Using ancient DNA recovered from prehistoric bones and teeth, scientists have built a 37,000‑year timeline of human infections, stretching from the icy mammoth camps of Siberia to medieval graveyards in Denmark. 



The new <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09192-8">genetic map</a> shows how early microbes began shaping human history. The scientists sequenced remains from 1,313 individuals and found genetic traces of 214 different pathogens. These range from hepatitis B viruses to the bacterium that causes plague.



The scale of the study provides an opportunity for researchers to test ideas about how culture, climate, and migration changed disease pressure over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skeletons-hold-disease-secrets">Skeletons hold disease secrets</h2>



The study was led by evolutionary geneticist Eske Willerslev of the <a href="https://globe.ku.dk/">University of Copenhagen</a> and the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>.



“We’ve long suspected the transition to farming and animal husbandry opened the door to a new era of disease," Willerslev said. "Now DNA shows us it happened at least 6,500 years ago.” 



His team sifted through more than 400 billion sequencing reads and used chemical damage patterns to confirm which fragments truly came from ancient microbes. 



The analysis uncovered infections in roughly three‑quarters of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-decipher-the-genetic-history-of-400-medieval-skeletons/">skeletons</a>, indicating that illness was a constant companion rather than a rare ordeal. The oldest sample, dating back about 37,000 years, contained mostly oral bacteria still common today. 



The results revealed that blood-borne infections didn’t show up until people began settling down, storing grain, and living closely with sheep, goats, and cattle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-sparked-new-infections">Farming sparked new infections</h2>



Livestock pens and crowded villages arrived in Eurasia around 8,000 years ago, and the genomic record registers an immediate uptick in disease. 



A clear inflection point appears at 6,500 years ago, the moment when <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7563794/">zoonotic pathogens</a>, the kind that jump from animals to humans, first show up consistently.



One notorious example is <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(15)01322-7">Yersinia pestis</a>, the plague bacterium, whose oldest genetic trace dates back to about 5,500 years ago in western Russia. 



This pushes the timeline of plague back two millennia and shows the microbe shadowing early farmers long before recorded pandemics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-waves-of-new-infections">Waves of new infections</h2>



A second surge of infection follows the migration of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14507">steppe pastoralist</a> groups roughly 5,000 years ago, when horse‑drawn wagons carried people, livestock, and microbes across the continent.



Skeletons from that period revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-farming-population-decimated-by-plague-dna-skull/">plague</a>, relapsing‑fever spirochetes, and the parasites that cause vivax malaria.



Such waves of infection probably devastated local communities, clearing ecological space for newcomers and turning pathogens into unlikely allies of conquest.



Ancient immune‑gene data hint at strong selection beginning in the Bronze Age - a genetic fingerprint of relentless pressure from emerging pathogens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-infections-from-animals">Human infections from animals</h2>



The catalog reveals that cowpox relatives, leptospirosis bacteria, and meat-borne yersiniosis showed up soon after pigs, sheep, and goats were domesticated. 



This finding aligns with estimates that around 60 percent of emerging infections come from animals. Close contact clearly reshaped the disease landscape.



The researchers also found skeletons that harbored two or more bugs at once, and these co-infections can worsen outcomes. An ancient Viking‑Age skull carried both hepatitis B and plague DNA, demonstrating how mixed infections may have driven sudden mortality spikes.



Curiously, no clear evidence of tuberculosis surfaced, probably because its bacteria rarely circulate in high numbers in healthy blood. But as the team notes, absence of proof doesn’t mean ancient lungs were safe - only that some microbes leave fewer traces in the molecular record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-ancient-infections-teach-doctors">What ancient infections teach doctors</h2>



“Mutations that were successful in the past are likely to reappear,” said lead author Martin Sikora. She noted that the ancient genomes can help scientists anticipate future mutations.&nbsp;



Vaccine makers already test candidate antigens against panels of modern strains - a practice encouraged by the <a href="https://www.who.int/teams/health-product-policy-and-standards/standards-and-specifications/norms-and-standards/vaccine-standardization/regulation-and-quality-control-of-vaccines">World Health Organization</a> - and prehistoric DNA provides a deeper benchmark. Comparing lineages over millennia highlights which protein targets stay stable and which drift.



Old plague sequences, for instance, are missing the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8547695/">ymt gene</a> that helps modern strains survive in fleas. This points to the key step that turned a local infection into a global pandemic threat. 



Similar evolutionary tipping points could lurk in viruses still endemic in bats or rodents. Public‑health planners can combine the new database with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-tipping-points-how-close-are-we-to-irreversible-change/">climate</a> and land‑use models to gauge spillover risk. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pathogens-rewrote-human-genes">Pathogens rewrote human genes</h2>



The skeletal archive captures natural selection in action. It shows that human alleles linked to inflammatory responses became more common after farming took hold. 



The same alleles, still common today, now raise the risk of autoimmune disorders in industrialized nations.



Immunologists argue that this trade‑off is the cost of survival: genes that helped ancestors fight livestock‑borne bugs can misfire in cleaner modern environments. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-human-dna-ever-found-tells-story-of-lost-branch-on-human-neanderthal-family-tree/">Ancient DNA</a> provides the infection history that scientists need to test that idea.



"Infectious diseases have left lasting impressions on human genomes, as selective pressures from pathogens have continuously shaped human genetic variation," wrote the researchers.



"Where and when different human pathogens first emerged, how and why they spread, and how they affected human populations are important but largely unresolved questions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09192-8">Nature</a>.



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Ancient DNA reveals 37,000 years of hidden human infections

Using ancient DNA recovered from prehistoric bones and teeth, scientists have built a 37,000‑year timeline of human infections, stretching from the icy mammoth camps of Siberia to medieval graveyards in Denmark. The new genetic map shows how early microbes began shaping human history. The scientists sequenced remains from 1,313 individuals and found genetic traces of 214 different pathogens. These range from hepatitis B viruses to the bacterium that causes plague. The scale of the study provides an opportunity for researchers to test ideas about how culture, climate,...

A new climate modelling study led by the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a> has found that climate change and extreme weather events will significantly impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forced-labor-is-a-big-part-of-the-food-supply-chain/">food supply chains</a> across different sectors and regions in Australia, which will likely cause cascading repercussions on income, food, and nutrient availability.&nbsp;



According to the experts, while more affluent communities would be better safeguarded against such supply shocks, rural communities would be the most severely affected. Moreover, climatic events such as floods, cyclones, bushfires, or heatwaves could affect surrounding areas by limiting food availability and employment, with effects felt in distant regions too, due to the complex interconnectivity of modern supply chains.



“Climate change can directly impact our economy, livelihoods, and health. Disruptions caused by extreme weather events can cascade across regions and sectors, resulting in job and income losses and impacts on food availability,” said study lead author Arunima Malik, a senior lecturer in Sustainability at the University of Sydney. “Our study has sought to model the indirect supply-chain repercussions of these events to bolster our understanding of interconnected supply chain networks and to promote climate preparedness.”



Previous studies have found that localized disasters – such as a cyclone in Queensland – can impact all the other Australian states, resulting in significant losses across primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors.&nbsp;



“What plays out globally seems to play out locally as well. Everyone is affected by climate change, even if they’re not in areas directly hit by extreme weather, and the vulnerable are affected most,” explained study co-author Manfred Lenzen, a professor of Sustainability Research at the University of Sydney.



Such impacts could lead to localized food price increases and diminished food quality, with poor people faring worse than their more affluent counterparts.&nbsp;



“Disruptions to food supply can negatively impact diet quality, through reducing the variety that contributes to a balanced diet, diverting diets to unhealthy processed foods that have a longer shelf life. This disproportionately impacts vulnerable groups, who do not have the means to pay escalating prices for scarce fresh foods,” said study co-author David Raubenheimer, a professor of Nutritional Ecology at the same university.



Impacts on food production would most likely affect employment and cause income losses too, not only in the supply food chains, but also in the transportation and service sectors.&nbsp;



“The cascading effects, generated by continuing climate variability and more frequent extreme weather events, not only disrupt supply chains, but may also trigger zoonotic diseases, foodborne epidemics, and broad socio-demographic stresses, including inter-regional migration and social unrest. It’s vital that we understand these impacts so we can build a more resilient society,” Dr. Malik concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00570-3">Nature Foods</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Climate-related disasters will disrupt food supply chains

A new climate modelling study led by the University of...

Women in their 20s, 30s and 40s tend to develop risk of cardiovascular-disease much faster than men do. <a href="https://www.wvu.edu/">West Virginia University</a> epidemiologist Bethany Barone Gibbs is exploring what role adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as preeclampsia and gestational diabetes, play in that disparity and whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physical-activity-preserves-thinking-skills-among-women/">physical activity </a>can reduce or eliminate it.



“People always think that men have more cardiovascular disease than women,” said Gibbs. “But what happens is that women typically have lower risk factors for cardiovascular disease before their childbearing years. Then, between their 20s and 40s, they have this accelerated risk development."&nbsp;



"The incidence of hypertension and other risk factors increases in women compared to men, so they sort of catch up. We think that might be at least in part because of pregnancy exposures.”&nbsp;



For the study, more than 3,000 women will wear a special accelerometer that measures how much time they spend lying down, sitting, standing, stepping or cycling. The activity tracker will be worn for 24 hours a day over the course of one week to measure cardiovascular-disease risk factors such as BMI, cholesterol, blood pressure and glucose.



Gibbs and her team will investigate any associations that emerge among the participants’ pregnancy history, cardiovascular health, cardiovascular-disease risk factors and sedentary behavior.



“We’re thinking about patterns. How healthy are the people who sit a lot but also exercise a lot? Are they OK? What about people who don’t exercise but don’t sit very much? Are they OK? We will have the data to be able to look at all of these relationships very carefully.” she said.



Study participants will be chosen from a larger pregnancy study called NuMoM2b, or Nulliparous Pregnancy Outcomes Study Monitoring Mothers-to-Be. The women who enrolled in NuMoM2b were all pregnant for the first time.&nbsp;



Gibbs and her team will be able to paint a more complete portrait of how sedentary behavior and adverse pregnancy outcomes influence women’s risk of cardiovascular disease. This could help health care providers estimate cardiovascular-disease risk more accurately, and inform women with a history of adverse pregnancy outcomes to use physical activity.



“We’re in the business of trying to understand if therapeutic lifestyle interventions that reduce sitting, increase physical activity or both can help reduce risk in women overall, but specifically in women that have an elevated risk because of their pregnancy history,” said Gibbs.



Sedentary behavior is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease that’s distinct from not getting enough exercise. If you spend 12 of your waking hours sitting at a desk, on a couch or in a car, you can’t “run off” those long, sedentary blocks of time by taking a half-hour jog.



“In people who sit for a long time, there’s this negative cardiovascular cascade that happens, even healthy people. Blood pools in the lower legs, blood pressure increases, and your body doesn’t metabolize blood sugar as well.”&nbsp;



With this in mind, Gibbs recommends standing for at least 15 minutes each hour, taking a two-minute walk here and there, and doing your best to live a less sedentary lifestyle.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pregnancy may influence cardiovascular disease risk in women

Women in their 20s, 30s and 40s tend to develop...

The mountains of the Philippines are a biodiversity hotspot - home to more unique species of mammals than anywhere else on Earth. Filipino biologist Danilo Balete has spent most of his adult life doing fieldwork and recording the fascinating diversity of living creatures in these mountains. One of the mice he discovered has recently been revealed to belong not only to a new species, but to a whole new genus of rodents.&nbsp;



Larry Heaney, curator of mammals at Chicago’s <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> is the senior author of a paper describing the new mouse.in the&nbsp;<a href="https://academic.oup.com/jmammal">Journal of Mammalogy</a>. “In the past several decades, we’ve learned just how incredibly important the Philippines are in terms of being home to mammals that are found nowhere else," said Heaney, "and a lot of that knowledge can be traced back to fieldwork led by Danny Balete."



Before his untimely death in 2017, Danny Balete’s research overturned previously held notions that biodiversity decreases in mountainous regions because of their harsh environmental conditions. Instead, he proposed that mountainous environments could generate, rather than suppress, species diversity. The mountains of the Philippines are cooler and much wetter than surrounding lowlands, so they become like islands, isolated within the lowland environment below.&nbsp;



Fauna and flora on these “sky islands” tend to evolve separately from each other, meaning that each mountain or mountain range may end up with new and unique species. “The taller and the bigger the mountain range, the more species of mammals will be living there that don't live anywhere else in the world,” said Heaney, who has been studying the mammals of the Philippines for 40 years. He first met Danny Balete in the late 1980s, shortly after Danny completed his Bachelor’s degree at the University of the Philippines.



"I was establishing a research program, and asked around, ‘Who would be a really good, enthusiastic young person to take into the field?’ And several people immediately said, ‘Danny Balete.’ So I invited him to do some field work with me, and he did fantastically well,” recalls Heaney. “He was just a superb field biologist. Danny could identify every plant, every frog, every bug, everything that you encountered, it was just astounding.”



“Danny contributed hugely to scientific knowledge about biological diversity in the Philippines. His enjoyment of biodiversity was really infectious, making him a mentor and inspiration to a generation of researchers and conservationists,” said study co-author Professor Mariano Roy Duya.."By the time of his death, at far too young an age, he was already one of the most prominent biodiversity scientists working in the Philippines.”



In 2007 and 2010, Balete went on expeditions to Mount Kampalili on the island of Mindanao as part of a Field Museum collaboration with the Philippine Eagle Foundation. They wanted to know what mammals lived alongside one of the largest and most critically endangered birds, the Philippine Eagle, and Danny was the perfect person to take along. While on Mount Kampalili, he and the team made a startling discovery: a dark brown mouse with small eyes and a long, tapering nose like a shrew. The creature was different from anything he’d ever seen on that island and looked more like mice he’d seen before, hundreds of miles away, on the island of Luzon.



“High up in the mountains, Danny was able to get cell phone service, so he sent me a text message right away, saying, ‘We just caught this animal that looks a lot like the ones from Luzon and it shouldn’t be here,’” recalls Heaney. “So he immediately recognized that this was something really cool.”



DNA analysis was conducted on three specimens of the new mouse by Dakota Rowsey, the study’s first author, vertebrate collections manager at Arizona State University, and research associate at the Field Museum. The results confirmed that the rodent was different from any known to science, to the extent that it represents a brand new genus of mice. The researchers decided to name the new species Baletemys kampalili, in honor of their departed colleague.&nbsp;



“That DNA study demonstrated that the new mouse was not related to the species up in the northern Philippines, but instead was related to species from Mindanao.&nbsp; It appears to be a remarkable case of what biologists call convergence – distantly related species that have independently evolved to resemble each other in ways that allow them to use habitats and resources in similar ways,” said Rowsey.



“Naming a new species after anyone is a big deal, a major honor given to people who make long-term, high-impact contributions to biodiversity science. Naming a new genus after someone is one of the highest honors biologists can bestow.”



It is not uncommon to discover new species, but a whole new genus is something special. “New species of mammals are being discovered globally at a considerable clip, maybe 50 to 100 new species per year,” said Heaney. “Finding a brand-new genus, previously unknown to science like this one, that only happens at most a couple of times per year. In our 40 years of intensive study of Philippine mammals, this is one of nearly 50 new species, but just the fourth new genus we discovered.”



The new genus’s scientific name means “Balete’s mouse,” in honor of Balete’s work in discovering it and so many other creatures. “As we began picking up the pieces after his death, it became obvious to us that we had to name this new mouse after him; he deserves this,” said Professor Duya.



In addition to honoring Balete, the researchers say the new genus is important because it’s another puzzle piece in understanding the diversity of life in the Philippines. Demonstrating that Mount Kampalili is home to a mouse found nowhere else on Earth may bolster conservation efforts by Indigenous communities which would help the mouse’s neighbors, including the critically endangered Philippine Eagles.



“It’s really important to show that when we protect one species, like the magnificent Philippine Eagle, we protect not only our unique biological wealth but our cultural heritage as well,” said study co-author Jayson Ibanez of the Philippine Eagle Foundation.



The Philippine eagle and the new “Balete’s mouse” are neighbors to the Indigenous Mandaya group&nbsp;of Mount Kampalili. “Indigenous peoples get very excited whenever they learn that they share their homeland with a totally unique lifeform. And in this case, when we help protect Mount Kampalili, we also protect the primary watershed, airsheds, and biocultural sanctuaries for much of southeastern Mindanao, giving huge benefits to all the people who live here,” said Ibanez. “With all of the threats from watershed destruction and climate change, we need all the help we can get.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shrew-like mouse will help protect Phillipine eagles

The mountains of the Philippines are a biodiversity hotspot -...

Disasters such as wildfires, hurricanes, floods and droughts, are set to increase in frequency in future as the world’s climate changes. Such events are devastating to the communities they strike, bringing both financial and health-related impacts that can have long-term consequences for people. Today, most U.S. jurisdictions have a local emergency management team to develop suitable responses to natural disasters, which may include evacuation, shelters, financial and food aid and relocation efforts for affected individuals and their families.&nbsp;



Strikingly, however, very few of these response plans take into account the needs of companion animals, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-may-not-understand-humans-generosity/">dogs</a> and cats that are also victims of environmental disasters. Most households in the U.S. own pets in the form of dogs or cats and yet very little accommodation is made for the needs of these animals in the event of disasters. Although animal shelters and rescues are involved in disaster preparedness in most counties, and provide harm-reduction services such as microchipping and vaccine clinics, there is still a disconnect between animal and human disaster planning.



Janice Baldwin Rowitt and Heidi Brown are experts in the Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a>. The researchers investigated changes in cat and dog populations at U.S. animal care facilities during and after disaster events between 2013 and 2018. They limited their analysis to the effects of fires and hurricanes during those years, and considered the numbers of dogs and cats present at facilities at the end of the month in which the disaster occurred, as well as at the end of the month following the disaster and also at the end of the month a year after the disaster took place.&nbsp;



Data for the study was obtained from the Shelter Animals Count (SAC), and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), which documents 272 fires, and 72 hurricanes between 2013 and 2018. The final, combined data set included 83,910 observations for dogs and 70, 538 observations for cats. In addition to data on shelter occupancy at rescue facilities, the researchers also considered the numbers of animals euthanized at these facilities after environmental disasters.&nbsp;



The results of the analysis, published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000066">PLOS Climate</a>, show that the demand for shelter services varied depending on the type of disaster event (fire or hurricane) and on the species of pet.&nbsp;



“We found significant changes in the demand for animal care services in both the immediate and long-term aftermath of the disaster events we evaluated. These changes vary based across cats and dogs, hurricanes and fires, and the type of animal care facility," said the study authors.



In the case of dogs, there was an increased demand for housing within animal care facilities in the time periods following hurricanes, even after a year had elapsed since the disaster. However, this was not the case after fires, indicating that fires and hurricanes may affect dog interaction with animal care facilities differently. The experts hypothesize that the increase in dog intakes observed in the month and year following a hurricane may be due to the large influx of stray animals that typically occurs after the disaster, as residents move away from the area. The analysis did not indicate that fires and hurricanes result in more dogs having to be euthanized.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Cats appear to need housing in animal shelters particularly in the month of a disaster event. More animal shelter organizations reported higher numbers of cats the month of a fire compared with the month after. More organizations also reported higher cat euthanasia rates the month and year after a fire, though this action is only taken as a last resort, if facilities feel that no owner is searching for the pet. Cats may become burned or injured during a fire and this may lead to the increased need for euthanasia.



According to the researchers, the “findings suggest companion animals and the facilities that house them are greatly affected by the impacts of climate change, as evidenced by the shifts in demand on animal housing and euthanasia in the periods following a disaster.”



In response to these demands, Rowitt and Brown emphasize that the needs of companion animals should be fully integrated into human disaster management plans. The most effective way for this to happen is via collaboration between local governments, emergency management, animal shelter and rescue organizations, veterinarians, and pet owners themselves, say the researchers. Integrating animal welfare into human disaster planning is important as it has been shown that pet owners are likely to be more resistant to evacuation because of the stress of leaving their animals behind.&nbsp;



For many survivors of disasters, the presence of a beloved pet is integral to their emotional and psychological recovery, making integrated planning for animal and human victims even more important. One survey found that over 63 percent of respondents considered their pet to be an important coping mechanism during stressful situations, so losing a companion animal during a disaster event could lead to increased levels of stress and anxiety.



Although the current study indicates the need for increased housing for dogs in the time period after hurricanes, further research may show that different disaster events have different effects on populations of companion animals. The researchers suggest applying a One Health approach to disaster management strategies, whereby the welfare of companion animals is considered alongside the welfare of humans as we prepare to face the consequences of climate change.



"Given the importance of integrating human and animal disaster plans, combined with the fact that communities are currently experiencing adverse consequences associated with climate change, including extreme temperatures, more frequent and severe storms, drought, and rising sea levels, an organized," wrote the study authors. "One Health disaster response that addresses human and animal needs is essential for the continued welfare of companion animals and their owners.”&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pets are unrecognized victims of climate-related disasters

Disasters such as wildfires, hurricanes, floods and droughts, are set...

Frogs have evolved a wide variety of strategies to evade <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bats-buzz-like-hornets-to-deter-predators/">predators</a>. Some of the defense mechanisms used by frogs are quite bizarre, such as playing dead, screaming, urinating, or puffing up their bodies.&nbsp;



In a new study led by evolutionary biologist Stefan Lüpold at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a>, researchers set out to investigate how frogs choose between two specific antipredator strategies: fleeing the scene versus avoiding detection through camouflage. The results suggest that frogs evolved to have either small or large brains depending on which of these defense strategies they use.&nbsp;



Despite their effectiveness, both fleeing and camouflaging come with potential costs. For example, it takes a lot of energy to physically escape a predator. But while camouflage may save energy, it can be detrimental to mating success and greatly limits where animals can safely live.&nbsp;



The study was focused on antipredator adaptations in 102 Chinese frog species. The analysis revealed that frogs with fewer predators had adapted bodies for escaping, including large brains and muscular hind legs.&nbsp;



On the other hand, when frogs are faced with many predators, fleeing is no longer the best option. “Under these unfavorable conditions, the cognitive costs needed for this strategy outweigh its benefits,” explained Lüpold. “Here, evolution has led to a gradual shift from cognitive predator evasion to camouflage – and thus smaller brains.”



According to the researchers, the study is the first to establish a direct link between brain evolution and different strategies for evading predators.



“Our study highlights that research on brain evolution has to consider metabolic costs as much as it focuses on cognitive benefits,” said Lüpold.&nbsp;



"Specifically, our phylogenetic path analysis reveals an indirect relationship between predation risk and crypsis that is mediated by brain size," wrote the study authors. "This result suggests that at a low predation risk, frogs can afford to be conspicuous and use their large brain for cognitive predator evasion. This strategy may become less efficient or energetically costlier under higher predation pressure, favoring smaller brains and instead increasing crypsis."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Conspicuous frogs have big brains to evade predators

Frogs have evolved a wide variety of strategies to evade...

According to the World Health Organization, mosquitos are the deadliest animals on Earth. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-heightens-risk-of-most-infectious-diseases/">diseases</a> they pass on to humans, including malaria, Zika, West Nile, Chikungunya and dengue, are responsible for around 725,000 deaths each year. The insects use olfactory cues to locate humans with an unerring accuracy, preferring to bloodfeed on humans over other animals, and so the means by which they detect human presence has become the object of scientific investigation.&nbsp;&nbsp;



More than a decade ago, Leslie Vosshall, a <a href="https://www.hhmi.org/">Howard Hughes Medical Institute</a> (HHMI) Investigator, turned her attention to understanding the mosquito olfactory system in a quest to find ways to blunt the insect’s uncanny ability to locate human prey. “I wanted to do something the public could be excited about,” she says. And her new work would indeed prove to have a major impact – just not what she’d anticipated. Vosshall describes the results as “a huge, staggering surprise."



Mosquitos detect chemical signals using odor receptors that are located on nerve cells (neurons) found on the antennae and some of the mouth parts. The accepted understanding, based on the Nobel Prize-winning research on mice by Linda Buck (now at Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center) and Richard Axel at Columbia, was that the smell sensing systems in animals are exquisitely specialized and organized. Each olfactory neuron has just one type of receptor, which detects a specific odor and then connects to just one structure (called a glomerulus) in the olfactory bulb of the brain.&nbsp;



According to this paradigm, a mosquito would be expected to have separate neurons that detect the smell of human body odor, and the presence of exhaled carbon dioxide (CO2), and it might be a straightforward process to disable these particular neurons and render mosquitos insensitive to human cues. Or that’s what the researchers thought. “We as a field were so influenced by Buck and Axel,” says Vosshall (who was a postdoc student in Axel’s lab). “Those were the rules.”



Initially, the researchers analyzed the DNA in the complete genome of a blood-sucking mosquito, something that had not yet been undertaken. “No one had done genome editing before in part because the genome was so fragmented,” Vosshall explains. Then, Meg Younger a former postdoc in the lab set out to try to answer a puzzling question. Mosquitoes are attracted to both the CO2 that people breathe out and to human body odor.&nbsp;



“But there’s something magical about adding those two ingredients together, where one plus one equals twenty,” she says. When both olfactory cues are present together, the insects become very excited and focused, and they start to hunt for humans ferociously. It is as though the two stimuli become amplified somehow in the olfactory system.&nbsp;



In order to understand what was happening, Younger tried to identify which olfactory neurons responded to CO2 and which to body odor, and then to trace the pathways of the signals to the brain. She used the gene editing tool CRISPR to slip a fluorescent marker protein into the neurons that had receptors for CO2 and another marker into those that could sense chemicals from body odor. That’s when the research took an unexpected turn. “It was like Alice in Wonderland – where nothing makes sense,” Vosshall says.



The results, published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867422009278">Cell</a>, show something altogether new in the world of olfactory systems. The fluorescent receptor genes indicated that individual neurons did not only carry receptors for one chemical cue, as was previously thought. Instead, the neurons were chock full of multiple different types of receptors. We found that “all the Buck and Axel rules were thrown in the garbage can by mosquitos,” says Vosshall.&nbsp;



The results were so startling that Vosshall’s lab has spent years painstakingly proving that they were actually real, using several additional lines of evidence. For instance, Olivia Goldman, a PhD student in the lab, harnessed a relatively new and revolutionary technique called single nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) to probe which genes are turned on in individual neurons. The approach confirmed that each neuronal cell does indeed use many different kinds of receptors.&nbsp;



In addition, the researchers teamed up with scientists at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, who had done ground-breaking research using electrodes inserted into individual olfactory neurons in mosquitos. That method also confirmed that a single mosquito neuron can detect different smells – even two different ‘flavors’ of body odor, a perfumy smell and a stinky foot odor, which require two entirely different classes of receptors.&nbsp;



Those results “were a huge relief,” Vosshall says. She anticipated widespread skepticism to her conclusions, “so the number of levels of evidence that we used to prove it was intense,” she says. In fact, many scientists did challenge these new findings at first. But not only was the supporting evidence overwhelming, similar findings were also emerging from neuroscientist Christopher Potter’s lab at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.&nbsp;



Working with both the fruit fly and a mosquito species, Potter’s team published a paper in eLife in April suggesting that “co-expression of chemosensory receptors is common in insect olfactory neurons.” In the past, the conventional wisdom of one receptor per smell and one receptor per neuron was so strong that there was no reason to probe for multiple receptors, says Potter. “Now we know to look for it.”



The findings of Vosshall and her team have overturned the conventional model of the neural circuity animals use to detect, and distinguish between, thousands of distinct smells. “This is a big deal,” says Potter. “It really changes the way we think the insect olfactory system is working.”&nbsp;



The added complexity of the insect olfactory system makes perfect sense in evolutionary terms, as mosquitos must find food in order to survive. The presence of different types of odor receptors on each neuron enhances the insects’ ability to detect exhaled CO2 along with a whole array of body smells. If some receptors were to be blocked, a mosquito would simply use others that remained intact.&nbsp;



“It is a really good trick,” explains Vosshall. “Mosquitoes have Plan B after Plan B after Plan B. To me the system is unbreakable.” That’s obviously not good news for the effort to reduce the toll from mosquito-borne diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, and dengue, by trying to block receptors. But perhaps an alternative strategy might be to overwhelm the whole system with alternative smells, adds Potter. At least now “we have a more realistic view of what we are up against,” he says.



In the meantime, Vosshall aims to compare the olfactory neurons of blood-dining mosquitoes with those from purely vegetarian mosquito relatives to see if the more extreme receptor complexity is a unique adaptation for those species that only hunt humans. And as for the puzzle Vosshall first started to probe – how the combined sensing of both CO2 and body odor greatly amplifies the message to the brain? One of her former postdocs, Meg Younger, is now tackling the question in her new lab at Boston University.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mosquitos use unbreakable system to track human blood

According to the World Health Organization, mosquitos are the deadliest...

Australian snubfin (Orcaella heinsohni) and humpback (Sousa sahulensis) <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-have-accents-that-vary-by-region/">dolphins</a> co-exist peacefully throughout most of their range, primarily in shallow tropical and subtropical coastal waters from southern New Guinea to northern Australia. A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> has now set out to investigate why these two species are able to co-exist within this range.&nbsp;



“A major challenge in ecology and conservation is to understand the means by which species coexist as this is the basis of biodiversity,”&nbsp;explained study lead author Guido Parra Vergara, an associate professor of Behavioral Ecology at Flinders. “If we are to understand the effects of global change on marine mammal biodiversity, and how we can maintain assemblages of coexisting species, we need to understand their patterns of co-occurrence; the biological significance of their interactions, and the mechanisms underlying their coexistence.”



According to the “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/ecological-niche">ecological niche theory</a>,” the coexistence of closely related species is promoted by resource partitioning in space and time. However, understanding how these two specific dolphin species co-exist is rather challenging, due to their size, high mobility, longevity, and the fact that they spent most of their time underwater.



Each of the species is characterized by small populations (usually fewer than 150 individuals) which overlap spatially, have similar patterns of habitat use and behavioral activities, and are often found in mixed species groups. Thus, segregation into exclusive spatial and temporal ranges, and differences in habitat use and behavioral patterns are insufficient to explain their co-existence.



By comparing stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen in their skin – the former providing a quantifiable estimate of habitat and resource use, while the latter offering cues regarding their position in the trophic chain – the scientists found that, although both species feed at similar trophic levels, rely on similar basal food resources, and have substantial dietary overlaps, they are nevertheless characterized by subtle differences in habitat use and prey selection, which may promote their co-existence. More specifically, snubfin dolphins forage on a wider diversity of prey, while humpback dolphins forage in a larger variety of habitats.



“Food diversity and abundance and habitat heterogeneity are key factors promoting the coexistence of these two dolphin species, and pressure from overfishing and pollution that could reduce prey abundance and diversity or deteriorate their habitat quality could affect the future of such dolphin co-existence,”&nbsp;said Professor Parra Vergara.



“Because dolphins play important roles in maintaining the structure and function of marine communities and ecosystems, any pressures on their food and habitat resources need to be considered when planning future multi-species conservation,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.8937">Ecology and Evolution</a>.&nbsp; &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

How two species of dolphins coexist in Australia

Australian snubfin (Orcaella heinsohni) and humpback (Sousa sahulensis) dolphins co-exist...

In recent years, bumblebees and other important insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchids-evolved-fringed-petals-to-support-pollinators/">pollinators</a> have faced significant population declines. By analyzing a wide range of museum collections, two new studies led by the <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> and the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> have examined how climate change has affected bumblebees over more than a century.&nbsp;



An analysis of bumblebee wings showed signs of stress associated with increasingly hotter and wetter conditions, while a genomic sequencing study of over one hundred bumblebee museum specimens dating back more than 130 years ago has highlighted how environmental stress may lead to genetic diversity loss in these insects.



The first study – published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.13788">Journal of Animal Ecology</a> – has investigated the morphology of bee specimens dating back to 1900. By using digital image, the experts examined the asymmetry in bumblebee wings as an indicator of climatic stress which affected their normal growth. An analysis of four UK bumblebee species has revealed increased markers of stress (higher wing asymmetry) as the 20th century progressed from its lowest point around 1925.&nbsp;



Further investigations showed that all the species displayed a consistently higher proxy of stress in the second half of the century. Moreover, the researchers found that, in hotter and wetter years, bees showed higher wing asymmetry.



“With hotter and wetter conditions predicted to place bumblebees under higher stress, the fact that these conditions will become more frequent under climate change means bumblebees may be in for a rough time over the 21st&nbsp;century,” said study senior author Richard Gill, an expert in the impact of environmental stress on insect populations at the Imperial College London.



In a second parallel study, published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/2041-210X.13945">Methods in Ecology and Evolution</a>, scientists sequenced the genomes of over a hundred bumblebee museum specimens, and found evidence of a relatively consistent rate of DNA degradation – a feature confirming the major role of environmental stress in the loss of bumblebees’ genetic diversity over the past 130 years.



&nbsp;“These studies showcase the value of leveraging museums specimens to go back in time and unlock the past’s secrets. But what we have done is just the beginning, and by continuing our work with these vital public collections and collaborating with curators we can only discover more,” Dr. Gill concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Bumblebees increasingly stressed over the past century

In recent years, bumblebees and other important insect pollinators have...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.nus.edu.sg/">National University of Singapore</a> has revealed the choices that male spiders make to maximize their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-explain-spiders-complex-mating-choreography/">mating</a> success. The males have evolved mating strategies to improve their reproductive chances, despite the risk of being cannibalized by their mates.



The researchers explored whether male spiders use cannibalism countering strategies by focusing on two mating tactics. One tactic is based on the “better charged palp” hypothesis. This theory predicts that male spiders selectively make use of their paired sexual organs, known as pedipalps or palps, which contain more sperm for their first copulation.&nbsp;



The other tactic, referred to as the “fast sperm transfer” hypothesis, predicts accelerated insemination when the risk of female cannibalism is high.



The researchers performed comparative tests on five species of orb-web spiders with varying levels of female sexual cannibalism and sexual size dimorphism.&nbsp;



The experts found that male spiders choose one of the paired sexual organs with more sperm for the first copulation with a cannibalistic female. Also, a male transfers significantly more sperm if a female is cannibalistic or when the female is of a much larger physical size. These results support both predictions, providing credibility for the male mating syndrome.



“This study sheds light on how male mating syndrome relates to the levels of sexual cannibalism and suggests that evolutionary arms races do take place, and that animal biology and diversity are importantly shaped by sexual conflict," said Professor Daiqin Li, who led the research.



The experts are planning future studies to better understand the rationale behind male palp choice.&nbsp;



“The large diversity of extant spiders globally indicates that these findings may not apply to all sexually dimorphic and cannibalistic spiders," said Professor Li. "Due to sexual selection, the palpal anatomy can undergo rapid changes, such that mechanisms behind sperm transfer of various species may differ."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, Earth.com Staff Writer

Male spiders transfer more sperm when mating with cannibals

A new study from the National University of Singapore has...

A massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europe-is-experiencing-its-worst-drought-in-500-years/">drought</a> in the American Southwest is currently drying up the Colorado River and draining the country’s largest reservoirs, Lake Mead and Lake Powell. On Tuesday, August 18, 2022, the federal government announced that the Colorado River will start operating in a Tier 2 shortage condition for the first time in history starting in January 2023, as this unprecedented drought has taken a severe toll on Lake Mead. This means that Arizona, Nevada, and Mexico will need to significantly reduce their use of water from the Colorado River at the beginning of next year.



According to experts from the <a href="https://www.doi.gov/">U.S. Department of the Interior</a>, in January 2023, Lake Mead’s water level will decrease to 1,050 feet above sea level, which is the required threshold for declaring a Tier 2 shortage. Of the targeted states, Arizona will need to face the largest water cuts – 592,000 acre-feet, or 21 percent of the state’s annual allotment of river water.



“Every sector in every state has a responsibility to ensure that water is used with maximum efficiency,” said Tanya Trujillo, the Department of the Interior’s assistant secretary for water and science. “In order to avoid a catastrophic collapse of the Colorado River System and a future of uncertainty and conflict, water use in the Basin must be reduced.”&nbsp;



Last year, the Department declared a first, Tier 1 shortage on the Colorado River. However, due to extremely low levels of precipitation this year, the situation has further deteriorated.&nbsp;



“We thought we were good, but the last few years have been so dry that we realized those tier reductions weren’t enough and aren’t enough,” explained Bill Hasencamp, the Colorado River resource manager at the <a href="https://www.mwdh2o.com/">Metropolitan Water District of Southern California</a>. “So the two things we’re focused on is how do we get through the next three years without the system crashing, and then how do we develop a long term plan to sustain the Colorado River.”



Since negotiations between the affected states are already starting to heat up, experts are asking strong federal government interventions that could be acted on immediately.&nbsp;



“We kind of need the federal government to make some threats to spur action,” said John Fleck, an expert in Water Resources at the University of New Mexico. “Progress seems to happen when the federal government comes in and says to states, you need to do this or we’re going to do something you don’t like,” he concluded.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Water cuts ahead for Arizona and Nevada as Colorado River shrinks

A massive drought in the American Southwest is currently drying...

Reputation is an important component in social interactions of animals living in groups, and plays a significant role in the establishment of cooperation. However, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.vetmeduni.ac.at/en/">University of Veterinary Medicine</a> in Vienna, Austria, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-domesticated-america-10000-years/">dogs</a> have significant difficulties in remembering incidences of human generosity in food-giving situations, and thus may have no concept of gift-giving reputation.&nbsp;



While previous studies argued that dogs cooperate with humans because they can form an understanding of their reputations – for instance, whether a particular individual is usually offering or withholding food – this new study shows that this may not be the case. The scientists devised a series of experiments to test this ability in dogs, as well as in their closest ancestors, wolves.



In a first experiment, the animals were prompted to observe an interaction between two humans and another animal, with a “generous” person offering food and a “selfish” one withholding it. The second experiment tested whether animals formed reputations after interacting directly with the generous and selfish humans. 



Statistical analyses of the results have shown that, in most cases, the generous handler did not appear to have a better reputation either with the dogs or the wolves, after either indirect observation or direct experience of humans’ generosity regarding food.



“We found that dogs and wolves, at the group level, did not differentiate between a generous or selfish partner after indirect or direct experience, but wolves were more attentive towards the generous person during the observation phase and some dogs and wolves did prefer the generous partner, at least after indirect and direct experience was combined," wrote the researchers.



"Our study suggests that reputation formation may be more difficult than expected for animals and we emphasize the importance of context when studying reputation formation in animals."



However, some significant limitations of the study include the fact that it only investigated the behavior of a small number of animals - six dogs and nine wolves – and that these animals were not food deprived before the experiments.&nbsp;



“In this study, there was only a small cost of not receiving a food reward if the animals chose the selfish partner,” explained the study authors. “Further, the trainer fed the subject every time he/she went back to the starting point for the next trial and the animals were not food-deprived before the test, thus they may not have been very motivated to choose the generous partner.”



Further research with a larger number of animals placed in a variety of contexts is needed to confirm these findings, and to clarify whether animals are more likely to gauge and act according to a human’s reputation while in a dangerous or stressful situation, or if they are particularly hungry.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0271590">PLoS One</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, Earth.com Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Dogs may not understand humans’ generosity

Reputation is an important component in social interactions of animals...

There’s a lot of talk about how crops might suffer under climate change. New research from <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> finds that staple crops such as soy, corn, and rice will all be hurt by a warming climate. The researchers also found one staple crop that is expected to be unfazed by climate change - breadfruit, a native of the Pacific Islands.&nbsp;



Because the starchy fruit is resistant to climate change and grows well in areas with food insecurity, the researchers predict it could become more common as a staple food in other places as well.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Breadfruit is a neglected and underutilized species that happens to be relatively resilient in our climate change projections,” said study senior author Daniel Horton. “This is good news because several other staples that we rely on are not so resilient. In really hot conditions, some of those staple crops struggle and yields decrease. As we implement strategies to adapt to climate change, breadfruit should be considered in food security adaptation strategies.”



Despite its name, breadfruit is a starchy, seedless plant that has been boiled, fried, roasted or fermented for thousands of years. Like many other staples, breadfruit can also be made into flour.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Nyree Zerega is the director of the <a href="https://plantbiology.northwestern.edu/">Program in Plant Biology and Conservation</a>, a partnership between Northwestern and the Chicago Botanic Garden.&nbsp;



“Breadfruit trees can live for decades and provide a large amount of fruits each year. In some cultures, there is a tradition to plant a breadfruit tree when a child is born to ensure the child will have food for the rest of their life," said Zerega.



The researchers cultivated breadfruit under conditions reflecting two possible climate scenarios: one with an unlikely high amount of carbon and a second under a more likely scenario where carbon levels out. Under both conditions, breadfruit growth was relatively unaffected.&nbsp;



Next, the scientists identified places where breadfruit cultivation could be expanded - mainly in sub-Saharan Africa - and found that many of these places already suffer food insecurity. Breadfruit may be a possible solution as well as a future global solution.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Climate change further emphasizes the need to diversify agriculture, so the world doesn’t rely on a small number of crop species to feed a large number of people,” Zerega said.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/">PLOS Climate</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Food of the future: breadfruit is resistant to climate change

There’s a lot of talk about how crops might suffer...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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