Rare earth elements are everywhere - in your smartphone screen, in the MRI machine at the hospital, in the battery of an electric vehicle, and even in oil and gas refining. They are a key ingredient of modern life.



As global tensions rise, so does the competition for access to these minerals. Recent headlines show the stakes: China has halted rare earth exports to the United States, and a deal was just signed to secure U.S. access to Ukraine’s mineral resources.



Despite their name, rare earth elements aren’t actually scarce; what’s rare is finding them in high enough concentrations to mine economically. These deposits are scattered unevenly across the globe and often buried deep underground, shaping who controls their production and the global supply chain.



Scientists at <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tufts University</a> are trying to better understand how and why rare earth minerals ended up where they did. Their research reveals how the movement of continents over billions of years helped form - and hide - these valuable deposits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supercontinents-shaped-rare-deposits">Supercontinents shaped rare deposits</h2>



To explain how this mineral drama began, we need to go back in time. Way back. Earth's surface is always on the move. Over millions of years, massive landmasses shift, collide, and break apart, reshaping the planet in the process.



"Most of us are familiar with <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangea</a> - the supercontinent that formed about 300 million years ago and that the current seven continents broke off from to form their present-day arrangement," said Jill VanTongeren, professor and chair of the Department of Earth and Climate Sciences.



"But Pangea is only the most recent supercontinent. Throughout Earth history, there have been at least five major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-north-america-supercontinent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supercontinent</a> cycles - periods when continents all come together and then spread back out again into different pieces. We think this process happens roughly every 500 million years."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-minerals-begin">Where minerals begin</h2>



As these continents drifted apart, they created rifts - places where the Earth's tectonic plates pulled away from each other. These rifting zones became birthplaces for rare earth element-rich magmas.



"As the rocks are pushed apart, they decompress, causing melting. It's kind of like taking the lid off a soda bottle, and the bubbles rise to the surface," said VanTongeren.



"Those early magmas contain the highest abundance of rare earth and other incompatible elements that then enter the crust, either erupting in volcanic centers or solidifying at depth."



Some of these mineral-rich magmas cooled and stayed near the surface. Others got dragged back down into the mantle or remain buried too deep to mine with today’s technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-race-for-control-resources">A race for control resources</h2>



Today, the number of economically viable rare earth deposits is limited. China dominates the market, with nearly 70% of global production coming from its Bayan Obo mine. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crucial-rare-earth-elements-discovered-coal-mines-united-states/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S.</a> has a smaller operation at Mountain Pass in California, and a few other countries have scattered deposits.



In the late 1990s and early 2000s, China flooded the market with rare earth minerals, driving down prices and shutting down other global producers. That move reshaped global dependence.



In response, the U.S. government took steps to re-establish a domestic supply. Recent investments from the 2021 Infrastructure and Jobs Act and the Department of Defense aim to restart full operations at the Mountain Pass mine, though it could take up to a decade.



There’s also hope that Ukraine's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-is-on-a-mission-to-map-americas-mineral-wealth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mineral deposits</a> could help diversify supply. But for now, their potential remains unclear.



"Political boundaries and the desire to obtain access to mineral resources have been the source of economic and military conflicts throughout human history," said VanTongeren. "This is likely to continue as the world shifts toward green energy and a greater dependence on rare earth elements in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-for-mineral-deposits">Hunting for mineral deposits</h2>



VanTongeren’s work tracks these mineral stories from source to surface. Her fieldwork has taken her from a ship near Antarctica to platinum mines in South Africa, Morocco’s mountains, and even a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/huge-lithium-deposit-from-volanic-ash-found-in-pennsylvania/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithium</a> discovery in Maine.



"It's a fascinating area of study partly because it lies at the intersection of science, economics, and politics," she said. Back on the Tufts campus, this intersection takes a more visual form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tufts-secret-mineral-vault">Tufts' secret mineral vault</h2>



Tucked into the basement of Lane Hall, the P.T. Barnum Mineral Collection offers a glimpse into the Earth’s treasures. It includes thousands of mineral specimens, some collected by Barnum himself. He was an early supporter of Tufts and a major collector of natural history in the 1800s.



"In the late 1800s, it was considered fashionable for many prominent individuals to accumulate their own natural history collections," noted VanTongeren.



"P.T. Barnum was one of the biggest collectors of the time. His collection of animals, plants, and minerals was among the first gifts to Tufts University and part of an endowment to establish Tufts as one of the major natural history museums in the country."



After a fire destroyed the Barnum Museum in 1975, the mineral collection moved to Lane Hall. Now, it’s about to move again - this time to Bacon Hall, the new home for the Department of Earth and Climate Sciences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-hunt-for-rare-earth-elements">Global hunt for rare earth elements</h2>



VanTongeren hopes this new home will be more than just a storage site. She wants it to become a space that encourages curiosity and exploration, not just for scientists, but for everyone.



"My pie-in-the-sky vision is to set up a mineral gallery with both a permanent exhibit as well as pop-up exhibitions every semester highlighting minerals important for technology, related to other research at the university, or to global events," said VanTongeren.



"I'd like to help bring back Barnum's vision of bringing the beauty of, and an appreciation for, the natural world to campus."



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Global hunt for rare earth elements is underway

Rare earth elements are everywhere - in your smartphone screen, in the MRI machine at the hospital, in the battery of an electric vehicle, and even in oil and gas refining. They are a key ingredient of modern life. As global tensions rise, so does the competition for access to these minerals. Recent headlines show the stakes: China has halted rare earth exports to the United States, and a deal was just signed to secure U.S. access to Ukraine’s mineral resources. Despite their name, rare earth elements...

A new study from the University of Verona in Italy has found evidence of a correlation between long-term exposure to air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salt-pollution-threatens-freshwater-ecosystems/">pollution</a> and a heightened risk of autoimmune disease.&nbsp;



Examples of autoimmune disease identified in the study include rheumatoid arthritis; multiple sclerosis; systemic lupus erythematosus; inflammatory bowel diseases; and connective tissue diseases such as osteoarthritis.



Environmental air pollution comes from sources such as vehicle exhaust and industrial output. Normally, these types of pollutants trigger the body to react to a specific disease, causing entity through adaptive immunity. However, in some cases, adaptive immunity can misfire, leading to inflammation in the body as well as tissue damage and in the long term, autoimmune disease.&nbsp;



Over the last ten years, the prevalence of autoimmune disease has steadily increased, and the cause has remained a mystery. To investigate, the researchers gathered medical information on 81,363 men and women submitted from the national Italian fracture risk database (DeFRA) between 2016 and 2020.



Most of the participants were women (92 percent) with an average age of 65. Overall, 22 percent of the volunteers had at least one co-existing health condition. To understand how air pollution impacted their health, each participant was linked to a nearby air quality monitoring station.



The study evaluated the potential impacts of particulate matter, focussing on particulate matter levels of PM10 and PM2.5, the thresholds considered harmful to human health. Information on air quality was obtained from 617 monitoring stations in 110 Italian provinces. The results showed that 12 percent of participants had been diagnosed with an autoimmune disease between 2016 and 2020.&nbsp;



The study also identified how the disease risk varies depending on exposure to particulate matter and changes over time. For example, exposure to PM2.5 was not associated with an increased risk of autoimmune disease. At the same time, PM10 was associated with a seven percent heightened risk for every 10µg/m3 (10 micrograms / cubic meter) increase in levels.



The study showed an increased risk of autoimmune disease under long term exposure. Specifically, long term exposure to PM10 above 30 µg/m3 and to PM2.5 above 20 µg/m3 were associated with up to 13% higher risk of autoimmune disease.&nbsp;



The levels of particulate matter each participant was exposed to under a long term scenario resulted in specific diagnosis. For example, long term exposure to PM10 had a specific link to heightened risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Long term exposure to PM2.5 was associated with a heightened risk of rheumatoid arthritis, connective tissue diseases, and inflammatory bowel diseases.



Overall, prolonged exposure to traffic and industrial air pollutants resulted in a 40 percent higher risk of rheumatoid arthritis, a 20 percent higher risk of inflammatory bowel disease, and a 15 percent higher risk of connective tissue diseases.



While this study shed some light on the connections between long term air pollution and the risk of autoimmune disease, it cannot establish the root cause. As an observational study, the researchers noted some limitations that could have affected their findings.&nbsp;



For example, the data they relied on did not include dates of each participant's diagnosis, or when autoimmune symptoms first appeared. It was also noted that air quality monitoring may not reflect personal exposure to pollutants.&nbsp;



Despite these limitations, the researchers pointed to existing studies that have already linked air pollution to immune system abnormalities. Previous studies have linked smoking and toxins in fossil fuel emissions to rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://rmdopen.bmj.com/">RMD Open</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Air pollution linked to a greater risk of autoimmune disease

A new study from the University of Verona in Italy...

Although a future increase in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-cattle-industry-could-lose-billions-due-to-heat-stress/">heat</a> and drought is inevitable across some regions, the specifics are a little harder to nail down, especially in how the two phenomena will interact with each other. New research has investigated the circumstances under which droughts and heat waves will occur simultaneously. These double whammy weather extremes are known as&nbsp; “compound hot-dry events."



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ufz.de/index.php?en=33573">Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ</a> defined droughts as periods which were drier than 90 percent of the year, and heat events as periods which were hotter than 90 percent of the summer season.&nbsp;



“In the past, periods of drought and heat waves were often considered separately; there is, however, a strong correlation between the two events, which can be seen in the extremes experienced in 2003 and 2018 in Europe. The negative consequences of these compound extremes are often greater than with one single extreme,” said UFZ climate researcher Dr. Jakob Zscheischler.



The experts used a new modeling technique that produced more precise and telling conclusions than previous studies. The researchers used seven climate models and ran each model 100 times for different scenarios that represented natural variation.&nbsp;



The scientists then looked closely at the historical record for 1950 to 1980, and compared this climate to a future one with a two-degree increase from pre-industrial temperatures.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The advantage of these multiple simulations is that we have a much larger volume of data than with conventional model ensembles, enabling us to better estimate compound extremes,” explained study first author Dr. Emanuele Bevacqua.



The scientists found that compared to the time frame from 1950 to 1980, the frequency of hot-dry events will increase by four fold in a future with a two-degree temperature increase. The researchers also discovered that the deciding factor for hot-dry events is precipitation. This is because, as temperatures rise, every drought will be accompanied by extreme heat.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This demonstrates that local precipitation trends determine whether periods of drought and heat waves will occur simultaneously,” explained study co-author Emanuele Bevacqua.&nbsp;



The research is a step towards understanding the complexity of climate change and hopefully will help improve strategies for preparation and adaptation.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heat and drought extremes are now occurring simultaneously

Although a future increase in heat and drought is inevitable...

For years, we have been told that walking 10,000 daily steps is necessary for optimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-light-during-sleep-can-damage-your-health/">health</a> outcomes. However, that number is not based on science; it's based on an old marketing campaign for a Japanese pedometer.&nbsp;



Amanda Paluch is a physical activity epidemiologist at the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts</a>, who set out to create evidence-based recommendations for daily steps. In collaboration with an international team of scientists, Paluch has formed the Steps for Health Collaborative.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed 15 studies to help determine how many steps a person should take to increase their chances of living a long, healthy life. Ultimately, the experts reviewed studies on 50,000 people across four continents.&nbsp;



The team divided the participants into four groups to complete a meta-analysis based on their average daily steps. The lowest step group averaged 3,500 steps per day; the second averaged 5,800; the third averaged 7,800, and the fourth averaged 10,900 steps.



The experts found that the group with the three highest average step groups had a 40 to 53 percent lower risk of death than the group with the lowest average steps.



Overall, the analysis showed that taking more steps helped lower one's risk of dying prematurely. However, one does not necessarily have to walk 10,000 steps to live longer.&nbsp;



For adults 60 years and older, 6,000 to 8,000 steps per day were sufficient. After that, the benefits of walking leveled off, which means that more steps did not provide additional health benefits in terms of mortality. Adults under 60 saw stabilization at about 8,000 to 10,000 daily steps.&nbsp;



"So, what we saw was this incremental reduction in risk as steps increase, until it levels off," said Paluch. "And the leveling occurred at different step values for older versus younger adults."



The researchers also discovered that walking speed was not a determining factor in longevity. As long as a person walked a certain amount of steps, they were less likely to suffer premature death. This discovery is good news for public health advocates because it allows them to send a clear message, making recommendations easier for the public to implement.&nbsp;



"Steps are very simple to track, and there is a rapid growth of fitness tracking devices," said Paluch. "It's such a clear communication tool for public health messaging."



According to the researchers, the path to a healthier lifestyle is more accessible than we may think. Even if it's not fast or excessive, moving is beneficial, especially for those who already do very little.&nbsp;



This study was published in <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/home">The Lancet Public Health</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Optimal number of daily steps is not necessarily 10,000

For years, we have been told that walking 10,000 daily...

Blindness is a common and well known adaptation for animals living their entire lives in the total darkness of caves. In particular, blind cave fish live in the depths all over the world. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uc.edu/">University of Cincinnati</a> (UC) have been examining Mexican cave fish (Astyanax mexicanus) for years.&nbsp;



Previously, the experts have suggested that the fish’s asymmetrical head could be an adaptation to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-have-impressive-navigation-abilities/">navigating</a> in the dark. They discovered their pink color is controlled by the gene that gives people red hair. “I’ve been fascinated by these fish for a long time,” said UC Professor Joshua Gross.



Interestingly, despite obvious differences in appearance and physiology, the Mexican cave fish is the same species as some found above ground and the two can interbreed freely when they do happen to come into contact with each other.&nbsp;



“Unlike Charles Darwin’s finches in the Galapagos that are separated at the species level, both the cavefish and surface fish are considered members of the same species and can interbreed,” said Professor Gross.



One interesting difference between the fish above ground and the cave fish is that of oxygen levels in the water. Stream water is oxygenated by natural movement. Water in cave pools is often still and thus very low in dissolved oxygen content. The researchers wanted to know how the fish were able to survive this and the lack of nutrients found in caves.



“They move around all the time, but they have little access to nutrition," said study lead author Tyler Boggs. "It’s a paradox. They’re expending all this energy. Where does it come from?”



The scientists suspected that cave fish have more hematocrit in their blood to help them survive in the oxygen and nutrient poor cave environments. When they tested the blood, however. hematocrit levels were about the same. Interestingly, even though the hematocrit levels were not higher, the red blood cells themselves were much larger in the cave fish.&nbsp;



“That size difference largely explains the differences in hematocrit,” said Professor Gross. “We know very little about the mechanism of cell size in evolution, so this finding is something we could capitalize on to gain insight into how animals evolve elevated hemoglobin capacity.”



The scientists hope that understanding the cave fish adaptation to low oxygen levels might help us understand the lower oxygen levels created everywhere by climate change.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“There is a lot of ecological relevance here," said Boggs. "It’s happening in freshwater environments, saltwater environments. Researchers are trying to call attention to this awful issue.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do blind cave fish live in low oxygen waters?

Blindness is a common and well known adaptation for animals...

Although many scientists claim that people need at least eight hours of rest to support a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-immune-system-supports-healthy-bodies-too/">healthy</a> life, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">University of California, San Francisco</a> (UCSF) has found that sleep quality appears to be more important than quantity.



According to the scientists, some “elite sleepers” are gifted with genes that allow them to get sufficient rest with only four or six hours of sleep per night. Moreover, these people often show psychological resilience and resistance to various neurodegenerative conditions.



“There’s a dogma in the field that everyone needs eight hours of sleep, but our work to date confirms that the amount of sleep people need differs based on genetics,” said study senior author Louis Ptacek, a neurologist at UCSF. “Think of it as analogous to height; there’s no perfect amount of height, each person is different. We’ve shown that the case is similar for sleep.”



For more than a decade, Dr. Ptacek and his colleagues have studied people with “Familial Natural Short Sleep” (FNSS) - the ability to function fully on only four to six hours of sleep a night. They discovered that this capacity usually runs in families and, until now, they have identified five genes that play a fundamental role in enabling this highly efficient form of sleep.



In order to assess the potential resilience of people with FNSS against neurodegenerative disease, the researchers bred mice that had both the short-sleep genes and genes that predisposed them to Alzheimer’s disease, and found that their brains developed much less of the hallmark aggregates typically associated with dementia. The scientists believe that these efficient-sleep genes may also offer protection against other neurodegenerative conditions.



A better understanding of the biological underpinnings of sleep regulation could help scientists identify drugs that could help ward off sleeping disorders, and thus improve health and well-being.



“Every mutation we find is another piece,” said Dr. Ptacek. “Right now we’re working on the edges and the corners, to get to that place where it’s easier to put the pieces together and where the picture really starts to emerge.”



“This work opens the door to a new understanding of how to delay and possibly prevent a lot of diseases,” added study co-senior author Ying-Hui Fu, a neuroscientist at UCSF. “Our goal really is to help everyone live healthier and longer through getting optimum sleep.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

When it comes to sleep, it's quality over quantity that counts

Although many scientists claim that people need at least eight...

<a href="https://aetherdiamonds.com/">Aether</a>, a luxury <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-oldest-jewelry-discovered-in-morocco/">jewelry</a> company, has recently created diamonds that are literally made out of thin air. By pulling carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, Aether has managed to create lab-grown diamonds (LGD) that are physically and chemically identical with those that are mined. 



Since they extract 20 tons of carbon dioxide from the air for every one carat diamond sold, they manage to significantly contribute to climate change mitigation, by cancelling out more than the average American’s carbon footprint annually.



“I became instantly fascinated when I heard about this new direct-capture technology developed by a company in Switzerland that strips harmful CO2&nbsp;out of the atmosphere,” said Aether CEO Ryan Shearman. “I wondered if we could take all this abundant, harmful carbon that is warming the planet and turn it into a beautiful form of carbon that warms the heart - diamonds.”



The company uses a reactor to extract carbon dioxide from the air, which is then synthesized into the hydrocarbon feedstock required for growing diamonds in a chemical vapor deposition reactor powered by clean, sustainable energy. Once the diamond crystals are fully developed, experts cut and polish the gems.&nbsp;



Although the company has not revealed any cost details of their revolutionary diamond-making process, they claim that the production of their gems requires only half of the energy consumption needed in the case of mined diamonds. Moreover, the 127 gallons of water that are typically used for each mined carat are unnecessary when employing Aether’s groundbreaking methods.&nbsp;



“We're committed to the unprecedented modern alchemy of turning air pollution into precious stones, and committed to serving as a beacon for integrity and transparency in the diamond industry, where so many others have fallen short on that promise to consumers,” said Shearman.



According to Shearman, the goal over the next five years is to increase the production footprint to such a degree that they will remove enough carbon dioxide from the air to make the entire global diamond trade carbon neutral.



“We want to help the entire diamond industry transition to an ethical solution,” said Henry Elkus, the CEO of <a href="https://helena.org/">Helena</a>, a company that aims to find solutions to critical societal problems and has collaborated with Aether in the production of these diamonds. “And when it comes to buying a lab-grown diamond, many customers are drawn to them for ethical reasons. But Aether is more than just ethical. It really makes the world a better place. That’s the coolest story in town.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Revolutionary process turns carbon emissions into diamonds

Aether, a luxury jewelry company, has recently created diamonds that...

Peat is a carbon-rich soil formed from partly decomposed vegetation in wet conditions. Tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-peatlands-approach-a-climate-tipping-point/">peatlands</a> are crucial for storing carbon in the ground and providing habitat for exotic wildlife, such as tigers, birds, gibbons, fish, microbes, and specially-adapted plants. 



Moreover, cultivating peatlands often supports humans’ livelihood. Many small-scale farmers use peatlands to grow oil palm. However, in order to make the land suitable for farming, peatlands need to be drained, which affects animal and plant habitats and can cause carbon emissions. In addition, the drained land can become prone to fires.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a> has found that restoring drained peatland through processes of “re-wetting” – where canals draining water away are blocked or filled in – supports bird diversity while not affecting the viability of oil palm grown by farmers in Indonesia. This is where 47 percent of global tropical peatlands are located, mainly on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra.



&nbsp;“Indonesia has been very successful in reducing deforestation and considerable effort has gone into peat restoration to avoid fires. But one of the big challenges is the trade-off between livelihoods of owners of small farms and ensuring biodiversity in these areas,” said Dr. Eleanor Warren-Thomas, a conservation scientist at <a href="https://www.bangor.ac.uk/">Bangor University</a> who led the study while working at York.



“What this new study shows is that retaining more water in oil palm farms to reduce fire risk seems to have no effect on yields, which is good news for farmers. In contrast to the concerns of some plantations, retaining water levels close to the surface (40cm or less) still enables oil palm cultivation.”



By also surveying the bird species in one of the remaining peat swamp forest areas nearby, Dr. Warren-Thomas and her colleagues highlighted the importance of protecting the remaining forest for bird conservation.



“These unique birds can also act as seed dispersers - crucial if in the longer-term forest restoration becomes an option.”



“One of the conclusions of the study is that larger-scale industrial farming organizations would be able to help further studies in this area, if they are able to publish their data and share their knowledge to inform sustainable oil palm production strategies.”



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.14135">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical peatlands can be restored without impacting oil palm farmers

Peat is a carbon-rich soil formed from partly decomposed vegetation...

A recent study published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/13032">PeerJ</a> has described the fossils of a sabre-toothed mammal (Diegoaelurus vanvalkenburghae) that lived during the early Eocene, approximately 40 million years ago. The specimen included a lower jaw and well-preserved teeth, thus offering crucial information about the evolution of the first hypercarnivores, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vacation-photos-can-help-save-endangered-animals/">animals</a> that have a predominantly meat-based diet.



“Today the ability to eat an all-meat diet, also called hypercarnivory, isn’t uncommon. Tigers do it, polar bears can do it. If you have a house cat, you may even have a hypercarnivore at home. But 42 million years ago, mammals were only just figuring out how to survive on meat alone,” said study lead author Dr. Ashley Poust, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.sdnhm.org/">San Diego Natural History Museum</a> (The Nat). “One big advance was to evolve specialized teeth for slicing flesh - which is something we see in this newly described specimen.”



The specimen was discovered in the Santiago Formation, a region in the San Diego County in Southern California containing 42-million-old rocks with a large number of fossils including early tapirs, strange sheep-like, herbivorous oreodonts, and tiny rhinos.



D. vanvalkenburghae is part of a mysterious group of animals called Machaeroidines that are now completely extinct and are not closely related to today’s living predators.&nbsp;



“We know so little about Machaeroidines, so every new discovery greatly expands our picture of them,” said study co-author Dr. Shawn Zack, a postdoctoral fellow in Anatomy at the <a href="https://phoenixmed.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona College of Medicine</a>. “This relatively complete, well-preserved&nbsp;Diegoaelurus&nbsp;fossil is especially useful because the teeth let us infer the diet and start to understand how Machaeroidines are related to each other.”



This ancient hypercarnivore was about the size of a bobcat, but had a downturned bony chin protecting its sabre teeth.&nbsp;



“Nothing like this had existed in mammals before. A few mammal ancestors had long fangs, but&nbsp;Diegoaelurus&nbsp;and its few relatives represent the first cat-like approach to an all-meat diet, with sabre-teeth in front and slicing scissor teeth called carnassials in the back. It’s a potent combination that several animal groups have independently evolved in the millions of years since,” explained Dr. Poust.



According to the scientists, this mammal and its relatives were an evolutionary experiment, a first stab at a hypercarnivorous lifestyle. It is one of the most recent machaeroidine predators and precedes other cat-like animals such as the nimravids or sabre-tooth false-cats. The richness of prey species co-existing with it in the San Diego County 40 million years ago most probably allowed it to live the life of a specialized hunter before most other mammals.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient sabre-tooth sheds light on the evolution of hypercarnivores

A recent study published in the journal PeerJ has described...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en.html">University of Auckland</a> is providing the first physiological evidence of how and why sharks <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-light-during-sleep-can-damage-your-health/">sleep</a>. The experts confirmed that sharks sleep with a flat and rigid body posture - and often do so with their eyes wide open.



For the investigation, researchers from New Zealand and Australia observed draughtsboard sharks in the Hauraki Gulf off the coast of Auckland. Draughtsboard sharks, also known as the carpet sharks, are known to frequently lie stationary on the seafloor.



Beyond observing the sharks, the team measured their metabolic rate to analyze how much energy they are burning in a restful state.&nbsp;



"Sleep is a ubiquitous behavior found across the animal kingdom, which is typically characterized by sustained immobility and reduced responsiveness. Despite the vulnerability inherent with sleeping, its persistence across evolutionary time suggests it serves one or more core functions," wrote the study authors.



"One hypothesis for such a core function is that sleep serves to conserve energy through enforcing restfulness and lowering metabolic rate relative to wakefulness. Energy savings during sleep have been reported in diverse animals, including humans, cats, rats, birds and fruit flies. It is unknown, however, whether reduced energy expenditure also occurs in sleeping fishes."



The researchers explained that sharks represent the earliest group of jawed vertebrates, so they could potentially provide insight into the evolution of sleep among vertebrates.



"This rationale is particularly salient following the recent discovery of two sleep states in teleosts and in at least two species of lizard that in some respects resemble mammalian and avian non-rapid eye movement and REM sleep," noted the study authors.&nbsp;



"The existence of two sleep states in birds and mammals suggests that each state performs a different, but perhaps complementary, function. Any homology between the multiple sleep states observed in ectothermic vertebrates to that of endothermic vertebrates is unclear."



According to the researchers, their results show that - like with many vertebrates - sleep in sharks is associated with reduced metabolic rate.&nbsp;



"Thus, the hypothesis that sleep is important for energy conservation is supported by this study in a primitive vertebrate," wrote the researchers.



"Sleep is largely unstudied in this diverse group of cartilaginous fishes and future research should focus on other physiological indicators of sleep, such as changes in brain activity, for a more complete portrait of sleep in these vertebrates."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sharks can literally sleep with their eyes open

A new study from the University of Auckland is providing...

I have long covered the often <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/americas-wild-horse-removals-are-counterproductive/">controversial management</a> of wild horses in the United States, where the animals are specifically protected by congressional mandate yet rounded up, often to make more room for cattle grazing. Traditional managing methods involve rounding up wild horses and relocating them to facilities where they wait for adoption indefinitely.&nbsp;



An omnibus spending bill that was recently released by Congress would require the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to spend $11 million on immunocontraceptive fertility control that advocates argue is more humane. This follows a campaign by the <a href="https://americanwildhorsecampaign.org/">American Wild Horse Campaign</a> (AWHC) and other animal organizations to implement better, more humane horse and burro control methods.



“We thank Congress for taking this critical first step toward humane management of our nation’s federally-protected wild horse herds, which is the best strategy to ultimately move away from unsustainable helicopter roundups,” said Holly Gann Bice, director of government relations of AWHC.&nbsp;



“While we remain concerned about the overall support for the current unscientific and costly mass removal plan, Congress is finally requiring movement toward much-needed reform by mandating the use of humane fertility control vaccines.”



The final bill includes other directives for wild horse and burro management, including options for relocating animals to different management areas rather than removing them. A review of the BLM’s adoption incentives program, which is often criticized for placing animals in sometimes inappropriate homes that turn a profit, is also included. The bill calls for the creation of public-private partnerships and the creation of an interagency task force as well.



Wild horse advocates didn’t get everything they wanted in this new bill, however. The budget for roundup and removal of horses and burros was increased by $21 million, although this is less than the $35 million that the administration requested.&nbsp;



The AWHC also called for the administration to consider a broader examination not just of wild horses but environmental degradation in a broader context. The AWHC claims that horses and burros are disproportionately blamed for these problems when cattle, raised on public land for a profit, cause more environmental harm.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Overall, horse and burro protection enjoys strong bipartisan support in the United States, with 88 percent of Americans saying they want the animals protected.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Congress takes a step toward humane management of wild horses

I have long covered the often controversial management of wild...

It is far healthier to sleep in a darkened room, finds a new study by scientists at <a href="https://www.nm.org/">Northwestern Medicine</a>. Close the blinds, draw the curtains and turn off all the lights before bed, they recommend.&nbsp;Exposure to even moderate ambient lighting during nighttime sleep, can increase your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/retinal-scans-can-reveal-early-signs-of-heart-disease/">heart</a> rate, as well as your insulin resistance the following morning.



It is well known that light stimulates our sympathetic nervous system to become active in the morning when we wake, and this increases heart rate and the speed of metabolic processes. It is now thought that light has a similar effect on us if we are exposed during our sleeping time. And an unbelievable 40 percent of us sleep with some form of light-emitting device in our bedrooms at night – a bedside lamp, the television, or even the main bedroom light. That’s not to mention how many of us have incident light in our bedrooms at night from external sources such as street lights.&nbsp;



“The results from this study demonstrate that just a single night of exposure to moderate room lighting during sleep can impair glucose and cardiovascular regulation, which are risk factors for heart disease, diabetes and metabolic syndrome,” said senior study author Dr. Phyllis Zee, chief of sleep medicine at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine and a Northwestern Medicine physician. “It’s important for people to avoid or minimize the amount of light exposure during sleep.”



The autonomic nervous system has two branches that act with opposite effects. The sympathetic branch is activated during the day and readies us for the tasks and challenges we will face. The parasympathetic branch takes over during sleep and it slows us down in order for the body to repair and restore itself.&nbsp;



“We showed your heart rate increases when you sleep in a moderately lit room,” said Dr. Daniela Grimaldi, a co-first author and research assistant professor of neurology at Northwestern. “Even though you are asleep, your autonomic nervous system is activated. That’s bad. Usually, your heart rate together with other cardiovascular parameters are lower at night and higher during the day.”&nbsp;



The researchers tested the effect on participants’ heart rate of sleeping with 100 lux (moderate) compared to 3 lux (dim) of light over a single night. They found that moderate light exposure caused the body to remain in a more alert state. In this state, the heart rate increases as well as the force with which the heart contracts, and the speed of blood flow through the blood vessels.



“These findings are important particularly for those living in modern societies where exposure to indoor and outdoor nighttime light is increasingly widespread,” noted Dr. Zee.&nbsp;



In addition, the researchers measured insulin resistance in participants after they spent a night sleeping in a lit room. The participants showed insulin resistance the following morning. Insulin is the hormone that helps keep blood sugar at acceptable levels and insulin resistance refers to the condition where cells in the muscles and liver don’t respond to the presence of insulin. This means that glucose from the blood cannot be stored and the levels of sugar cannot be regulated between meals. In response, even though the pancreas secretes more and more insulin, the blood glucose increases to dangerous levels over time.&nbsp;



In a previous study, published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, researchers investigated a large population of healthy people who were exposed to light during their sleep time. The study found that these people were more likely to be overweight or obese, explained Dr. Zee. “Now we are showing a mechanism that might be fundamental to explain why this happens. We show it’s affecting your ability to regulate glucose.”&nbsp;



The participants in the current study weren’t aware of the biological changes in their bodies at night.&nbsp;"But the brain senses it,” said Dr. Grimaldi. “It acts like the brain of somebody whose sleep is light and fragmented. The sleep physiology is not resting the way it’s supposed to.”



Exposure to light during the daytime has important health benefits, not least of them being the production of vitamin D in the body. However, it seems that exposure to light during the dark hours carries potential negative consequences for health.&nbsp;



“In addition to sleep, nutrition and exercise, light exposure during the daytime is an important factor for health, but during the night we show that even modest intensity of light can impair measures of heart and endocrine health,” said Dr. Zee.



According to Dr. Zee, the following tips will help reduce the effects of light while we sleep:&nbsp;



<ul><li>Don’t turn lights on. If you need to have a light on (which older adults may want for safety), make it a dim light that is close to the floor.</li></ul>



<ul><li>If you are able to see things really well in your room at night, you probably have too much light for your own good health.</li></ul>



<ul><li>Color is important. Amber, red or orange light is less stimulating for the brain. Don’t use white or blue light and keep it far away from the sleeping person.</li></ul>



<ul><li>Blackout shades or eye masks are good if you can’t control the outdoor light. Move your bed so the outdoor light isn’t shining on your face.</li></ul>



The results of this study are published today in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exposure to light during sleep can damage your health

It is far healthier to sleep in a darkened room,...

Over the next 30 years, the world’s urban population is expected to increase by 2.5 billion people. This urban expansion is projected to take place in some of the world’s most biodiverse regions where many species are already under threat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higher-levels-of-biodiversity-reduce-extinction-risks-in-birds/">extinction</a>.&nbsp;



A new study led by <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> has revealed that urban expansion of up to 1.53 million square kilometers over the next 30 years will threaten the survival of up to 855 species.&nbsp;



The study identified "hotspot cities" where urban growth coincides with biodiverse habitats. The cities that pose the greatest threat to wildlife due to urban expansion are located in central Mexico, the Caribbean, Haiti, Nigeria, Cameroon, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand.



The study also highlights how cities can balance urban expansion while proactively protecting biodiverse habitats to avoid the potential loss of species.&nbsp;



“We can build cities differently than we have in the past. They can be good for the planet; they can save species; they can be biodiversity hubs and save land for nature.’’ said study co-author Karen Seto, a professor in the Yale School of the Environment (YSE).



Containing urban sprawl to avoid habitat destruction will be a challenge, especially due to growing economic demands. This will require strong governance structures, awareness of habitats and persevering biodiversity.&nbsp;



The research comes at an important time when the international community is preparing for the 15th Conference of Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity in April. The goal of the conference is to develop a renewed biodiversity conservation framework.&nbsp;



The Yale researchers point to the critical need for global conservation efforts to include policies that preserve species in urban lands.



“We are at a critical moment when the world’s governments are renegotiating their commitments to the Convention on Biological Diversity. This study is important since it lets us quantify, for the first time, which specific species are most threatened by urban growth and where urban protected areas are needed to safeguard them,’’ said Robert McDonald, who is the lead scientist for nature-based solutions at The Nature Conservancy.



The researchers are hopeful that this study will help inform decision makers in key regions to plan for urban growth that minimizes biodiversity loss.&nbsp;



“The majority of these places have yet to be built,’’ noted Professor Seto. “Science-driven policies that guide how the cities of tomorrow get built will have a tremendous effect.”



International agreements on biodiversity and conservation, investments that protect the habitat of vulnerable species and targeted local action are proven solutions that can help reduce impacts.&nbsp;



The results of the study and projected urban expansion and biodiversity impact can be found <a href="https://nam12.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fmol.org%2Fspecies%2Fprojection%2Furban&amp;data=04%7C01%7Cfran.silverman%40yale.edu%7C7615581700534a36fd2f08da00816222%7Cdd8cbebb21394df8b4114e3e87abeb5c%7C0%7C0%7C637822852935299134%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C3000&amp;sdata=pMuKvvcb7m7Cc%2BdHy9TOyi7fDCrFJVjYxewN2TpbhgE%3D&amp;reserved=0">here</a>. The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Future cities must be designed to protect biodiverse habitats

Over the next 30 years, the world’s urban population is...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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