The moon has two strikingly different sides. The side facing Earth is mostly smooth, with dark, flat plains formed by ancient lava flows. In contrast, the far side is rugged and filled with craters. 



But why do they look so different? What could have caused such a stark contrast between the two halves? Scientists have been searching for answers, and recent findings suggest that the key may lie deep within the moon’s interior.



NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/grail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GRAIL mission</a> has provided new insights. Two spacecraft, Ebb and Flow, orbited the moon to measure its gravity. They discovered a temperature difference deep inside the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/march-2025-stargazing-a-red-moon-and-a-vanishing-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>. This could explain why one side looks smooth and the other rough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-differences-inside-the-moon">Hidden differences inside the moon</h2>



Ryan Park and his team used GRAIL data to peer beneath the surface. They weren’t looking at rocks or craters. They were looking at gravity. The moon’s gravitational field fluctuates slightly as it moves, and Park’s team measured those tiny shifts.



The research was focused on a parameter called the gravitational tidal Love number, k3. It’s a number that reveals how the lunar mantle deforms under gravitational forces - and it revealed something very surprising.



“We report our estimated value of k3 = 0.0163 ± 0.0007, which is about 72% higher than that expected for a spherically symmetric moon,” noted the researchers.



The discovery is significant. It shows that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-ridges-on-moons-surface-suggest-that-it-is-still-active/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon’s</a> mantle isn’t the same throughout. One side - the nearside - is warmer, softer, and more flexible. 



Meanwhile, the farside is cooler, stiffer, and less likely to deform. This difference could explain why the two sides of moon look so different.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-one-side-of-the-moon-is-hotter">Why one side of the moon is hotter</h2>



Why is the nearside hotter? Park’s team points to radioactive elements - thorium and titanium - locked in ancient lava flows. 



Billions of years ago, volcanic eruptions spread molten rock across the nearside. As the lava cooled, it trapped these heat-producing elements. They are still there, and they are still releasing heat.



Park and his colleagues estimate that the nearside mantle is up to 170°C (338°F) hotter than the farside. That heat keeps the rock softer and more flexible, allowing it to deform more easily under gravitational stress. And that’s why the k3 value is so high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forces-stretch-the-moon-s-interior">Forces stretch the moon's interior</h2>



Tidal forces don’t just move Earth’s oceans. They also affect the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dry-side-of-the-moon-reveals-new-details-about-its-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>. As the moon orbits Earth, gravitational forces stretch and squeeze its interior on both sides. 



GRAIL’s measurements showed that the moon’s mantle doesn’t react the same way on each side.



The warmer, softer nearside stretches and bends more under these forces. Meanwhile, the cooler, stiffer farside resists deformation, staying more rigid. This uneven response reveals differences in the moon’s internal structure.



This discrepancy creates gravitational anomalies. And it could also explain why deep moonquakes cluster in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/total-lunar-eclipse-will-paint-the-moon-blood-red-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-rock-and-moonquakes">Melting rock and moonquakes</h2>



When rock gets extremely hot, it begins to melt. Park’s team believes that there are areas deep within the moon’s mantle where rock has partially melted, particularly under the nearside. These pockets of molten rock could act like stress points.



As the moon orbits Earth, tidal forces stretch and compress its interior. The molten zones might respond more intensely to this pressure, causing moonquakes.



These melt zones aren’t just anywhere - they are located at depths ranging from 800 to 1,250 km (497 to 777 miles). That’s the same depth where many deep moonquakes occur. 



This overlap suggests a connection between these molten areas and the origins of moonquakes, pointing to a possible link between the moon’s internal heat and its seismic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-new-lunar-fss-mission-will-explore-moon-far-side-moonquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-volcanic-past-and-a-chilled-future">A volcanic past and a chilled future</h2>



The moon wasn’t always so divided. Billions of years ago, lava gushed across the surface, burying craters and creating vast plains. Today, those plains are the dark spots we see on the nearside - the mare regions.



Park’s team thinks that as the lava cooled, it trapped radioactive elements, creating a thermal imbalance that persists today. 



The farside, lacking such lava flows, cooled more quickly. And that’s why it’s more rugged, cratered, and colder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-moon-s-interior">Mapping the moon's interior</h2>



Park’s approach didn’t involve digging into the moon or landing any probes. Instead, he and his team focused on measuring the moon’s gravity. 



As the moon moves around Earth, gravitational forces pull and squeeze its interior. By tracking these subtle changes in gravity, Park’s team effectively created a detailed map of the moon’s internal structure - like taking an “X-ray” of its insides.



This technique, called tidal tomography, uses gravitational data to study what’s hidden deep within. And it isn’t just for the moon. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-other-worlds">Implications for other worlds</h2>



The moon is not the only celestial body with two distinct sides. Mars has flat, smooth plains in the north and rough, elevated highlands in the south. 



Enceladus, one of Saturn’s moons, shoots icy plumes into space, hinting at internal activity. Ganymede, Jupiter’s largest moon, has a strong magnetic field, suggesting complex processes beneath its surface.



If tidal tomography can reveal hidden structures inside the moon, it could do the same for these worlds. 



By analyzing gravitational changes, scientists could uncover what’s happening deep within these distant bodies - all without landing a single probe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-activity-beneath-the-surface">Hidden activity beneath the surface</h2>



NASA’s upcoming lunar missions include the Farside Seismic Suite and the Lunar Geophysical Network. These missions will monitor moonquakes and map the lunar mantle in even greater detail. 



The missions could confirm the existence of melt zones, pinpoint their depths, and maybe even detect ongoing volcanic activity.



Meanwhile, the GRAIL findings raise new questions. How much heat still lingers in the nearside mantle? Could residual magma still be flowing beneath the surface? And what does that mean for future moonquakes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-moon-s-geological-story">The moon's geological story</h2>



NASA’s GRAIL mission did more than just measure gravity - it uncovered pieces of the moon’s history. 



The thermal differences between the two sides suggest that ancient volcanic eruptions and radioactive decay left the nearside warmer and more flexible than the farside.



The nearside’s lingering warmth and softer mantle indicate that the moon’s interior hasn’t fully cooled. This ongoing heat suggests that the moon’s geological story isn’t over - there might still be activity beneath its surface.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08949-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Why one side of the moon still glows from within

The moon has two strikingly different sides. The side facing Earth is mostly smooth, with dark, flat plains formed by ancient lava flows. In contrast, the far side is rugged and filled with craters. But why do they look so different? What could have caused such a stark contrast between the two halves? Scientists have been searching for answers, and recent findings suggest that the key may lie deep within the moon’s interior. NASA’s GRAIL mission has provided new insights. Two spacecraft, Ebb and Flow, orbited the...

Meandering,Bends,Of,The,Lower,Padma,River.,The,Lower,Portion

Rivers, lava, and ice carve through landscapes in twisting, meandering channels. At first glance, their bends appear similar. 



However, a recent study from researchers at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Texas</a> at Austin reveals that rivers form curves differently than lava or ice channels.



The exact forces shaping these channels remain unclear. However, past research suggests that the interaction between the fluid and the surrounding terrain plays a crucial role. 



This study builds on those ideas by analyzing thousands of bends formed by different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shanay-timpishka-river-amazon-rainforest-is-so-hot-that-it-literally-boils-destroying-nearby-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural processes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-river-bends">Science behind the river bends</h2>



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-amount-of-water-do-earths-rivers-hold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>, centrifugal force plays a major role. Water moves faster along the outer edges of a curve and slows down along the inner edges. 



This causes erosion on the outer banks while depositing sediment on the inner banks, which gradually intensifies the bends.



Volcanic and ice channels, however, behave differently. These channels erode through melting rather than by carrying and depositing sediments. 



Because of this, erosion occurs mainly on the outer edge of a bend, resulting in smaller curves when compared to rivers.



“This distinction sets up a great natural experiment for us to see if the shape, or size, of bends in rivers is distinct from those in volcanic or ice channels,” said Tim Goudge, a co-author on the study and an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.jsg.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jackson School of Geosciences</a>, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-earth">Implications beyond Earth</h2>



This research could help scientists analyze sinuous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atmospheric-rivers-are-shifting-with-global-climate-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a> on other planets and moons, where the origin of fluids remains uncertain. Without direct access to these channels, their shapes may provide clues about their formation.



The study, published in Geology, was led by Juan Vazquez, who completed his undergraduate degree at the Jackson School in 2024. 



He worked alongside Goudge to analyze thousands of bends in rivers on Earth, volcanic channels on the Moon, and ice channels on glaciers.



Vazquez initially believed he had made an error when analyzing the data. However, he soon realized that river bends were significantly more extreme than those of lava and ice.



“It wasn’t until the parameters for the code we had set for the volcanic channels on the Moon kept failing for the rivers on Earth that we realized, ‘Oh, that’s not a fault of the code. It’s an intrinsically different amplitude,’” Vazquez related.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-channel-origins">Identifying channel origins</h2>



The study also found that volcanic and ice channels tend to have a higher proportion of downstream-accentuated bends compared to rivers. 



This pattern could help distinguish different types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planning-for-an-uncertain-future-in-the-colorado-river-basin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a> on planetary bodies like Titan, Saturn’s largest moon.



On Earth, scientists can observe the fluids or study geological evidence to determine a channel’s origin. 



However, on Titan, liquid ethane and methane carve through ice, making it difficult to determine whether channels form like rivers or through melting and dissolution.



Mars presents a similar challenge. Several billion years ago, the planet had flowing rivers and active volcanoes. 



Today, sinuous channels appear on the sides of Martian volcanoes. Some scientists believe these formed from lava, while others argue that melting snow created them.



“There are these sinuous channels on the sides of Martian volcanos. Some people have interpreted them as volcanic channels, and some people have interpreted them as rivers that formed when maybe snowpack on the top of the volcano melted,” said Goudge. 



“We’re saying that because volcanic channel bends are so distinct, you can measure those channels to find out.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-river-bend-patterns">Future research on river bend patterns</h2>



Goudge cautions that this research should not be seen as a strict rule for identifying the origin of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-action-for-rivers-lifelines-of-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a>. 



Natural channels, whether formed by rivers, lava, or ice, can vary widely due to different environmental conditions. Because of this variability, the method may not always provide clear answers.



Before scientists can confidently use these findings to determine whether a channel was created by water, lava, or ice, more data needs to be collected. 



Further studies and analysis of additional channels are necessary to confirm the reliability of this approach.



By refining this research, scientists may unlock a new way to study planetary surfaces, helping them to decode the histories of distant worlds.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/doi/10.1130/G52706.1/652506/Upstream-bend-skewing-in-alluvial-meandering?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



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Discovery about Earth's rivers could help us find water on other planets

Rivers, lava, and ice carve through landscapes in twisting, meandering...

The Kuiper belt, a distant region of icy bodies beyond Neptune, is home to many celestial wonders. Among them, one particular trio of space rocks has recently caught the attention of scientists.



Cosmic systems involving three orbiting bodies have always challenged astronomers as it is difficult to predict the paths of the three gravitationally bound objects. 



Interactions between the gravitational fields of the three bodies tend to lead to chaotic dynamics, which has given rise to the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-order-in-the-chaos-of-the-three-body-problem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three-body problem</a>."



The discovery that a previously identified binary system in the Kuiper belt may actually involve three bodies could reshape our understanding of how objects in the Kuiper belt form and evolve.



The research team that have identified the system claim to have found a stable group of three bodies, which is highly unusual but not entirely unheard of. This would marking a significant breakthrough in planetary science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-astronomers-found">What astronomers found</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.byu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brigham Young University</a> in Provo, Utah, believe they've uncovered the second trio of space rocks ever identified in the Kuiper belt. 



If verified, this suggest that there may be other three body systems present. It adds credence to a unique theory on the history of our solar system and the formation of Kuiper belt objects (KBOs).



"The universe is filled with a range of three-body systems, including the closest stars to Earth, the Alpha Centauri star system, and we're finding that the Kuiper belt may be no exception," says the study's lead author, Maia Nelsen, a physics and astronomy graduate of BYU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-kuiper-belt-objects">What are Kuiper Belt objects?</h2>



Catalogued in 1992, KBOs are primordial icy remains from the very beginnings of our solar system. The belt where these objects are found lies well beyond Neptune's orbit.



To date, scientists have recorded over 3,000 KBOs and predict a possible number in the hundreds of thousands if they include those bigger than 10 miles (16 kilometers) in diameter.



Dwarf planet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-may-not-be-real-planet-but-has-real-big-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pluto</a> ranks as the biggest KBO.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-kuiper-belt-objects">Formation of Kuiper belt objects</h2>



The new Hubble breakthrough offers key insights into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-snowman-arrokoth-celestial-objects-become-ice-bombs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KBO formation</a> theory in which the three small, rocky bodies would not have formed as the result of collision in the busy Kuiper belt, but rather from the gravitational collapse of matter in the disk of material surrounding the newly formed Sun.



This likely happened around 4.5 billion years ago.



By comparison, stars are known to form by the gravitational collapse of gas, often in pairs or triples. 



The notion that celestial bodies in the Kuiper belt form similarly is a fascinating concept that is currently under review.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-the-altjira-system">Insights into the Altjira system</h2>



Located in the outer realms of our solar system, some 44 times the distance between Earth and the Sun, the Altjira System is the subject of this compelling research. 



Though two KBOs were seen in Hubble images of this system, scientists now believe the inner object is, in fact, a pair of bodies that appears as one due to their close proximity and their great distance from observers on Earth. 



The scientists explain that differentiating the two tiny bodies at such a great distance requires non-imaging methods. 



The team monitored the Altjira system over a 17-year period, observing the unique co-orbital movement of the outer object. Over time, they noticed subtle shift in orbit that was not expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiple-hypotheses-for-the-altjira-system">Multiple hypotheses for the Altjira system</h2>



In analyzing the Hubble footage, the team found that the strongest evidence supported the idea of a triple system.



They also considered that the inner object could be a contact binary (two separate bodies so close that they touch each other) or an irregularly flat object reminiscent of a pancake.



Currently, the researchers estimate there are around 40 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mors-somnus-provides-clues-neptune-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">binary objects</a> in the Kuiper belt.



With the discovery of a potential second triple system, it is possible that these systems are not single eccentricities but rather examples of an entire population of three-body systems formed under similar conditions.



Historically, the only KBOs studied in detail are Pluto and the smaller object Arrokoth, which were explored by NASA's New Horizons missions in 2015 and 2019, respectively.



Arrokoth is a contact binary, a pair of objects that have moved ever closer to each other and assumed a peanut shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The team describes Altjira as a close relative of Arrokoth, as it hails from the same Kuiper belt group.



They estimate Altjira to be approximately ten times larger though, with a diameter of 124 miles (200 kilometers).



Even though there's no planned mission to see Altjira as closely as Arrokoth was observed, the researchers gleefully await an upcoming opportunity for further study. 



Over the next decade, they will get the chance to observe the outer body passing in front of the central body, which will give them a chance to learn more about this intriguing system and other aspects of the <a href="http://arth.com/news/webb-telescope-confirms-hubble-constant-our-understanding-of-universe-expansion-very-wrong/">universe</a>



In addition, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope will join the study in its upcoming Cycle 3 observations, and it will add new evidence about these three frosted cosmic bodies.



The study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ad864d">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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'Streaming instability' hypothesis: What is it and how is Hubble involved?

The Kuiper belt, a distant region of icy bodies beyond...

For centuries, Mars has captivated human curiosity, from early astronomers to modern scientists. The Red Planet remains a source of mystery, and with the possibility of human exploration on the horizon, understanding its environment is more crucial than ever.



While its mountains and valleys get much attention, the atmosphere of Mars is just as interesting and complex.



Recent research, including contributions from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a>, has shed new light on how Mars' atmosphere behaves. Scientists have discovered that atmospheric gravity waves play a crucial role in shaping latitudinal air currents, particularly in the middle and upper layers of the planet’s atmosphere.



This discovery helps us understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>' weather better and may also improve climate predictions on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-of-mars-atmosphere">Behavior of Mars' atmosphere </h2>



To grasp the significance of these findings, it is important to understand how Mars' atmosphere differs from our own. 



Earth has a thick atmosphere full of nitrogen and oxygen, making it suitable for life. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/detecting-life-on-mars-a-breakthrough-in-space-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>, on the other hand, has very thin air, mostly made of carbon dioxide. This major difference causes Mars' atmosphere to behave in unique ways.



Even though they are different, both planets have air movements caused by their rotation and heat from the Sun. 



"On Earth, large-scale atmospheric waves caused by the planet’s rotation, known as Rossby waves, are the primary influence on the way air circulates in the stratosphere, or the lower part of the middle atmosphere," said Professor Kaoru Sato from the Department of Earth and Planetary Science. 



"But our study shows that on Mars, gravity waves (GWs) have a dominant effect at the mid and high latitudes of the middle atmosphere."



“Rossby waves are large-scale atmospheric waves, or resolved waves, whereas GWs are unresolved waves, meaning they are too fine to be directly measured or modeled and must be estimated by more indirect means.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-gravity-waves">What are gravity waves?</h2>



Gravity waves are a type of movement in the air. They happen when air moves up and down like waves in the ocean because of differences in air pressure and buoyancy. These waves are different from gravitational waves, which come from space events like black hole collisions.



Since gravity waves are small and hard to see directly, scientists have struggled to measure their effects in Mars' atmosphere. 



To solve this problem, Professor Sato and her team used a special dataset called the Ensemble Mars Atmosphere Reanalysis System (<a href="https://www.datacommons.psu.edu/download/meteorology/greybush/emars-1p0/a_landing_page.html#:~:text=EMARS%20uses%20the%20Local%20Ensemble,Sounder%20(MCS)%20temperature%20retrievals." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMARS</a>). This dataset combines information collected from spacecraft over many years, helping researchers study how these waves influence Mars’ weather and climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-mars-atmosphere">New perspective on Mars' atmosphere</h2>



The study revealed that gravity waves transport angular momentum rapidly, affecting north-south circulation patterns in Mars’ middle atmosphere.



"We found something interesting, that GWs facilitate the rapid vertical transfer of angular momentum, significantly influencing the meridional, or north-south, in the middle atmosphere circulations on Mars," said graduate student Anzu Asumi. 



"It’s interesting because it more closely resembles the behavior seen in Earth’s mesosphere rather than in our stratosphere. This suggests existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> atmospheric circulation models may need to be refined to better incorporate these wave effects, potentially improving future climate and weather simulations."



This discovery challenges previous assumptions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ atmospheric circulation and highlights the need for updated models. If researchers can refine simulations based on these findings, future climate predictions for Mars will be more accurate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-weather-predictions-on-earth">Improving weather predictions on Earth</h2>



Studying Mars helps scientists learn more about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-year-on-mars-avalanches-icy-explosions-and-the-arrival-of-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> works on different planets. 



Mars and Earth have some similarities, like how fast they spin and how they tilt as they orbit the Sun. These similarities make Mars a useful place to study how atmospheres behave.



However, Mars is also very different. Its air is much thinner than Earth's and mostly made of carbon dioxide. It also has extreme seasons that change the planet’s weather in unusual ways. These differences give scientists a chance to see how various factors shape a planet’s climate.



By comparing Mars and Earth, researchers can improve their understanding of how atmospheres work in general. This knowledge might even help improve weather predictions and climate models for Earth. 



As scientists develop better ways to study planetary weather, their findings could be useful for both space exploration and life on our own planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-role-of-dust-storms">Exploring the role of dust storms</h2>



“Looking ahead, we plan to investigate the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-mars-once-host-life-we-finally-know-where-to-look/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> dust storms on atmospheric circulation. So far, our analysis has focused on years without major dust storms,” said Sato. 



“However, these storms dramatically alter atmospheric conditions, and we suspect they may intensify the role of GWs in circulation. Our research lays the groundwork for forecasting Martian weather, which will be essential for ensuring the success of future Mars missions."



Future studies will examine how these storms on Mars reshape global atmospheric patterns. If scientists can predict these changes with precision, mission planners will be able to prepare astronauts for the planet’s extreme weather. 



With each new breakthrough, the dream of reliable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-spectacular-glowing-clouds-at-sunset/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> weather forecasting moves closer to reality.



The study is published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JE008137" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Planets</a>.



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Secrets of Mars' atmosphere may improve weather predictions

For centuries, Mars has captivated human curiosity, from early astronomers...

Blood,Moon,-,This,Is,A,Photo,Of,The,Moon

March’s night sky is alive with motion - planets shift, the Moon changes, and Mercury makes a fleeting appearance before disappearing again. 



Whether or not you're an avid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/january-2025-stargazing-a-parade-of-bright-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stargazer</a>, March has something extraordinary in store. Some of this month's astronomical events will last weeks - others just minutes. 



With skywatching tips from <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/skywatching/whats-up-march-2025-skywatching-tips-from-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>, you'll know just what to look for.



The universe keeps changing, whether we watch or not. But if you do take the time, March's night sky will reward you.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-at-sunset">Mercury at sunset</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bepicolombo-spacecraft-captures-high-definition-images-of-mercury-during-close-flyby/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mercury</a> is a tricky planet to see because it stays close to the Sun. Most of the time, the Sun's brightness hides it, making it one of the hardest planets to spot without a telescope. 



However, for a few days in early March, you have a rare chance to see it with your own eyes.



To find Mercury, look towards the western sky about 30 minutes after sunset. It will appear as a tiny bright dot just below <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venus-was-never-capable-of-supporting-life-as-we-know-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Venus</a>. 



But don’t wait too long - each night, Mercury moves lower and gets harder to see. By mid-March, it will sink into the Sun’s glare and won’t be visible for months in the night sky.



For the best view, go to a place with a clear horizon, like a beach, an open field, or a hilltop. Trees, buildings, and city lights can block your view, making it even harder to spot. 



If you do manage to see Mercury before it disappears, enjoy the moment - because it won’t last long.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-planetary-shuffle">The planetary shuffle</h2>



While Mercury will be tricky to spot, the other planets will have their own stories to tell in March’s night sky.



Venus, the unmistakable “evening star,” will start the month low in the western sky. But its time will be short. Venus will sink lower each night and by mid-March, it will be gone.



Mars, however, will hold its ground. High in the east after sunset, it will linger late into the night, not setting until around 3 a.m. If you stay up past midnight, you will still see its reddish glow overhead.



Jupiter, the giant of our solar system, will dominate the western <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-planets-will-align-this-week-during-a-rare-nighttime-spectacle-heres-how-to-see-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sky</a> once night falls. Its bright, steady light will make it one of the easiest planets to spot, even in light-polluted areas.



But like Venus, it will eventually fade, setting around 1 a.m. And when that happens, the morning sky will be planet-free for the first time in a year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-red-moon-in-the-march-sky">Blood-red Moon in the March sky</h2>



And then, there’s the main event - the total lunar eclipse on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venus-mars-and-bodes-galaxy-will-light-up-februarys-night-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">night</a> of March 13th into the 14th.



Unlike a solar eclipse, which requires protective eyewear, this event is safe to watch with your own eyes. No equipment is needed - just step outside, find the Moon, and enjoy the show.



At first, you’ll notice a shadow creeping across its surface, like a slow-moving bite taken out of a cookie. As the eclipse deepens, the Moon won’t vanish - it will turn an eerie, deep red. This crimson is the Earth’s atmosphere at work.



If you were standing on the Moon during the eclipse, you’d see something incredible - a fiery ring around Earth, made up of all the sunrises and sunsets happening at that moment.



That reddish light bends through Earth’s air and spills onto the Moon, giving it the signature blood-red hue.



Then, just as it appeared, the shadow slowly retreats. The deep red hue fades, the darkened edge shrinks, and the Moon regains its usual glow. 



Another cycle ends, and another celestial event is etched into the ever-changing story of March's night sky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-on-the-dark-side-of-the-moon">What’s on the dark side of the Moon?</h2>



The phrase “dark side of the Moon” is a bit misleading. It makes it sound like there’s a half of the Moon that never sees sunlight - an eternal night locked in place. But that’s not the case.



The Moon does have a far side, the part we never see from Earth. This happens because it’s tidally locked, meaning one side always faces us. 



But just like Earth, the Moon rotates. Every part of its surface gets bathed in sunlight at some point. There’s no permanent darkness, only the changing light of the lunar day.



The far side of the Moon only faces Earth when the Moon is new. That’s when the Moon is positioned between us and the Sun - so close to the Sun’s light that we can’t see it at all. Unless, of course, there’s a solar eclipse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimal-view-of-march-s-night-sky">Optimal view of March's night sky</h2>



March 29th marks the new moon - a night of darkness, and a golden opportunity for stargazers.



Without the Moon’s glare washing out the sky, faint celestial objects suddenly become visible. The Milky Way stretches across the heavens. Distant galaxies, usually hidden, start to emerge. 



<a href="https://esahubble.org/wordbank/nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nebulae</a>, those swirling clouds of cosmic dust and gas, become easier to photograph.



If you own a telescope, now’s the time to use it. If you don’t, all you really need is a clear, dark sky. Find a spot far from city lights and let your eyes adjust. 



March reminds us that the sky is always changing. Mercury appears briefly, then vanishes.



Venus fades away, followed by Jupiter. The Moon transforms into a deep red during the eclipse, only to return to its usual glow. And with the new moon, the night sky reveals sights you may have never noticed before.



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March 2025 stargazing: A red moon and a vanishing planet

March’s night sky is alive with motion - planets shift,...

The European Space Agency's (ESA) International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (Integral) was launched on October 17, 2002 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Its mission was to observe the extreme and ever-changing cosmos.



“For over two decades, Integral has shown us time and time again how important it is to look at the sky in gamma-ray light,” noted Jan-Uwe Ness, ESA’s Integral <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Integral" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Project</a> Scientist.



“Some of the bursts of light associated with extreme physical events in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-detect-more-than-20-mysterious-radio-signals-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universe</a> can only be fully understood if we catch the rays that come from the very core of the blasts: the gamma rays.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-integral-reveals-cosmic-mysteries">Integral reveals cosmic mysteries</h2>



Unlike visible and radio light, which ground-based telescopes can observe, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-object-discovered-in-space-should-never-have-been-there/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic</a> gamma rays must be captured in space. Earth's atmosphere acts as a shield and protects us from these harmful rays.



“Integral has transformed our understanding of the dynamic, high-energy Universe and physics in extreme conditions,” added Prof. Carole Mundell, <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a> Director of Science.



“That Integral’s spacecraft and instrumentation have performed so exquisitely well for so many years is testament to the quality of the technology developed by the European scientific community and space industry at the turn of the millennium, and the science and engineering teams at ESA who have operated this mission ever since. Congratulations to all our communities for their dedication and achievements,” Mundell enthused.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-integral-helped-explain-powerful-space-explosions">Integral helped explain powerful space explosions</h2>



Integral has played a key role in solving the mysteries of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). These energetic flashes appear in the sky about once per day, often outshining all other gamma-ray sources combined.



Scientists now know that longer GRBs, which last several seconds, result from the collapse of massive stars into supernovae. Shorter bursts happen when neutron stars or black holes collide.



“What I find impressive about Integral are its unexpected discoveries,” remarks Jan-Uwe Ness.



“It turned out that Integral was ideal for tasks not at all foreseen when the mission was conceived. An example is its ability to track down the sources in the sky that generated some of the gravitational waves and ultrahigh-energy neutrinos caught by specialised instruments on the ground.”



When Integral launched, scientists were unsure whether gravitational waves could ever be directly detected. The first confirmed observation came 13 years later, in 2015, by the LIGO detectors in the U.S.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discoveries-that-shaped-astronomy">Discoveries that shaped astronomy</h2>



Integral’s breakthroughs continued. Just in the past two years, it captured the most powerful gamma-ray burst ever observed. The blast even affected Earth’s protective ozone layer.



“This GRB took place in a galaxy almost two billion light-years away – it is mind-boggling to think that Earth can be affected by an event that took place in a remote corner of the Universe, two billion years ago,” marveled Ness.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Integral-mission_spacecraft-instruments_ESA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Integral-mission_spacecraft-instruments_ESA_1s.webp" alt="Integral has two detectors on board: an imager and a spectrometer. These instruments are supported by two monitor instruments: an X-ray monitor and an optical camera. All four instruments are co-aligned and will observe the same region of the sky simultaneously. This allows scientists to clearly identify gamma-ray sources, a key feature in studying high-energy processes in the violent Universe. Credit: ESA" class="wp-image-1961733"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Integral has two detectors on board: an imager and a spectrometer. These instruments are supported by two monitor instruments: an X-ray monitor and an optical camera. All four instruments are co-aligned and will observe the same region of the sky simultaneously. This allows scientists to clearly identify gamma-ray sources, a key feature in studying high-energy processes in the violent Universe. Credit: ESA</figcaption></figure>



Recent discoveries also include a rare 0.1-second magnetar outburst, which emitted as much energy as the Sun produces in half a million years. Integral also found that thermonuclear explosions power jets in a neutron star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-pioneering-observatory">A pioneering observatory</h2>



At the time of its launch, Integral was the most advanced gamma-ray observatory available. It was the first space-based observatory capable of observing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-tiny-red-spots-discovered-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">celestial objects</a> in gamma rays, X-rays, and visible light simultaneously.



Three features made Integral’s discoveries possible: its large field of view, its ability to capture detailed images and spectra at high energies, and its monitoring capability with X-ray and optical cameras. These elements helped pinpoint gamma-ray sources with unprecedented precision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-final-chapter">The final chapter</h2>



“After 2886 orbits and 22 years gazing into the depths of our cosmos, today Integral’s sensitive instruments will stop collecting scientific data. But the legacy of ESA’s gamma-ray observatory will serve scientists for many more years to come,” concluded Matthias Ehle, Integral’s Mission Manager at ESA.



&nbsp;“The wealth of data collected over two decades will be stored at the Integral Science Legacy Archive. It will be essential for future research and to inspire a new generation of astronomers and engineers to develop exciting new missions.”



The scientists adjusted Integral's orbit in 2015 so that it would gradually move into a position to ensure a safe re-entry into Earth's atmosphere, in early 2029. This aligns with the ESA's commitment to reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-cosmic-explosion-changes-what-we-know-about-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> debris. 



During the next four years, ESA engineers will monitor the spacecraft, even though its scientific operations will have ceased. 



Integral’s mission may be ending, but its impact on high-energy astrophysics will endure for generations.



Information for this article was obtained from an ESA <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Integral/Mission_accomplished_for_Integral_ESA_s_gamma-ray_telescope">press release</a>.



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Integral gamma-ray telescope mission was a brilliant success

The European Space Agency's (ESA) International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (Integral) was...

Butterflies are currently disappearing in the United States with alarming speed. A new study estimates that overall butterfly abundance in the continental United States dropped by 22% between 2000 and 2020. 



Researchers warn that without immediate action, these vibrant insects - essential for pollination, nutrient cycling, and food webs - could continue to vanish at a rate with unsettling consequences for ecosystems and agriculture alike.



“Action must be taken,” said Elise Zipkin, a professor of quantitative ecology at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> and a co-author of the paper. “To lose 22 percent of butterflies across the continental U.S. in just two decades is distressing and shows a clear need for broad-scale conservation interventions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-largest-ever-compilation-of-butterfly-data">Largest-ever compilation of butterfly data</h2>



In the past, scientists have typically focused on one species (like the monarch) or on a limited geography. This study, however, brings together more than 76,000 surveys of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grassland-butterflies-declining-all-over-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly populations</a> spanning the lower 48 states.&nbsp;



The researchers incorporated data from 35 separate monitoring programs and compiles records of over 12.6 million butterflies, enabling analysts to develop a nationwide snapshot of butterfly abundance trends and species richness.



To clarify changes, the research team examined 554 different species, comparing population sizes in 2000 with those in 2020. They discovered that for every five butterflies present at the start of the century, only four remained after two decades.&nbsp;



The average annual decline of 1.3% highlights the widespread nature of the downturn, with fewer butterflies appearing in backyards, open meadows, and nearly everywhere in between.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-decline-of-butterflies">Increasing decline of butterflies</h2>



Nick Haddad, a professor of integrative biology at Michigan State and one of the study’s co-authors, has been closely involved in charting the precarious state of U.S. butterflies. He combines scientific expertise with a practical, on-the-ground perspective.&nbsp;



While many declines involve species we rarely encounter, Haddad stresses that losses can also be noticed close to home.



“My neighbors notice it,” Haddad said. “Unprompted, they’ll say, ‘I’m seeing fewer butterflies in my garden, is that real?’ My neighbors are right. And it’s so shocking.”



Such observations confirm broader findings: average people are detecting changes in butterfly abundance without relying on official numbers. Now, large-scale data affirm that this anecdotal evidence reflects a genuine, countrywide shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-definitive-study-on-u-s-butterflies">The definitive study on U.S. butterflies</h2>



“This is the definitive study of butterflies in the U.S.,” said Collin Edwards, the study’s lead author. “For those who were not already aware of insect declines, this should be a wake-up call.”



“We urgently need both local- and national-scale conservation efforts to support butterflies and other insects. We have never had as clear and compelling a picture of butterfly declines as we do now.”



Edwards, formerly a postdoctoral research associate at <a href="https://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University, Vancouver</a>, now works with the <a href="https://wdfw.wa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife</a>.&nbsp;



He and his colleagues designed methods to integrate sometimes-variable data sets. By analyzing changes in “butterfly abundances, they aimed to see how species fared individually, regionally, and collectively.



Though the Pacific Northwest seemed to buck the national trend by showing a 10% overall gain in butterfly numbers, that apparent uptick is traced mainly to a single species, the California tortoiseshell, which had a population spike unlikely to last.&nbsp;



Elsewhere, the standard pattern of decline holds true, demonstrating that the national losses are part of a deeper, multi-regional shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-solutions">Urgent need for solutions</h2>



By studying 554 species, the team highlights just how widespread the problem is. Many species had never been systematically analyzed at such a scale. The numbers show that 13 times more species declined than increased, with 107 species losing over half their populations.



According to Zipkin and Haddad, butterflies are more than fluttering symbols of freedom and beauty. They serve as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-expansion-linked-to-global-decline-of-wild-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> - alongside bees and flies - supporting a portion of the country’s agriculture and a source of food for numerous animals, including birds.&nbsp;



Indeed, bird populations have dropped by nearly three billion over the last 50 years, at a rate that parallels butterfly declines.



The researchers highlight that policymakers and the public should view these insects not just as ornaments but as key contributors to ecological balance.&nbsp;



If butterflies continue to disappear, pollination services may weaken, predator-prey relationships will be altered, and many plants reliant on butterfly pollination could suffer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-past-findings-nbsp">Lessons from past findings&nbsp;</h2>



Haddad’s earlier work, published in 2024 in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0304319" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>, determined that insecticide use was a leading cause of butterfly mortality. Although habitat destruction and climate change are also major factors, the findings suggest that widespread pesticide application does extraordinary harm.&nbsp;



Profligate use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-decline-in-american-midwest-linked-to-insecticides/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insecticides</a> - often deployed as a sort of “insurance” by farmers - can, ironically, result in minimal gains in crop yields while doing maximum damage to insect populations.



Haddad believes that a shift to more strategic, evidence-based pesticide use would give many butterfly species a fighting chance to rebound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowing-the-decline-of-butterflies">Slowing the decline of butterflies </h2>



Zipkin describes the current data as a strong warning to national leaders: “People depend on plants, microbes, and animals for the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. Yet, we are losing species at rates that rival the major mass extinction events on our planet,” she said.



Zipkin said that the United States can take meaningful steps, from local habitat management to large-scale legislative action, to protect not just butterflies but the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> that underpins human health and well-being.&nbsp;



Edwards hopes individuals and local governments will commit resources to planting pollinator-friendly vegetation, curtailing pesticide use, and supporting land conservation measures.



While time is short, the researchers remain cautiously optimistic: the data highlight just how urgent the task is, but it also provides a roadmap for remedying the losses.&nbsp;



Through improved policy, targeted restoration programs, and mindful insecticide management, the decline of these “fluttering symbols” might be slowed, or even reversed - restoring butterflies to gardens, fields, and wildlands across the nation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp4671" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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A country without butterflies: Rapid decline in U.S. populations

Butterflies are currently disappearing in the United States with alarming...

Imagine biting into a juicier, tastier tomato or cooking with an eggplant that’s not just flavorful but also larger. Scientists have made a discovery that could bring this to reality by identifying genes that control fruit size.



Researchers at Johns Hopkins University (<a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JHU</a>) and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (<a href="https://www.cshl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSHL</a>) have mapped genetic sequences in tomatoes and eggplants, paving the way for the development of new, improved varieties.



Their findings, published in Nature, could transform agriculture, particularly in regions where local varieties are too small to support commercial production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-gene-modification-the-basics">Understanding gene modification - the basics</h2>



Gene modification for plants is basically science giving nature a little upgrade. Scientists tweak plant DNA to make crops stronger, more nutritious, or resistant to pests and harsh weather. 



Instead of waiting generations for traditional breeding to get the perfect traits, genetic engineering speeds up the process. 



For example, some modified crops can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fight off insects</a> without needing pesticides, while others grow in salty soil or survive droughts. 



In this instance, modifying the genes of tomato plants will provide bigger and better tomatoes.



This tech has already changed farming, making it more efficient and reducing the need for chemical sprays that can harm the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-agriculture-with-one-seed">Changing agriculture with one seed</h2>



“Once you’ve done the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boosting-crop-colors-with-gene-editing-can-improve-weed-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene editing</a>, all it takes is one seed to start a revolution,” said Michael Schatz, a geneticist at Johns Hopkins University and co-lead author of the study. 



“With the right approvals, we could mail an engineered seed to Africa or anywhere it’s needed and open up entirely new agricultural markets. There’s huge potential to translate these advances into real-world impact.”



The study is part of a larger initiative to map the full genomes of 22 crop plants within the nightshade family, which includes tomatoes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crops-of-the-future-potatoes-that-thrive-in-heatwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potatoes</a>, and eggplants.



The researchers used computational analysis to compare genetic maps and track how genes evolved. They discovered that, over time, more than half of these genes had been duplicated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-genetic-changes-over-time">Tracing genetic changes over time</h2>



“Over tens of millions of years, there’s this constant churn of DNA sequences being added and lost,” Schatz explained. 



“The same process can occur for gene sequences, where entire genes duplicate or disappear. When we started looking, we noticed these changes were very widespread, but we didn’t yet know what those changes meant for the plants.”



To answer that question, researchers at the Boyce Thomson Institute used CRISPR-Cas9 technology to edit these genes. Scientists at Cold Spring Harbor then grew the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-gmo-plants-make-baby-formula-healthy-as-breast-milk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineered plants</a> to observe the results.



The duplicated genes, known as paralogs, turned out to be essential for traits like fruit size, shape, and flowering time. 



One experiment involved turning off both copies of a gene called CLV3 in the forest nightshade, a plant native to Australia. 



The result was that misshapen, “weird, bubbly, disorganized” fruits were formed. These wouldn’t be viable for grocery stores. However, tweaking just one copy of the gene led to plants with larger fruits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-treasure-map-for-tomatoes">Genetic treasure map for tomatoes</h2>



“Having full genome sequences for these species is like having a new treasure map,” said Katharine Jenike, who helped assemble the genome sequences as a Ph.D. student in Schatz’s lab.



“We can see where and when one genetic path diverges from another and then explore that place in the genetic information where we wouldn’t have thought to look. This allowed us to find the size-genes in a really unexpected place.”



One of the most exciting discoveries came from the African eggplant, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop</a> grown across Africa and Brazil. Scientists identified a gene, SaetSCPL25-like, which controls the number of seed cavities, or locules, inside the fruit. 



When they edited this gene in tomatoes, they found that increasing the number of locules resulted in larger tomatoes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomatoes-eggplants-and-genes">Tomatoes, eggplants, and genes</h2>



These findings suggest that careful gene editing could lead to larger, more commercially viable tomatoes and eggplants.



“This work shows the importance of studying many species together. We leveraged decades of work in tomato genetics to rapidly advance African eggplants, and along the way we found entirely new genes in African eggplants that reciprocally advance tomatoes," Schatz explained.



"We call this ‘pan-genetics,’ and it opens endless opportunities to bring many new fruits, foods, and flavors to dinner plates around the world.”



With continued research and the right regulatory steps, these discoveries could change how we grow and consume some of our favorite fruits and vegetables in the years ahead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-tomato-plants-and-gene-editing">Future of tomato plants and gene editing</h2>



Beyond simply increasing fruit size, this research has broader implications for global agriculture. 



In many parts of the world, farmers struggle with low-yield crops that are not suitable for large-scale farming. 



With gene editing, scientists could tailor plants to specific environments, making them more resistant to climate change, pests, and diseases.



By using advanced genetic tools, researchers hope to create crops that not only grow larger but also require fewer resources, such water and fertilizers.



This could make <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming more sustainable</a> and reduce environmental impacts.



Future studies may focus on improving taste, nutritional value, and shelf life, which would ensure that these new varieties don’t just benefit farmers but also provide better food options for consumers.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08619-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Gene modification can create bigger, better tomatoes, but should we do it?

Imagine biting into a juicier, tastier tomato or cooking with...

A planet’s orbit defines its movement around a star. Earth follows a nearly circular orbit, but exoplanets often take different paths. Some have very elongated orbits, while others resemble Earth’s circular pattern. 



UCLA astrophysicists have now measured the orbits of exoplanets, from Jupiter-sized to Mars-sized, and found an interesting trend. 



Smaller planets tend to have nearly circular orbits, while larger planets follow more elliptical paths. This suggests that large and small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-images-of-baby-planets-reveal-surprising-growth-spurts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> may form in different ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-planets-with-different-orbits">Bigger planets with different orbits</h2>



“What we found is that right around the size of Neptune, planets go from being almost always on circular orbits to very often having elliptical orbits,” said <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> postdoctoral researcher Gregory Gilbert, who led the study.



The research team analyzed data from NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/kepler/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kepler telescope</a>. This telescope observed 150,000 stars and detected exoplanets by measuring dips in brightness as they passed in front of their stars. 



These brightness patterns, called light curves, revealed new details about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-planets-will-align-this-week-during-a-rare-nighttime-spectacle-heres-how-to-see-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary orbits</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-measuring-planet-orbits">The challenge of measuring planet orbits </h2>



One of the biggest hurdles was ensuring accurate modeling for all 1,600 light curves.



"If stars behaved like boring light bulbs, this project would have been 10 times easier," said Erik Petigura, a UCLA professor of physics and astronomy. 



"But the fact is that each star and its collection of planets has its own individual quirks, and it was only after we got eyes on each one of these light curves that we trusted our results."



This is where UCLA undergraduate Paige Entrican played a crucial role. She developed a specialized visualization tool and manually inspected every light curve.



"Reviewing the data was a meticulous process that required careful inspection of all data products to ensure the validity of our results," said Entrican.



"Several times during this project, I identified failure modes that only affected 1% of all our stars. But we needed to update our analysis to be robust to these issues and go back and reprocess the entire data set."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-processes-of-planets">Formation processes of planets</h2>



The divide between circular and elliptical orbits aligns with other known patterns in exoplanet studies. Gilbert noted that small planets are more common than giant planets.



"Large planets need metal-rich stars in order to form; small planets do not. Small planets have low eccentricities, and large planets have large eccentricities," said Gilbert. 



The connection between planet size, orbit shape, and star composition suggests two different formation processes for planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-planets-take-shape">How planets take shape</h2>



Scientists believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-a-hidden-planet-in-kepler-51-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> start as small space rocks that collide and merge over time. 



If a growing planet reaches a certain size, it can capture large amounts of hydrogen and helium, turning into a gas giant like Jupiter or Saturn. However, planets larger than Neptune are rare. 



The growth of a giant planet requires a process called runaway accretion, where gas accumulation accelerates dramatically. This can only happen around stars with high levels of elements heavier than helium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planets-with-elliptical-orbits">Planets with elliptical orbits</h2>



Larger planets with elliptical orbits indicate a more chaotic formation history. These planets likely experienced strong gravitational interactions that disrupted their paths. 



Eccentric giant planets may have also influenced their neighbors, triggering major impacts like the one that formed Earth’s moon. In exoplanet systems, such collisions could involve planets much larger than Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tribute-to-kepler">A tribute to Kepler</h2>



“It's remarkable what we've been able to learn about the orbits of planets around other stars using the Kepler Space Telescope,” said Petigura.



“The telescope was named after Johannes Kepler, who, four centuries ago, was the first scientist to appreciate that the planets in our solar system move on slightly elliptical rather than circular orbits. 



“His discovery was an important moment in human history because it showed that the sun, rather than the Earth, was at the center of the solar system. I’m sure Kepler, the man, would be delighted to learn that a telescope named in his honor measured the subtle shapes of orbits of Earth-size planets around other stars.”



This study marks a significant step in understanding how planets form and evolve. The differences in orbit shape between small and large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-identified-85-new-exoplanets-that-could-harbor-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a> provide new clues about their origins. 



With ongoing research and advanced telescopes, scientists will continue uncovering the mysteries of planetary formation.



The study is published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.



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Planets seem to have hidden patterns in their solar orbits, according to a new study

A planet’s orbit defines its movement around a star. Earth...

Earth has experienced numerous powerful space events that have changed its surface. Some of the most significant were meteorite crashes, which may have played a key role in shaping the planet and potentially supporting early life. 



Scientists know that Earth was hit by many meteorites, but most impact craters disappeared over time.



A team of scientists from Curtin University has found the oldest known meteorite impact crater in Western Australia’s Pilbara region. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-insight-mro-spacecraft-teamed-up-with-ai-to-find-a-fresh-impact-crater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crater</a> is over a billion years older than any other confirmed impact site. The discovery helps us understand what Earth was like billions of years ago and raises new questions about how meteorite crashes might have helped create the right conditions for life to begin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-oldest-impact-crater">Earth’s oldest impact crater</h2>



Scientists studied the rocks in the area and found special patterns called shatter cones. These cone-shaped marks only form when a huge meteorite crashes into the ground, creating intense pressure. Because of this, shatter cones are considered to be solid evidence of a meteorite impact.



The site is located about 40 kilometers (25 miles) west of Marble Bar in Western Australia. The evidence suggests that a giant meteorite hit this spot at a speed of around 36,000 kilometers per hour (22,400 miles per hour). 



This impact would have created a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nadir-crater-second-massive-asteroid-impact-discovered-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crater</a> more than 100 kilometers (62 miles) wide and thrown debris across the planet.



Professor Tim Johnson from <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> emphasized the significance of the discovery.



“Before our discovery, the oldest impact crater was 2.2 billion years old, so this is by far the oldest known crater ever found on Earth,” said Professor Johnson.



Scientists have been puzzled by the lack of very old impact craters on Earth, while the Moon still has many. This study helps connect the missing pieces, showing how these meteorite crashes may have shaped Earth’s early history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteorites-and-early-microbial-life">Meteorites and early microbial life</h2>



Meteorite impacts may have played a role in the origins of life by creating environments suitable for microbial activity. The intense heat and geological disruption could have led to the formation of hydrothermal pools, similar to those known to support early microbial life.



Professor Chris Kirkland explained how this discovery deepens our knowledge of Earth’s past.



“Uncovering this impact and finding more from the same time period could explain a lot about how life may have got started, as impact craters created environments friendly to microbial life such as hot water pools,” said Professor Kirkland.



The meteorite crash may have helped form some of Earth’s first solid land. The impact released an enormous amount of energy, which could have caused parts of the Earth’s crust to move. 



This might have pushed some areas down and forced hot, melted rock from deep inside the Earth to rise to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-impact-carved-massive-canyons-on-the-moon-in-minutes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-hidden-impact-craters">The search for hidden impact craters</h2>



Scientists have wondered why no craters older than 2.2 billion years were found. Natural forces like erosion and earthquakes may have erased them. 



But this discovery shows that some ancient craters might still exist in areas where rocks have stayed well-preserved.



The North Pole Dome is one of the few places where Earth's ancient crust remains mostly unchanged. Studying it gives scientists a rare look at what the planet was like billions of years ago. Finding this impact crater may inspire more research in other similar areas around the world.



Professor Johnson highlighted how this finding changes our perspective on Earth’s impact history.



“This study provides a crucial piece of the puzzle of Earth's impact history and suggests there may be many other ancient craters that could be discovered over time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-violent-history">Earth’s violent history</h2>



The study challenges previous assumptions about Earth’s early development. The impact may have played a role in forming cratons - large, stable landmasses that became the foundation of today’s continents.



If more impact craters from this period are identified, they could refine theories about early Earth’s geological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-mars-rocks-contain-signs-of-life-scientists-call-to-bring-them-back-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>.



This discovery shows that Earth’s early history was more violent than we once thought. Meteorite crashes didn’t just change the land - they may have also affected the planet’s interior and helped create conditions for life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57558-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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World's oldest impact crater may be linked to the origins of life

Earth has experienced numerous powerful space events that have changed...

Earthquakes can cause widespread loss of life and property, so reliable forecasts remain a global priority. Heat-related factors might influence seismic activity, making accurate predictions crucial for timely evacuations. Yet, many aspects of earthquake behavior remain puzzling.



Shifts in <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plate-tectonics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tectonic plates</a> and the buildup of strain energy typically drive these events. However, some researchers believe solar heat might also play a part in the bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-linked-to-nearby-oil-extraction-fracking-sites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seismic picture</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-solar-heat-influence-earthquakes">Can solar heat influence earthquakes?</h2>



These ideas have gained attention thanks to new work by Matheus Henrique Junqueira Saldanha from the <a href="https://www.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tsukuba</a> and the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.aist.go.jp/index_en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AIST</a>) in Japan.



In a recent project, Saldanha and collaborators looked at how fluctuations in <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/Solar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar activity</a> could alter Earth’s surface temperature in ways that influence crustal conditions.



Temperature swings are thought to affect the brittleness of rocks, especially in upper layers. Changes in brittleness may not singlehandedly trigger large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquake-activity-will-increase-due-to-glacial-retreat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquakes</a>, but heat fluctuations could add subtle strain in locations that are already under stress.



Scientists suspect that water infiltration can shift local pressures as well. Rainfall, snowmelt, and other seasonal factors might raise or lower tension around fault lines, contributing to how cracks form or expand near the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-changes-may-trigger-earthquakes">Heat changes may trigger earthquakes</h2>



Atmospheric temperature can modify underground water circulation. This movement can add or reduce stress on faults, which could be important when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quakes</a> are near the upper crust.



Certain <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1103961" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have explored connections between the sun, moon, and Earth’s internal processes. Tidal forces and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674862X20300203" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electromagnetic fluctuations</a> often steal the spotlight, yet solar heating is a different angle that brings seasonal and regional temperature changes into the conversation.



Experts note that any effect of temperature might be minor compared to major tectonic shifts. Even so, small contributions can accumulate over <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/geologic-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geologic timescales</a>. Many quakes happen without a single “smoking gun,” so every factor is worth examining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-subtle-signals">A closer look at subtle signals</h2>



Hidden correlations between heat and can be difficult to detect. Small quakes often go unnoticed, but they offer useful data about how the Earth’s crust responds to environmental changes.



A magnitude 9.0 event, like the 2011 <a href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official20110311054624120_30" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tōhoku earthquake</a>, caused catastrophic impacts and showed the limits of current forecasting methods. Even if solar heating only provides a slight improvement in forecast models, that could make a difference for vulnerable areas.



Detecting these small influences involves gathering data from different regions and comparing it with solar records. Scientists look for consistent patterns over time, checking if heat variations and temperature fluctuations align with changes in earthquake frequency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-earthquake-forecasting">Improving earthquake forecasting</h2>



<a href="https://scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/earthquakes/earthquakes-probabilities" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forecasting</a> improvements often start with a close look at fault mechanics and strain buildup, as well as historical quake records. Some regions have more detailed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-map-shows-75-percent-of-the-u-s-at-risk-of-damaging-earthquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seismic histories</a> than others, which helps refine mathematical models.



Adding solar-based temperature inputs could sharpen the accuracy of those models. Subtle spikes in heat might signal shifts in rock stability, especially for shallow earthquakes that depend more on heat-related conditions in the top layers of Earth.



A more precise forecast would not mean pinpointing the exact day of a quake. Instead, it might reduce uncertainty for the next few weeks or months, giving local authorities another tool to weigh when organizing preparedness plans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-heat-and-seismic-activity">Solar heat and seismic activity</h2>



“Solar heat drives atmospheric temperature changes, which in turn can affect things like rock properties and underground water movement,” said Saldanha. Solar heating alone is not a dominant driver of seismic systems, yet it may still tip the balance.&nbsp;



These fluctuations can change how rocks fracture, especially if faults are already close to slipping. Even tiny changes in pressure might determine whether stored energy is released over days or years.



“It’s an exciting direction, and we hope our study sheds some light on the bigger picture of what triggers earthquakes,” said Saldanha. Incorporating solar data could reveal patterns that slip through the cracks in purely plate-based analyses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wider-view-of-seismic-risk">A wider view of seismic risk</h2>



A multidisciplinary approach to earthquake forecasting considers water, temperature, and stress accumulation. Combining these elements can highlight new signals that standard tectonic models might overlook, potentially linking heat variations to earthquake <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-earthquake-changed-the-course-of-the-ganges-river/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



Greater collaboration with climatologists and hydrologists could strengthen quake forecasts. Areas prone to shifts in rainfall or snowmelt might see extra stress on faults, which ties into the temperature-driven processes that Saldanha’s team is studying.



Some experts remain cautious, emphasizing that tectonic motion will always be the main culprit behind earthquakes. Yet they also acknowledge that no single factor explains every quake, so exploring the effects of temperature could add clarity.



Communities near active faults may benefit from any step forward in forecast precision. Even a rough timetable for probable activity can inform local decisions on infrastructure and emergency readiness.



Solar signals might give more insight into shallow <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-seismic-zone-or-seismic-hazard-zone" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seismic zones</a>, where changes in rock integrity can speed up or slow down quake cycles. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/cha/article-abstract/35/3/033107/3338203/The-role-of-solar-heat-in-earthquake-activity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chaos</a>.



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Solar heat and earthquake activity: Is there a connection?

Earthquakes can cause widespread loss of life and property, so...

For centuries, archaeologists have pieced together the story of early humans - one artifact at a time. Stone tools, with their sharp edges and deliberate craftsmanship, have offered the clearest window into the minds of our ancient ancestors. But now, the discovery of bone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-tools-ever-made-on-earth-hominins-3-million-years-ago-cradle-of-humankind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> has challenged this long-held narrative.



A new study from UCL and the CSIC-Spanish National Research Council reveals something astonishing: early humans were capable of advanced reasoning a million years earlier than previously believed. And the proof? Bone tools - some of the oldest ever found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oldest-bone-tools">Oldest bone tools </h2>



The study describes 27 fossilized bones that were shaped into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> approximately 1.5 million years ago. This collection marks the earliest known instance of systematically produced bone tools, pushing back the timeline of advanced tool use.



Early human ancestors, called hominins, had been making stone tools for at least a million years. But until now, scientists believed that the regular use of bone tools only started around 500,000 years ago.



The recent discovery challenges this understanding, showing that these ancient ancestors were skilled in working with multiple materials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bone-tools-prove-advanced-thinking">Bone tools prove advanced thinking</h2>



The newly found bone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> were shaped using a technique similar to stone knapping. Hominins chipped away small flakes to create sharp edges, demonstrating an ability to adapt and transfer skills between different materials. 



This suggests that early humans possessed a greater cognitive capacity than previously assumed.



“The tools show evidence that their creators carefully worked the bones, chipping off flakes to create useful shapes. We were excited to find these bone tools from such an early timeframe,” noted Dr. Renata F. Peters from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL Archaeology</a>.



”It means that human ancestors were capable of transferring skills from stone to bone, a level of complex cognition that we haven’t seen elsewhere for another million years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-used-more-than-just-stone">Early humans used more than just stone</h2>



“This discovery leads us to assume that early humans significantly expanded their technological options, which until then were limited to the production of stone tools and now allowed new raw materials to be incorporated into the repertoire of potential artifacts,” noted lead researcher Dr. Ignacio de la Torre (<a href="http://www.csic.es/en/csic" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIC</a>-Spanish National Research Council).



The shift to making tools shows that early humans were smart enough to use their stone-making skills on other materials. This was a big step forward in how they created and used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-at-olduvai-gorge">Discovery at Olduvai Gorge</h2>



The tools were found in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, a famous place where many important discoveries about early humans have been made. The experts uncovered 27 bone tools, mostly from big animals like elephants and hippos.



These tools were made from the strongest parts of the animals - the thick bones in their legs - showing that early humans carefully chose the best material.



The bone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-lived-in-rainforests-80000-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> come from a time when early human ancestors were improving how they made tools. 



Before this, during the Oldowan age (which lasted from about 2.7 million to 1.5 million years ago), they mainly used simple stone tools by chipping off small pieces to create sharp edges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shift-in-toolmaking">A shift in toolmaking</h2>



The Acheulean age began about 1.7 million years ago. At this time, early humans started making more advanced stone tools.



The discovery of shaped bone tools suggests early humans used their skills on more than just stone.



Before this discovery, bone tools were rare and found only in isolated cases. There was no proof that early humans were making them regularly. But these new findings show that hominins may have been using bone tools much earlier and more widely than scientists previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-bone-tools">Mystery of bone tools</h2>



The exact purpose of these bone tools remains uncertain. Their shape, size, and sharp edges suggest they may have been used to process animal carcasses for food. However, no direct evidence confirms their specific function.



It is also unclear which hominin species crafted these tools. No fossilized remains were found alongside the collection. At the time, Homo erectus and Paranthropus boisei were known to inhabit the region, making them the likely candidates.



Since finding these bone tools was so surprising, scientists hope their discovery will encourage archaeologists to look back at old excavation sites. There’s a chance that other similar tools were found before but not recognized as important.



This research was funded by the European Research Council (ERC) to help scientists learn more about how early humans developed their thinking and technology.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08652-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credits: CSIC



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Oldest bone tools suggest early humans were smarter than we thought

For centuries, archaeologists have pieced together the story of early...

In the vast, arid landscapes where water is scarce, only the toughest plants survive. Among them, the agave plant stands out - not only for its role in tequila production but also for its remarkable ability to store and retain water.



Scientists have long studied how desert plants adapt to extreme conditions. Now, a study using advanced imaging techniques has uncovered deeper insights into the agave’s survival mechanisms.



The researchers used special imaging technology to see how agave plants store and use water. They found that these plants keep moisture at both the leaf and tiny molecular levels. This discovery could help create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a> that need less water and improve how processed foods stay fresh.



The results not only highlight the resilience of agave plants but also point to potential solutions for global food security in the face of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-agave-hydration-levels">Analyzing agave hydration levels</h2>



The scientists used terahertz spectroscopy, a non-invasive technique that falls between microwave and mid-infrared technologies, to analyze the hydration levels of agave <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>.



This method allows researchers to map water distribution within plant tissues and observe how fructans, a type of sugar, help retain moisture at the molecular level.



“Understanding how plants adapt to dry conditions could lead to better farming practices and be used to develop crops that require less water,” said Monica Ortiz-Martinez from the Centro de Investigaciones en Optica (<a href="https://www.cio.mx/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIO</a>) in Mexico.



“This could lead to higher crop yields with lower water consumption, benefiting farmers, food production and global food security.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-plant-hydration-levels">Measuring plant hydration levels</h2>



Terahertz waves, which exist between microwaves and the mid-infrared spectrum, have unique interactions with water. 



Since water strongly absorbs terahertz radiation, the researchers used this property to measure hydration levels within agave tissues. The technique allowed them to visualize water distribution and examine how fructans function at the molecular level.



The study, published in Applied Optics, demonstrates that terahertz spectroscopy is a non-invasive tool for plant analysis. 



The researchers found that agave plants survive harsh conditions by storing water in specialized leaf structures. Additionally, fructans act as molecular sponges, ensuring that moisture remains available even in extreme drought.



“In the food industry, our findings on agave fructans and their exceptional water-binding properties could be used to develop new food ingredients that improve moisture retention, texture and shelf life, especially in dried or processed foods,” said Enrique Castro-Camus from CIO. 



“This could lead to healthier, longer-lasting food products with fewer artificial preservatives.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intersection-of-biology-and-food-science">Intersection of biology and food science</h2>



The study began as a collaboration between CIO’s Applied Terahertz Science group and June Simpson at Centro de Investigaciones Avanzadas (<a href="https://www.cinvestav.mx/irapuato/investigacion/directorio-de-investigacion/June-Kilpatrick-Simpson-Williamson" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CINVESTAV</a>). Their focus was on water distribution in agave leaves and the role of fructans in hydration. 



Around the same time, CIO researchers partnered with Socorro Villanueva from Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco (<a href="https://ciatej.mx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIATEJ</a>) to explore how fructans protect frozen foods from damage. These projects merged to provide a comprehensive understanding of agave’s survival mechanisms.



For their analysis, the researchers used a time-domain terahertz spectrometer with a femtosecond fiber laser and sub-millimeter pixel resolution.



Thin leaf slices were placed between a terahertz emitter and detector, enabling hydration mapping through water absorption measurements. The spectrometer was later reconfigured to analyze fructan solutions in greater detail.



“Our research introduces several key innovations in the study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> hydration using terahertz technology,” said Ortiz-Martinez.



“One of the most significant advancements is non-invasive water detection - unlike traditional methods that require cutting, drying and weighing plant samples, terahertz imaging enables real-time hydration analysis without damaging the plant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-agave-plants-retain-water">How agave plants retain water</h2>



The study revealed that agave leaves have a unique water storage system. Their inner core remains hydrated, while the outer layer acts as a barrier to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minimize water loss</a>. 



Fructans play a critical role in this process by forming porous structures that trap and retain water molecules. This water retention capability is stronger than that of other sugars, making fructans vital for agave survival.



By combining tissue-level storage with molecular water retention, agaves have evolved into one of the most drought-resistant plants. These findings could have significant implications for crop cultivation in water-scarce regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-non-invasive-plant-monitoring">Expanding non-invasive plant monitoring</h2>



Researchers now aim to expand terahertz spectroscopy applications to study drought-resistant mechanisms in agave and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-help-plants-stay-calm-and-keep-growing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>. The goal is to understand how different crops manage hydration, particularly those essential for food security.



Future developments may lead to a portable terahertz system for use in fields and greenhouses. Machine learning algorithms could further enhance this technology by analyzing terahertz images in real-time, enabling the detection of drought stress before visible signs appear.



The study highlights the importance of collaboration among experts in optics, plant physiology and food science. Researchers believe that integrating these disciplines will lead to practical applications for agriculture and food production.



“By advancing non-invasive plant monitoring methods, our research lays the foundation for smarter, more sustainable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climates-force-plants-to-compete-with-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural practices</a>, ultimately benefiting both farmers and consumers while helping to conserve natural resources for future generations,” said Castro-Camus.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://opg.optica.org/ao/abstract.cfm?uri=ao-64-8-2057" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Applied Optics</a>.



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Agave plants: Nature’s answer to water conservation

In the vast, arid landscapes where water is scarce, only...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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