, have insecticidal properties, while others like limonene, found in citrus fruits, have insect-repellent qualities.</li>



<li>Phenolics: These compounds are derived from phenol and include a wide range of chemical structures, such as flavonoids, tannins, and lignin. Phenolic compounds can have various toxic effects on herbivores, including reduced digestion and absorption, inhibited enzyme activity, and oxidative stress.</li>



<li>Protease inhibitors: These are proteins that interfere with the digestive enzymes of herbivores, making it difficult for them to digest plant material effectively. Protease inhibitors can lead to reduced growth rates and nutrient absorption in herbivores.</li>



<li>Lectins: These are carbohydrate-binding proteins that can disrupt the metabolism and digestive processes of herbivores by binding to their gut lining, causing nutrient malabsorption and potential cell damage.</li>



<li>Oxalates: These are compounds that can form insoluble crystals in the digestive system of herbivores, leading to irritation and potential damage to tissues.</li>
</ol>



<p>It is essential to note that the toxicity of these compounds may vary significantly depending on the concentration, plant species, and the animal or organism consuming the plant. Many of these compounds also have beneficial properties at lower concentrations or specific contexts, such as medicinal applications or antioxidants.</p>



<p>—-&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Study reveals how pollinators evade plant toxins

New research is shedding light on the remarkable ability of...

<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-brain-unnecessary-fear/">Dopamine</a> is an important brain chemical typically associated with pleasure, motivation, and reward-seeking. Now, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> has found that dopamine also plays a major role in why exercise and other types of physical efforts feel easy to some and exhaustive to others. </p>



<p>The findings could lead to more effective ways to help people establish and stick with exercise regimens, new treatments for fatigue associated with several conditions, such as depression, and a better understanding of Parkinson’s disease, which is marked by a loss of dopamine-producing cells in the brain over time.</p>



<p>“Researchers have long been trying to understand why some people find physical effort easier than others,” said senior author&nbsp;Vikram Chib, an associate professor of Biomedical Engineering at Johns Hopkins. “This study’s results suggest that the amount of dopamine availability in the brain is a key factor.”</p>



<p>While previous research has found that people with higher dopamine levels are more willing to exert physical effort for rewards, the current study focuses on this chemical’s role in people’s self-assessment of effort required for physical tasks, without the promise of rewards. To examine this correlation, the experts enrolled 19 adults diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease with an average age of 67 and asked them to perform three experiments.</p>



<p>In the first experiment, the participants were asked to squeeze a hand grip equipped with a sensor on two different days within two months from each other, and report the level of effort they put forth. While on one of the days they took their standard dopamine medication as they normally would, on the other, they were asked not to take it. When the participants took the dopamine medicine, their self-assessments of units of effort expended were more accurate than when did not take the medicine, meaning they perceived the task to be physically harder without dopamine.</p>



<p>In another experiment, they were given a choice between squeezing with a relatively low amount of effort on the grip sensor, or flipping a coin and taking the chance to have to perform a task with either no effort or a high level of effort. When they took their dopamine medicine, they were more willing to take a chance on having to perform a higher amount of effort than when they didn’t.</p>



<p>Finally, a third experiment offered them the choice between getting a small amount of money or flipping a coin that would either bring them a higher amount of money or no money at all. Since the results showed no difference in their choice whether they took dopamine or not, this chemical’s influence on risk-taking preferences seems to be specific to physical effort-based decision-making.</p>



<p>These findings suggest that dopamine is a critical factor in helping people accurately assess how much effort physical tasks require, which can affect how much effort and motivation they are willing to invest in such tasks. Better understanding the chemistry and biology of motivation may contribute to the development of methods to motivate exercise and physical therapy regimens, as well as help explain the pervasive fatigue present in conditions such as depression or long Covid.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41531-023-00490-4"><em>NPG Parkinson’s Disease</em></a>.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Dopamine influences our motivation to exercise

Dopamine is an important brain chemical typically associated with pleasure,...

<p>In a recently published paper in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msad055"><em>Molecular Biology and Evolution</em></a> by <a href="https://global.oup.com/">Oxford University Press</a>, researchers shed light on the ongoing debate surrounding the evolution of North American wolves. In particular, Eastern wolves and grey wolves. </p>



<p>This is a subject that has long puzzled scientists, conservationists, and taxonomists alike. The study focuses on the mysterious origins and genetic relationships of wolves and coyotes found in southeastern Canada, particularly the enigmatic eastern wolves.</p>



<p>Eastern wolves, also known as the eastern timber wolf or the Algonquin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolf-packs-are-less-likely-to-stick-together-after-human-impacts/">wolf</a>, have been at the center of controversy. Scientists have been unable to conclusively determine whether these canids represent a distinct species or are the result of recent hybridization between coyotes and grey wolves. The Canidae family, which includes coyotes, foxes, jackals, wolves, and domestic dogs, is known for its complex and interrelated species.</p>



<p>Some researchers have recognized eastern wolves as a separate species based on genetic and behavioral studies. Consequently, these wolves are listed as "Special Concern" in Canada under the federal Species at Risk Act and "Threatened" in Ontario under the provincial Endangered Species Act.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the provincial government currently manages eastern wolves, coyotes, and grey wolves as a single species across their primary range in central Ontario.</p>



<h2>Goal behind the management strategy</h2>



<p>This management strategy is deemed necessary due to the difficulty humans face in visually distinguishing between wild canids and their hybrids in the region. This issue has led to frustration among hunters, trappers, and farmers, as well as challenges in enforcing hunting and trapping regulations.</p>



<p>To unravel the truth behind these competing findings, researchers sequenced the whole genomes of 25 animals of known origin and levels of contemporary hybridization, representing all Canadian wolf-like canid types.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The analysis revealed that eastern wolves inhabiting the Great Lakes region in southeastern Canada are genetically distinct from other canids in the area. The findings suggest that eastern wolves evolved separately from grey wolves around 67,000 years ago.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Furthermore, the scientists believe that eastern wolves bred with coyotes approximately 37,000 years ago and continue to mix with both coyotes and grey wolves.</p>



<p>Lead author of the paper, Christopher Kyle, explained the significance of the study: “This manuscript addresses key evolutionary questions among North American wolf-like canids, but also provides data of direct and applied relevance.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>He also highlighted the strong international collaboration involved in the research, which included experts from the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, the University of Ferrara in Italy, and Trent University in Ontario, Canada. All of these institutions have a long-standing interest in North American Canis ancestry and genetics.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-eastern-wolves">More about eastern wolves</h2>



<p>Eastern wolves (Canis lupus lycaon), also known as eastern timber wolves or Algonquin wolves, are medium-sized canids native to southeastern Canada and the northeastern United States. They have been the subject of much debate among scientists due to their ambiguous genetic and taxonomic status.</p>



<h3>Physical Characteristics</h3>



<p>Eastern wolves are smaller than grey wolves but larger than coyotes. Their fur is generally tawny or reddish-brown, with some black and white markings. They have a body length of about 3 to 4.5 feet, and an adult typically weighs between 50 and 80 pounds. Eastern wolves have a bushy tail, a narrow chest, and long legs, which enable them to move efficiently through their forested habitat.</p>



<h3>Habitat and Range</h3>



<p>Eastern wolves primarily inhabit the Great Lakes region in southeastern Canada, including Algonquin Provincial Park in Ontario. Their range also extends into parts of the northeastern United States, such as Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. They prefer deciduous and mixed forests, where they can find ample cover and prey.</p>



<h3>Diet and Prey</h3>



<p>Eastern wolves are carnivorous and primarily hunt white-tailed deer, their main prey. They also consume smaller mammals such as beavers, rabbits, and rodents. Eastern wolves are known to be opportunistic feeders, and their diet may include carrion and occasionally livestock, which can lead to conflicts with humans.</p>



<h3>Social Structure</h3>



<p>Eastern wolves have a social structure similar to that of other wolf species. They live in packs consisting of a dominant breeding pair (the alpha male and female) and their offspring from multiple years. Pack sizes can range from 3 to 12 individuals, depending on the availability of food and territory. Eastern wolves are highly territorial and communicate through a combination of vocalizations, body language, and scent marking.</p>



<h3>Reproduction and Lifespan</h3>



<p>Eastern wolves generally mate in February, with the alpha pair being the primary breeding pair in the pack. After a gestation period of about 63 days, the female gives birth to a litter of 4 to 6 pups. The entire pack helps care for the young, with older siblings playing a crucial role in their upbringing. Eastern wolves reach sexual maturity at around two years of age and have an average lifespan of 6 to 8 years in the wild.</p>



<h3>Conservation Status</h3>



<p>The eastern wolf is currently listed as a "Special Concern" under Canada's federal Species at Risk Act and "Threatened" under Ontario's provincial Endangered Species Act. Their populations face threats from habitat loss, human encroachment, vehicle collisions, and persecution due to livestock predation. Additionally, hybridization with grey wolves and coyotes poses a significant challenge to the genetic integrity and conservation of eastern wolves.</p>



<p>Ongoing research and conservation efforts aim to better understand the eastern wolf's taxonomy, genetic makeup, and ecological role to inform effective management strategies and ensure their long-term survival.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-grey-wolves">More about grey wolves</h2>



<p>Grey wolves (Canis lupus) are the largest wild members of the Canidae family, which includes coyotes, foxes, jackals, and domestic dogs. They are highly adaptable and once had the most extensive range of any land mammal, excluding humans. Grey wolves can be found throughout North America, Europe, and Asia, though their populations have declined significantly due to human activities.</p>



<h3>Physical Characteristics</h3>



<p>Grey wolves are known for their impressive size and iconic appearance. Adult grey wolves weigh between 70 and 110 pounds, with males being larger than females. Their body length ranges from 4 to 6.5 feet, including the tail. Grey wolves have a thick double coat, which is typically a mix of grey, white, black, and brown, providing effective insulation and camouflage. Their powerful jaws, large paws, and strong legs enable them to be efficient predators.</p>



<h3>Habitat and Range</h3>



<p>Grey wolves have a diverse range of habitats, including forests, grasslands, tundra, and deserts. They once roamed much of the Northern Hemisphere but have experienced significant declines in distribution and population size. Currently, their primary populations are found in North America, Europe, and Asia, with the largest populations in Russia, Canada, and the United States (mainly Alaska and the Great Lakes region).</p>



<h3>Diet and Prey</h3>



<p>Grey wolves are carnivorous predators, hunting in packs to bring down large ungulates such as deer, elk, moose, and caribou. They are also known to prey on smaller mammals like beavers, rabbits, and rodents. Grey wolves are opportunistic feeders and may scavenge carrion or consume other available food sources when necessary.</p>



<h3>Social Structure</h3>



<p>Grey wolves are highly social animals and live in packs, which are typically composed of a dominant breeding pair (the alpha male and female) and their offspring from multiple years. Pack sizes can vary from 5 to 12 individuals, depending on factors like prey availability and territory size. Wolves communicate through a complex system of vocalizations, body language, and scent marking, which helps maintain pack cohesion and social hierarchy.</p>



<h3>Reproduction and Lifespan</h3>



<p>Mating in grey wolves usually occurs between January and March, with the alpha pair being the primary breeding pair. After a gestation period of approximately 63 days, the female gives birth to a litter of 4 to 6 pups. The entire pack participates in raising and protecting the young. Grey wolves reach sexual maturity at about two years of age and have an average lifespan of 6 to 8 years in the wild, although they can live longer in captivity.</p>



<h3>Conservation Status</h3>



<p>Grey wolves are classified as "Least Concern" on the IUCN Red List, but their populations face various threats depending on the region. In some areas, they are threatened by habitat loss, hunting, and persecution due to livestock predation. Conservation efforts focus on habitat preservation, reducing human-wolf conflicts, and reintroduction programs in areas where populations have declined or been extirpated.</p>



<p>Grey wolves play a vital role in maintaining ecosystem balance, as they help control the populations of their prey species and influence the behavior of other animals. This, in turn, impacts the vegetation and overall health of the ecosystems they inhabit.</p>



<p>—-&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Eastern wolves and grey wolves evolved separately

In a recently published paper in Molecular Biology and Evolution...

<p>A recent breakthrough in coral reef research has revealed that corallivorous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-confirms-that-fish-can-recognize-themselves-in-a-mirror/">fish</a>, those that consume coral, may not be as harmful to coral reefs as previously believed. Contrary to popular belief, these fish might even play a crucial role in maintaining coral health by distributing beneficial microbes through their feces.</p>



<p>Traditionally, corallivorous fish have been considered harmful to coral reefs due to the physical damage caused by their bites. Conversely, grazing fish that feed on algae and detritus were thought to contribute to a reef's overall health. However, a new study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1110346"><em>Frontiers in Marine Science</em></a> and led by Dr. Carsten Grupstra of Rice University is challenging this notion.</p>



<p>“Corallivorous fish are generally regarded as harmful because they bite the corals. But it turns out that this doesn’t tell the whole story. Corallivore feces contain many of the bacterial taxa that associate with healthy corals under normal conditions, potentially resulting in the natural dispersal of ‘coral probiotics’, analogous to fecal microbiota transplantation therapy in humans," explained Dr. Grupstra.</p>



<h2 id="h-good-bacteria-may-boost-coral-reef-health">Good bacteria may boost coral reef health</h2>



<p>Coral reefs are teeming with various fish species, all of which produce waste in the form of feces. While this waste can provide essential nutrients to support a thriving coral reef ecosystem, it may also contain pathogens and sediments that can smother coral and cause the formation of lesions - patches of dying coral. Understanding this complex cycle of waste and nutrients is critical for the protection of delicate coral reef ecosystems.</p>



<p>In the study, Dr. Grupstra and his team analyzed the effects of feces from both corallivores and grazers on live coral. They placed coral fragments in jars filled with sterile seawater, then added feces from both corallivore and grazer fish to different jars. Some samples were sterilized to determine if the physical characteristics of the feces alone caused the lesions. After the experiment, each coral fragment was examined and categorized as healthy, containing lesions, or dead.</p>



<p>The researchers also sampled the feces of several corallivore and grazer fish species to identify the bacteria present within them. This information helped them understand what types of bacteria might be contributing to the effects observed on the coral, whether the feces contained specific coral pathogens, and whether their results from the feces addition experiment could be generalized to other fish that also consume coral or algae and detritus.</p>



<h2 id="h-maintaining-healthy-coral-reefs">Maintaining healthy coral reefs</h2>



<p>The scientists placed coral fragments in jars with sterile seawater and added feces from corallivorous and grazing fish to different jars. They found that adding feces sometimes resulted in the formation of lesions on the coral pieces, and in some cases, even the death of the fragment.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Coral fragments without any feces remained healthy. Interestingly, feces from grazers caused lesions or death in all coral pieces, while feces from corallivores caused fewer and smaller lesions and rarely led to death.</p>



<p>Sterilized feces from either type of fish caused little harm, comparable to the low levels of damage caused by corallivore feces. The scientists suspected that this was due to the greater abundance of coral pathogens found in the fresh feces of grazers and the higher abundance of beneficial microbes found in the fresh feces of corallivores. Consequently, the fish that were previously assumed to be harmful may actually contribute to important processes that promote coral reef health.</p>



<p>“More research needs to be done to test how fish feces affect corals to see how we might use these feces in management efforts to support coral reef health," said Dr. Grupstra.</p>



<p>The scientists noted that the effects of lesions caused by feces might not be as severe under real-world conditions and may not be evenly distributed. Factors such as fish territories and behaviors can affect where and when they defecate, and feces could disintegrate in the water, thus limiting lesion formation. Additionally, some feces are consumed by other fish, and organisms living on coral may move remaining feces that fall on corals, potentially diminishing feces' effects.</p>



<p>“Together, these findings result in a more nuanced understanding of the roles of fish on coral reefs and may help us better understand the interactions that are happening on reefs around the world. Both corallivores and grazers have important ecological roles, and understanding these roles can help us better manage and conserve these important ecosystems," said Dr. Grupstra.</p>



<p>These findings underscore the importance of continued research into the intricate relationships within coral reef ecosystems. By broadening our understanding of these dynamics, we can develop more effective strategies to protect and conserve the world's coral reefs, which are vital to the health of our oceans and the planet as a whole.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-climate-change-is-impacting-coral-reefs">How climate change is impacting coral reefs</h2>



<p>Climate change is having significant impacts on coral reefs, which are among the most sensitive ecosystems on the planet. The main ways climate change affects coral reefs are through ocean warming, ocean acidification, sea level rise, and changes in weather patterns. These factors lead to various negative consequences for coral reefs and the marine life that depends on them:</p>



<ol>
<li>Coral bleaching: Coral bleaching occurs when coral expel the symbiotic algae, known as zooxanthellae, that live within their tissues. This symbiosis provides corals with nutrients and their vibrant colors. Ocean warming due to climate change causes stress to corals, leading them to expel the algae, resulting in the coral appearing white, or "bleached." Bleached corals are more susceptible to disease, and if the stress continues for an extended period, the corals can die.</li>



<li>Ocean acidification: The increase in atmospheric CO2 levels due to human activities also affects the chemistry of the ocean. As the ocean absorbs more CO2, it becomes more acidic, reducing the availability of carbonate ions that corals and other marine organisms need to build their skeletons and shells. This process, known as ocean acidification, makes it difficult for corals to grow and repair themselves, and can even cause their skeletons to dissolve.</li>



<li>Sea level rise: Rising sea levels caused by climate change can have both positive and negative impacts on coral reefs. While deeper waters can provide protection against heat stress, excessive sunlight, and wave damage, they can also reduce the amount of light available for photosynthesis, making it harder for corals and their symbiotic algae to survive. Additionally, rising sea levels can lead to increased coastal erosion and sedimentation, which can smother coral reefs and deprive them of the light needed for photosynthesis.</li>



<li>Changes in weather patterns: Climate change can lead to changes in weather patterns, including more frequent and intense storms, as well as altered ocean currents. Strong storms can physically damage coral reefs, breaking apart coral colonies and altering reef structure. Changes in ocean currents can impact the distribution of nutrients, temperature, and salinity in reef ecosystems, potentially causing stress to corals and other marine organisms.</li>
</ol>



<p>These climate change-driven impacts on coral reefs have far-reaching consequences for marine biodiversity, fisheries, and coastal communities that depend on healthy coral reef ecosystems for their livelihoods and protection against storms and coastal erosion.&nbsp;</p>



<p>To mitigate these impacts and preserve these vital ecosystems, it is essential to address the root causes of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to more sustainable energy sources.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, local conservation efforts, such as reducing pollution and protecting coral habitats, can help support the resilience of coral reefs in the face of climate change.</p>



<p>—-&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Poo from fish that eat coral is beneficial for coral reefs

A recent breakthrough in coral reef research has revealed that...

<p>For the first time, scientists have shed light on why larger dog breeds tend to have shorter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-you-eat-and-when-may-extend-your-lifespan/">lifespans</a> than their smaller counterparts. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/">University of Adelaide</a> have discovered that selective breeding for size has made large breeds more susceptible to cancer.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The groundbreaking study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/an/current"><em>The American Naturalist</em></a>, is the result of a year-long comparative analysis using published data on 164 dog breeds from around the world, including chihuahuas and Great Danes.</p>



<p>Dr. Jack da Silva from the University of Adelaide’s School of Biological Sciences and his team examined the causes of differences in lifespan and death among these various breeds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"When we analyzed these data sets, we discovered that larger dogs were more likely to die from cancer at a younger age when compared with smaller dogs," said Dr. da Silva.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study showed that although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-dogs-more-intelligent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger dogs</a> did not necessarily age faster than smaller breeds, their rates of cancer increased as their average body weight did. The researchers believe that the relationship between a dog's body size and its lifespan could be attributed to an evolutionary lag in the body's cancer defenses. </p>



<h2 id="h-cancer-is-the-culprit">Cancer is the culprit</h2>



<p>According to Dr. da Silva, these defenses have been unable to keep up with the rapid and recent selective breeding of bigger dogs. The shorter lifespans of larger breeds were found to be consistent with a theory of aging known as life history optimization or the "disposable soma."</p>



<p>Dr. da Silva explained that this theory is based on the idea that if an organism invests most of its resources and energy into growth and reproduction, it cannot also invest in cell repair and cancer defenses. Consequently, the focus is on reproducing early, even if it comes at the expense of maintaining and repairing the body and living longer.</p>



<p>The findings of the study have implications beyond the canine world, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-their-humans-often-share-similar-personalities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> serve as a good model for studying aging in humans. Dr. da Silva noted that dogs, like humans in industrialized societies, live in environments that tend to protect them from accidental and infectious causes of death, making them more likely to die from age-related diseases like cancer.</p>



<p>While the results may be concerning for owners of large dogs, the researchers predict that bigger breeds will eventually evolve to develop better cancer-fighting genes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. da Silva said that most of the 400 or so dog breeds we know today have only been established in the past 200 years, so larger dogs have not had time to evolve better cancer defense mechanisms to match their size. He believes that this evolution could still occur, but it may come at a cost to reproduction.</p>



<p>Dr. da Silva predicts that <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/meet-the-newfoundland-dog-everyones-favorite-bear-dog/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger dog breeds</a> will adapt and extend their lifespan, but based on the theory of aging, they are more likely to have smaller litter sizes in the future. "This may occur naturally or through selective breeding, as people focus on breeding larger dogs that have lower cancer rates and thus greater longevity."</p>



<p>Dr. da Silva is now investigating the connection between litter size, cancer rates, and lifespan in dogs and other mammals to further understand the implications of selective breeding and body size on life expectancy.</p>



<h2 id="h-average-lifespan-for-most-common-dog-breeds">Average lifespan for most common dog breeds</h2>



<p>The average lifespan of dogs varies depending on factors such as breed, size, and overall health. Typically, smaller dog breeds tend to live longer than larger breeds.</p>



<p>For small breeds, the average lifespan ranges from 12 to 16 years. Some common small dog breeds and their average lifespans are:</p>



<ol>
<li>Chihuahua: 14-18 years</li>



<li>Pomeranian: 12-16 years</li>



<li>Dachshund: 12-16 years</li>



<li>Maltese: 12-15 years</li>



<li>Beagle: 12-15 years</li>
</ol>



<p>For large breeds, the average lifespan ranges from 8 to 12 years. Some common large dog breeds and their average lifespans are:</p>



<ol>
<li>Labrador Retriever: 10-12 years</li>



<li>Golden Retriever: 10-12 years</li>



<li>German Shepherd: 9-13 years</li>



<li>Boxer: 9-12 years</li>



<li>Great Dane: 7-10 years</li>
</ol>



<p>Please note that these are just average lifespans and individual dogs may live longer or shorter lives depending on various factors such as genetics, diet, exercise, and veterinary care.</p>



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Why do small dogs live longer than large breeds?

For the first time, scientists have shed light on why...

<p>Can humans truly adapt to long-term living in deep space? This question has been a topic of debate and speculation for decades. However, a new theory published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2023.1081340"><em>Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences</em></a>, called the Pancosmorio theory, provides a somewhat tentative answer.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Pancosmorio, a term coined to mean "all world limit," describes the challenges and complexities involved in maintaining gravity and oxygen, obtaining water, developing agriculture, and handling waste far from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-signals-are-aliens-trying-to-contact-earth/">Earth</a>.</p>



<p>Morgan Irons, a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, co-authored the paper alongside her father, Lee Irons, executive director of the Norfolk Institute. Morgan's research focuses on soil organic carbon persistence under Earth's gravity and varying gravity conditions. She also collaborated with Johannes Lehmann, a professor in Cornell's School of Integrative Plant Science.</p>



<p>“For humans to sustain themselves and all of their technology, infrastructure, and society in space, they need a self-restoring, Earth-like, natural ecosystem to back them up,” said Morgan. She further emphasized that without these kinds of systems, any mission to colonize space is bound to fail.</p>



<h2 id="h-solving-the-gravity-problem">Solving the gravity problem</h2>



<p>One of the most significant factors in sustaining human life in space is gravity. Earth life has evolved within the context of 1G of gravity, which is essential for the proper functioning of living organisms.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Gravity induces a gradient in the fluid pressure within the body of the living thing to which the autonomic functions of the life form are attuned ” explained Lee Irons. He pointed to the negative effect on human eyesight in Earth orbit as an example of gravity imbalance.</p>



<p>Morgan Irons emphasized the importance of solving the gravity problem before investing billions of dollars in space settlements. “Our bodies, our natural ecosystems, all the energy movement, and the way we utilize energy is all fundamentally based upon 1G of gravity being present.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>Morgan noted that no other place in our solar system has 1G of gravity, making this one of the first problems that must be addressed.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-generating-enough-sustainable-oxygen">Generating enough sustainable oxygen</h2>



<p>Another vital factor for sustaining life in space is oxygen. Earth's ecosystem generates oxygen for humans and other life forms.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Lee Irons highlighted the need for a reserve system in case a technologically advanced primary and backup system fail to provide oxygen for a moon base or another outpost. “A reserve exists everywhere in Earth’s nature. Think of the hundreds of thousands of species of plants that generate oxygen. That’s the kind of system reserve we need to replicate to be truly sustainable.”</p>



<p>Creating such an ecological system for a space outpost would require an enormous amount of energy from the sun. However, the more distant planets and moons in our solar system receive decreased amounts of solar energy. Lee Irons emphasizes the need for abundant energy, comparing powering the ecological system of an outpost to running a car or an entire household on a cell phone battery.</p>



<p>In conclusion, the Pancosmorio theory highlights the complexities and challenges involved in maintaining a self-sustaining, Earth-like ecosystem in deep space.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While the answer to whether humans can endure long-term living in space remains a lukewarm maybe, the theory underscores the need for innovative solutions to the problems of gravity, oxygen, and energy to make space colonization a viable possibility.</p>



<h2 id="h-technology-needed-for-humans-to-colonize-space">Technology needed for humans to colonize space</h2>



<p>For humans to successfully colonize space, numerous technological advancements and innovations must be developed to address various challenges. Some key technologies include:</p>



<ol>
<li>Advanced propulsion systems: Developing faster and more efficient propulsion systems is crucial for reducing travel time between Earth and potential space colonies, as well as for exploring more distant regions of our solar system and beyond.</li>



<li>Artificial gravity: As the Pancosmorio theory highlights, gravity is crucial for the proper functioning of living organisms. Therefore, creating artificial gravity systems, such as rotating habitats or centrifugal force-based solutions, will be necessary to mimic Earth-like conditions in space colonies.</li>



<li>Life support systems: Reliable and closed-loop life support systems are essential for providing breathable air, clean water, and waste management. These systems must be highly efficient, regenerative, and capable of handling contingencies.</li>



<li>Space agriculture and food production: Colonists will need a sustainable food supply, which means developing space agriculture and advanced food production methods that can function in microgravity or low-gravity environments.</li>



<li>Radiation protection: Space is filled with harmful radiation, which poses a significant risk to human health. Technologies to shield astronauts and colonists from radiation, both during space travel and while living in space habitats, are vital.</li>



<li>In-situ resource utilization (ISRU): Utilizing local resources, such as water and minerals found on the Moon or Mars, can reduce the cost and logistical challenges of transporting supplies from Earth. Technologies for extracting, processing, and using these resources will be crucial for self-sustaining colonies.</li>



<li>Energy generation and storage: Reliable and efficient energy sources, such as advanced solar panels, nuclear reactors, or other novel energy generation methods, are essential for powering space colonies. Additionally, developing robust energy storage solutions will ensure a stable power supply.</li>



<li>Habitat construction and infrastructure: Technologies for constructing habitats and infrastructure in space, including 3D printing, modular design, and the use of local materials, will be necessary for establishing permanent settlements.</li>



<li>Communication systems: High-speed and reliable communication systems will be needed to maintain contact between Earth and space colonies, as well as among colonists within settlements.</li>



<li>Medical and health technologies: Prolonged exposure to space environments can lead to numerous health issues. Developing advanced medical technologies and countermeasures for diagnosing, treating, and preventing these health problems will be essential for the long-term survival of space colonists.</li>
</ol>



<p>These technologies represent only a portion of what will be required for successful space colonization. As research and development continue, we can expect further innovations to emerge, addressing the myriad challenges associated with human settlement beyond Earth.</p>



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Earth-like ecosystem necessary for humans to live in deep space

Can humans truly adapt to long-term living in deep space?...

<p>Since dense urban areas usually amplify the impact of high temperatures due to a phenomenon known as the “urban island effect,” cities are more vulnerable to extreme climate events. Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a> in Sweden has found that large investments in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harvesting-electricity-with-nature-inspired-techniques/">electricity</a> networks will be necessary to protect us from heatwaves and cold snaps.</p>



<p>“Unless we account for extreme climate events and continued urbanization, the reliability of electricity supply will fall by up to 30 percent. An additional outlay of 20-60 percent will be required during the energy transition in order to guarantee that cities can cope with different kinds of climate,”&nbsp;said co-author Vahid Nik, a professor of Building Physics at Lund.</p>



<p>The experts designed a modeling platform tying together climate, building, and energy system models. The goal was to facilitate the simulation and evaluation of cities’ energy transition in order to secure their resilience against future climate changes while densification of urban areas is increasing.</p>



<p>“Our results show that high density areas give rise to a phenomenon called urban heat islands, which make cities more vulnerable to the effects of extreme climate events, particularly in southern Europe. For example, the outdoor temperature can rise by 17 percent while the wind speed falls by 61 percent. Urban densification – a recommended development strategy in order to reach the UN’s energy and climate goals – could make the electricity network more vulnerable. This must be taken into consideration when designing urban energy systems,” said co-author Kavan Javanroodi, an assistant professor of Building and Urban Physics at Lund.</p>



<p>This new framework relates future climate models to buildings and energy systems at city level, while taking the urban microclimates into account, revealing that peaks in demand in the energy system increase much more than previously thought when extreme microclimates are considered.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“There is a marked deviation between the heat and cooling requirements shown in today’s urban climate models, compared to the outcomes of our calculations when urban morphology, the physical design of the city, is more complex. For example, if we fail to take into account the urban climate in Madrid, we could underestimate the need for cooling by around 28 percent,” Javanroodi explained.</p>



<p>Although an increasing number of countries are currently concerned by the relation between extreme weather events, energy issues, and public health, there are still no accurate methods of quantifying the effects of climate change and devising appropriate adaptation strategies. Future research is needed to investigate the relationship between urban density and climate change in energy forecasts and to develop more innovative methods of increasing energy flexibility and climate resilience in cities.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41560-023-01232-9"><em>Nature Energy</em></a>.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Cities need resilient electricity networks to cope with climate change

Since dense urban areas usually amplify the impact of high...

<p>A breakthrough study from researchers at <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/">Carnegie Science</a> and UCLA suggests that the origins of Earth's water may be linked to the interactions between hydrogen-rich atmospheres and magma <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-could-be-devastating-to-all-living-creatures/">oceans</a> of the planetary embryos during Earth's formative years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05823-0"><em>Nature</em></a>, offers new insights into the development of Earth's signature features and has significant implications for our understanding of the planet's evolution.</p>



<p>For many years, the understanding of planet formation was primarily based on observations of our own Solar System. While there are active debates surrounding the formation of gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn, it is widely accepted that Earth and other rocky planets accreted from the disk of dust and gas surrounding the Sun during its infancy.</p>



<p>The planetesimals that eventually formed Earth grew larger and hotter as they collided with increasingly larger objects, creating a vast magma ocean due to the heat generated from these impacts and the presence of radioactive elements. Over time, as the planet cooled, the densest material sank inward, separating Earth into three distinct layers: the metallic core, and the rocky, silicate mantle and crust.</p>



<p>Recent advancements in exoplanet research have led to a new approach to modeling Earth's early stages. "Exoplanet discoveries have given us a much greater appreciation of how common it is for just-formed planets to be surrounded by atmospheres that are rich in molecular hydrogen, H2, during their first several million years of growth," explained Anat Shahar, one of the researchers involved in the study. "Eventually these hydrogen envelopes dissipate, but they leave their fingerprints on the young planet’s composition."</p>



<h2>How the study was done</h2>



<p>Armed with this new perspective, Shahar and her colleagues at Carnegie Science and UCLA developed a model to simulate Earth's formation and evolution, examining whether the planet's unique chemical traits could be reproduced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their findings reveal that early interactions between Earth's magma ocean and a molecular hydrogen proto-atmosphere could have led to the formation of its abundance of water and its overall oxidized state.</p>



<p>The research team utilized mathematical modeling to explore the exchange of materials between molecular hydrogen atmospheres and magma oceans, considering 25 different compounds and 18 different types of reactions.</p>



<p>The results from these simulations revealed that the interactions between the magma ocean and the atmosphere caused large masses of hydrogen to move into the metallic core, oxidized the mantle, and produced significant amounts of water.</p>



<p>The study suggests that even if all the rocky material that combined to form Earth was completely dry, the interactions between the molecular hydrogen atmosphere and the magma ocean would still generate substantial amounts of water. While other water sources may exist, they are not necessary to explain the current state of our planet.</p>



<p>Shahar emphasizes that this is just one possible explanation for Earth's evolution, but one that could establish an important connection between Earth's formation history and the most common exoplanets discovered orbiting distant stars, known as Super-Earths and sub-Neptunes.</p>



<p>This research was conducted as part of the multi-institution, interdisciplinary AEThER project, led by Shahar, which aims to understand the chemical makeup of the Milky Way galaxy's most common planets and develop a framework for detecting signs of life on distant worlds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Funded by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the project seeks to understand how the formation and evolution of these planets shape their atmospheres, which could, in turn, help scientists differentiate true biosignatures from atmospheric molecules of non-biological origin.</p>



<p>"Increasingly powerful telescopes are enabling astronomers to understand the compositions of exoplanet atmospheres in never-before-seen detail," Shahar said. "AEThER’s work will inform their observations with experimental and modeling data that, we hope, will lead to a foolproof method for detecting signs of life on other worlds."</p>



<h2 id="h-prevalence-of-water-in-the-universe">Prevalence of water in the universe</h2>



<p>Water is indeed quite common throughout the universe. It is primarily composed of two of the most abundant elements in the cosmos: hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up about 75% of its elemental mass, while oxygen is the third most abundant element.</p>



<p>Water has been detected in various forms in our Solar System, such as ice on planets and moons, as well as in the form of water vapor in the atmosphere of some planets. Additionally, water has been found in the form of ice in comets and asteroids, which are remnants from the early Solar System.</p>



<p>Beyond our Solar System, water has been detected in interstellar clouds and the disks around young stars, where new planets are forming. Observations of exoplanets, planets orbiting stars outside our Solar System, have also revealed the presence of water vapor in the atmospheres of some of these distant worlds.</p>



<p>Although water is common throughout the universe, it is important to note that the conditions required for liquid water to exist, which is essential for life as we know it, are more specific and depend on factors such as temperature, pressure, and the presence of a suitable atmosphere.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The search for planets within the "habitable zone" around their host stars, where conditions might allow for liquid water to exist, is a key aspect of the ongoing quest to find potentially habitable worlds and evidence of extraterrestrial life.</p>



<h2 id="h-liquid-water-in-our-solar-system">Liquid water in our solar system</h2>



<p>Apart from Earth, where liquid water is abundant, there is evidence of liquid water on other celestial bodies as well, although it is often hidden beneath the surface or mixed with other materials. Some examples include:</p>



<ol>
<li>Mars: There is evidence of liquid water beneath the surface of Mars, with several underground lakes discovered through radar data from the Mars Express orbiter. Additionally, scientists believe that water may exist as transient, thin layers of briny (salty) water on the Martian surface due to the presence of hydrated salts.</li>



<li>Europa: Europa, one of Jupiter's largest moons, is believed to have a subsurface liquid water ocean beneath its icy crust. This ocean might contain more than twice the amount of water found on Earth. The presence of this subsurface ocean is inferred from observations made by the Galileo spacecraft and the Hubble Space Telescope, such as evidence of geysers and surface features indicating a liquid layer below the ice.</li>



<li>Enceladus: Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, is also believed to have a subsurface ocean of liquid water beneath its icy shell. This has been supported by data from the Cassini spacecraft, which observed geysers spouting water vapor and ice particles from the moon's south polar region. These geysers are believed to be connected to the subsurface ocean, which could contain hydrothermal vents, making Enceladus a potential target in the search for extraterrestrial life.</li>



<li>Ganymede: Ganymede, another of Jupiter's large moons, is also suspected to have a subsurface ocean of liquid water beneath its icy surface. Evidence from the Galileo and Hubble missions, as well as from Earth-based telescopes, suggests the existence of this subsurface ocean.</li>
</ol>



<p>These examples show that liquid water exists in our Solar System beyond Earth, primarily in the form of subsurface oceans on icy moons. This has led to increased interest in these celestial bodies as potential habitats for life, as water is a crucial ingredient for life as we know it.</p>



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Scientists may have learned how Earth got its water

A breakthrough study from researchers at Carnegie Science and UCLA...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air"><strong>Invisible threat in urban air</strong></h2>



<p>City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge"><strong>Disturbing connections emerge</strong></h2>



<p>Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters"><strong>Timing matters</strong></h2>



<p>The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns"><strong>Genetic vulnerability patterns</strong></h2>



<p>Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications"><strong>Public health implications</strong></h2>



<p>These findings, published in <em><a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a></em>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.</p>



<p>As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



<p>Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



<p>Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.</p>



<p>Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



<p>The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.</p>



<p>Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



<p>Published in the journal <em><a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a></em>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.</p>



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<p>—–</p>

What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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