Before heading to one of the most intriguing moons in our solar system, NASA’s Europa Clipper took a quick detour - and a few snapshots - during its recent flyby of Mars.



The mission used the opportunity to test one of its most important tools: an infrared camera that will later scan Jupiter’s icy moon, Europa, for heat and hidden activity beneath its frozen shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-europa-clipper-s-eyes-on-mars">Testing Europa Clipper’s eyes on Mars</h2>



The spacecraft passed just 550 miles (885 kilometers) above the Martian surface on March 1. This close approach wasn’t just for sightseeing. The team needed Mars's gravity to give Europa Clipper a boost on its long journey to Jupiter.



But it also allowed researchers to put the spacecraft's thermal imaging system to work, capturing over 1,000 grayscale images of the Red Planet. 



These images, later colorized to represent warmer and cooler regions, will help scientists verify the instrument’s accuracy.



“We wanted no surprises in these new images,” said <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>’s Phil Christensen, principal investigator of Europa Clipper’s infrared camera, called the Europa Thermal Imaging System (E-THEMIS). 



“The goal was to capture imagery of a planetary body we know extraordinarily well and make sure the dataset looks exactly the way it should, based on 20 years of instruments documenting Mars.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thermal-imaging-for-europa-clipper">Thermal imaging for Europa Clipper</h2>



Europa Clipper’s real target is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-will-search-for-signs-of-life-on-jupiters-icy-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">icy moon of Jupiter</a> - a world that may hide a global ocean beneath its crust. Scientists believe this ocean could be one of the most promising places in the solar system to search for signs of life.



Thermal imaging will play a crucial role in that search. When the spacecraft begins a series of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-mission-set-to-search-for-life-on-jupiters-ocean-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">49 flybys of Europa</a>, starting in 2030, its infrared camera will map the moon’s surface temperatures. 



These temperature maps can reveal where the ice is unusually warmer, which may indicate recent geological activity or spots where the ocean lies close beneath the surface.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/mars_thermal-image_Europa-Clipper_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/mars_thermal-image_Europa-Clipper_NASA_1s.webp" alt="This picture of Mars is a colorized composite of several images captured by Europa Clipper’s thermal imager. Warm colors represent relatively warm temperatures; red areas are about 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius), and purple regions are about minus 190 F (minus 125 C). Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU" class="wp-image-1969748"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This picture of Mars is a colorized composite of several images captured by Europa Clipper’s thermal imager. Warm colors represent relatively warm temperatures; red areas are about 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius), and purple regions are about minus 190 F (minus 125 C). Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU</figcaption></figure>



“We want to measure the temperature of those features,” Christensen explained. “If Europa is a really active place, those fractures will be warmer than the surrounding ice where the ocean comes close to the surface. Or if water erupted onto the surface hundreds to thousands of years ago, then those surfaces could still be relatively warm.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-e-themis-with-mars-data">Testing E-THEMIS with Mars data</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-gets-a-boost-from-mars-on-its-way-to-jupiter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> made an ideal test subject. Its surface has been studied for decades, making it easy to compare new images from E-THEMIS with past thermal data from other missions.



To be thorough, NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter - which carries a sibling instrument called THEMIS - collected its own images of Mars before, during, and after the Europa Clipper flyby. Comparing these datasets helps the team confirm that E-THEMIS is functioning as intended.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radar-and-gravity-tests-along-the-way">Radar and gravity tests along the way</h2>



Besides testing the thermal imaging system, the flyby gave the team a chance to check out the spacecraft’s radar components. 



This was the first time engineers operated all the radar parts together in space. These antennas, which use long wavelengths, are too large to test fully in ground-based clean rooms.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/mars_infrared_Europa-Clipper-photo_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/mars_infrared_Europa-Clipper-photo_NASA_1s.webp" alt="This picture of Mars is a composite of several images captured by Europa Clipper’s thermal imager on March 1. Bright regions are relatively warm, with temperatures of about 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius). Darker areas are colder. The darkest region at the top is the northern polar cap and is about minus 190 F (minus 125 C). Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU" class="wp-image-1969746"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This picture of Mars is a composite of several images captured by Europa Clipper’s thermal imager on March 1. Bright regions are relatively warm, with temperatures of about 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius). Darker areas are colder. The darkest region at the top is the northern polar cap and is about minus 190 F (minus 125 C). Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU</figcaption></figure>



Preliminary telemetry data from the radar systems looks promising, though more analysis is still underway.



The flyby also allowed the team to run communication tests. By transmitting signals through Mars’s gravitational field, they simulated the kind of gravity science experiments they hope to conduct at Europa. The results suggest those future experiments will work just fine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-charting-the-course-to-jupiter">Charting the course to Jupiter</h2>



The spacecraft began its journey on October 14, 2024, launching from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket. The 1.8 billion-mile (2.9 billion-kilometer) trip to Jupiter includes a few gravity assists - the Mars flyby being the first. The next assist will come from Earth in 2026.



Once it reaches the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-our-trip-to-jupiter-taking-so-long/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> system in 2030, Europa Clipper will orbit the planet and begin detailed observations of Europa.



The mission’s goals are to determine the thickness of Europa’s ice shell, examine how the surface interacts with the subsurface ocean, analyze the moon’s composition, and study its geology. By doing so, scientists hope to understand better whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-on-europa-co2-discovery-by-webb-increases-the-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa could support life</a>.



Europa Clipper is led by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in partnership with the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory. Arizona State University leads the development of the E-THEMIS instrument, which is essential for detecting thermal variations across Europa’s icy terrain.



Information for this article was obtained from a JPL <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/europa-clipper/nasas-europa-clipper-captures-mars-in-infrared/">press release</a>.



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Europa Clipper captured Mars in thermal and infrared photos on its way to Jupiter's moon

Before heading to one of the most intriguing moons in our solar system, NASA’s Europa Clipper took a quick detour - and a few snapshots - during its recent flyby of Mars. The mission used the opportunity to test one of its most important tools: an infrared camera that will later scan Jupiter’s icy moon, Europa, for heat and hidden activity beneath its frozen shell. Testing Europa Clipper’s eyes on Mars The spacecraft passed just 550 miles (885 kilometers) above the Martian surface on March 1. This...

Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-interact-within-social-groups/">animals</a> make sounds and calls as a form of communication, usually being associated with mating or survival. However, a new creature call has been discovered that is significantly harder to hear – the frantic survival signals of the honey bee (Apis cerana). New research from <a href="https://www.wellesley.edu/">Wellesley College</a> has documented these honey bee calls, which are used to alert hives of giant “murder hornet" attacks.&nbsp;



An international team of researchers led by Heather Mattila discovered that the bees use the calls to protect themselves from hornets (Vespa soror) that are capable of wiping out entire colonies. The call has been coined as the “antipredator pipe,” with the researchers claiming it produces a distinct and chilling sound.&nbsp;



“The pipes share traits in common with a lot of mammalian alarm signals, so as a mammal hearing them, there's something that is instantly recognizable as communicating danger,” said Matilla. “It feels like a universal experience.”



“Hissing” and “stop signal” sounds have been previously studied in bee colonies, but antipredator pipes are more harsh, irregular, and with abruptly shifting frequencies. The researchers compare the sound to the panic calls that primates, meerkats, and birds make in response to predators.



“[Bees] are constantly communicating with each other, in both good times and in bad, but the antipredator signal exchange is particularly important during dire moments when rallying workers for colony defense is imperative,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



To protect the hive from giant hornets, the signal results in an abundance of bee activity at the hive entrance, in addition to defense mechanisms such as the spreading of animal dung and forming collective “bee balls.”



The calls have been studied through the audio and visual recordings of Asian honey bees in Vietnam, ultimately resulting in over 21 hours of signals. The sounds were described as noisy and frenetic, with hive chatter increasing eight fold in comparison to when there was no danger present.



“This research shows how amazingly complex signals produced by Asian hive bees can be,” said study co-author Gard Otis. “We feel like we have only grazed the surface of understanding their communication. There’s a lot more to be learned.”&nbsp;



According to the study, the antipredator pipes resulted in the bees raising their abdomens, buzzing their wings, running frantically, and revealing their pheromone-producing nasonov gland. The totality of this behavior ultimately suggests that the bees attract the attention of their nestmates through the generation of multiple types of information.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>. &nbsp;



&nbsp;---



By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Honey bees use frantic signals to warn of murder hornets

Many animals make sounds and calls as a form of...

Neurons (brain cells) carry information within the brain as well as between the brain and the rest of the nervous system. They communicate with each other using chemical signals, as well as by means of tiny electrical impulses that are generated by the movements of ions into and out of the cells.&nbsp;



Ions of potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+) enter and exit neurons by means of specific ion channels across the cell membranes. This movement causes a difference in charge between the outside and inside of the cell, which leads to the generation of a nerve impulse.



Previous research, conducted by Mark Harnett and Lou Beaulieu-Laroche&nbsp;in 2018, showed that human neurons have far fewer ion channels along their length than rat neurons have. This was a surprising finding as the scientists had assumed that ion channel density was constant between mammalian species.&nbsp;



The researchers decided to compare the density of ion channels in neurons from several different mammalian species to see if they could find any patterns in the expression of ion channels. They obtained brain tissue from 10 mammalian species for this investigation: Etruscan shrews (one of the smallest known mammals), gerbils, mice, rats, Guinea pigs, ferrets, rabbits, marmosets, and macaques, as well as human tissue removed from patients with epilepsy during brain surgery&nbsp;



The study focused on two types of voltage-gated potassium channels and the HCN channel, which conducts both potassium and sodium, in layer five pyramidal neurons, a type of excitatory neuron found in the brain’s cortex.



The researchers found a general trend, in the mammalian species they investigated, that the density of ion channels increased as the neurons got longer. This was unexpected as the more channels there are, the more energy is required to pump ions in and out of the brain cell. However, when they took into consideration the overall size of the cortex in the brain, the relationship made more sense.&nbsp;



For example, the tiny brain of the Etruscan shrew is tightly packed with very small neurons such that there are more neurons in a given volume of tissue than in the same volume of tissue from the rabbit brain, which has much larger neurons. But because the rabbit neurons are longer and have a higher density of ion channels, the density of channels in a given volume of tissue is the same in both species, or any of the nonhuman species the researchers analyzed.&nbsp;



The one exception to this pattern was in human neurons, which had a much lower density of ion channels than expected.



“Previous comparative studies established that the human brain is built like other mammalian brains, so we were surprised to find strong evidence that human neurons are special,” said former MIT graduate student Lou Beaulieu-Laroche.



“This building plan is consistent across nine different mammalian species,” says Harnett, an associate professor of brain and cognitive sciences, a member of MIT’s McGovern Institute for Brain Research, and the senior author of the study. “What it looks like the cortex is trying to do is keep the numbers of ion channels per unit volume the same across all the species. This means that for a given volume of cortex, the energetic cost is the same, at least for ion channels.”



Human brains make a striking exception to the above relationship. Instead of increased density of ion channels, the researchers found a dramatic decrease in the density of ion channels for a given volume of brain tissue. They believe that this lower density may be a response to energetic constraints; if less energy is expended on pumping ions across the membrane, the brain will be able to use that energy for something else, like creating more complicated connections between neurons or firing nerve impulses at a higher rate.



“If the brain can save energy by reducing the density of ion channels, it can spend that energy on other neuronal or circuit processes,” said Harnett. “We think that humans have evolved out of this building plan that was previously restricting the size of cortex, and they figured out a way to become more energetically efficient, so you spend less ATP per unit volume compared to other species."



The experts said that research is needed to determine where the extra energy gets used, and whether there are specific gene mutations that help neurons of the human cortex achieve this high efficiency. In addition, they would like to investigate whether other primate species that are more closely related to humans show a similar reduction in ion channel density.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mammals share the same brain structure, with the exception of humans

Neurons (brain cells) carry information within the brain as well...

New research from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> reconstructed the Earth’s climate for the last 24,000 years - since the last ice age. The goal of the research was to look more closely at global warming to see how far “out of bounds” human activity has pushed the climate.&nbsp;



The researchers found that main drivers of climate change are greenhouse gases and the feedback loop of melting ice sheets. They determined that the last 10,000 years has been a warming period for Earth.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the experts report that warming for the last 150 years has been much faster than for the last 24,000 years.&nbsp;



"This reconstruction suggests that current temperatures are unprecedented in 24,000 years, and also suggests that the speed of human-caused global warming is faster than anything we've seen in that same time," said study co-author Professor Jessica Tierney.



Study lead author Matthew Osman, a postdoctoral researcher in Geosciences, created global maps showing the change in climate every 200 years going back to 24,000 years ago.&nbsp;



"The fact that we're today so far out of bounds of what we might consider normal is cause for alarm and should be surprising to everybody," said Osman.



"These maps are really powerful. With them, it's possible for anyone to explore how temperatures have changed across Earth, on a very personal level. For me, being able to visualize the 24,000-year evolution of temperatures at the exact location I'm sitting today, or where I grew up, really helped ingrain a sense of just how severe climate change is today."



To create the maps, the scientists combined two datasets - temperature from marine sediments and computer simulated climate models. The experts used a method called data assimilation. Professor Tierney explained that this method is commonly used in weather forecasting,



"To forecast the weather, meteorologists start with a model that reflects current weather, then add in observations such as temperature, pressure, humidity, wind direction, and so on to create an updated forecast."



The research provides a glimpse into a future with rising greenhouse gases, as well as a window into the past, and will hopefully serve as a useful tool for planning.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Global warming over the last 150 years is unprecedented

New research from the University of Arizona reconstructed the Earth’s...

The effect that heat extremities have on humans is well documented, with the vast majority of worldwide regions seeing an increase in the intensity of such weather extremes due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-may-cause-birds-to-cancel-their-migrations/">global warming</a>. However, the frequency of such events is also increasing, resulting in what is known as compound heat extremes.



Compound heat is when heat extremes occur consecutively over day and night, as opposed to occasionally during day or night. Unfortunately, research in this area is currently lacking, and not much is known about how often this is happening and how it is affecting society. It is a particularly large problem in the eastern regions of China.



A new study from the <a href="http://english.iap.cas.cn/">Institute of Atmospheric Physics</a> (IAP) at the Chinese Academy of Sciences has investigated exactly this, revealing just how compound heat extremes affect human health. The researchers also investigated the drivers of compound heat extremes, as well as the future risk they impose on the cities of Eastern China.



The results suggest that compound heat extremes present significantly higher danger than solely day or night heat, particularly within the demographic of females and elderly residents.



Between 1961 and 2014, heat extremes in urban areas have increased in eastern China by 1.76 days per decade. The source of this could clearly be traced to the urbanization of the region in addition to anthropogenic emissions such as aerosols and greenhouse gases.



Urbanization was estimated to contribute to 0.51 days per decade, with greenhouse gases contributing 1.63 and other anthropogenic forcings by -0.54. However, without mitigation efforts toward future emissions and urbanization, these severe events could further increase in frequency by up to five times. This would ultimately lead to urban population exposure growth of between three and six times.



"Our study reveals that the public health risks from anthropogenic increases in compound hot extremes have been increasing and will continue to increase over cities in eastern China," explained study lead author Dr. Jun Wang.



The age-specific vulnerabilities that have been uncovered by the study present further implications of elevated health burdens. This is mainly due to the urban population of eastern Chinese regions increasing in age overall.



The study was supported jointly by the National Key Research and Development Programme of China and the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Compound heat extremes are increasing in eastern China

The effect that heat extremities have on humans is well...

Lizard,Water,Dragon

New research from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> looks closely at the dangers of rapid evolution. A team of researchers led by Dr. Jorge Hererra-Flores looked at lepidosauria, a group which includes lizards, snakes and their relatives. Modern lepidosaurs contain 10,000 extant species, and recent success among this group is due to quick evolutionary change. Historically though, lepidosaurs have been slow to change.&nbsp;



“Lepidosaurs originated 250 million years ago in the early Mesozoic Era, and they split into two major groups, the squamates on the one hand, leading to modern lizards and snakes, and the rhynchocephalians on the other, represented today by a single species, the tuatara of New Zealand. We expected to find slow evolution in rhynchocephalians, and fast evolution in squamates. But we found the opposite," said Dr. Herrera-Flores.



The research confirms ideas first put forward by paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson in his 1944 book Tempo and Mode in Evolution, where he suggested that fast evolving groups were generally unstable and prone to extinction from quickly changing conditions.&nbsp;



“We looked at the rate of change in body size among these early reptiles," said study co-author Dr. Tom Stubbs. "We found that some groups of squamates evolved fast in the Mesozoic, especially those with specialised lifestyles like the marine mosasaurs. But rhynchocephalians were much more consistently fast-evolving.”



“In fact, their average rates of evolution were significantly faster than those for squamates, about twice the background rate of evolution, and we really did not expect this," noted study co-author Dr. Armin Elsler.



"In the later part of the Mesozoic all the modern groups of lizards and snakes originated and began to diversify, living side-by-side with the dinosaurs, but probably not engaging with them ecologically. These early lizards were feeding on bugs, worms, and plants, but they were mainly quite small.”



Professor Mike Benton emphasized the downside to quick evolution. “In some cases, they can stabilize and survive well, but in many cases the species go extinct as fast as new ones emerge, and they can go extinct, just like the napping hare. On the other hand, Simpson predicted that slowly evolving species might also be slow to go extinct, and could in the end be successful in the longer term, just like the slow-moving but persistent tortoise in the fable.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14754983">Paleontology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Quickly evolving species face greater threat of extinction

New research from the University of Bristol looks closely at...

New research led by the <a href="https://www.dpz.eu/en/home.html">German Primate Center</a> (DPZ) has found that Guinea baboons (Papio papio) live in equalitarian groups, with both males and females occasionally acting as leaders and managing to successfully initiate collective actions, such as departures for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/foraging-habits-of-seabirds-altered-by-turbulent-tidal-flows/">foraging</a>.



Guinea baboons are one of the six species of baboons found in Africa. While the chacma, kinda, olive, and yellow baboons form uni-level societies, with groups consisting of several males, females, and youngsters, hamadrya and Guinea baboons form multi-level social organizations, with single males living with several females and their children in what researchers call “clans.”&nbsp;



In the case of hamadrya baboons, male-male and male-female relationships tend to be characterized by competition and subordination, with males always playing the role of group leaders. By contrast, Guinea baboons seemed to form more fluid and equalitarian social organizations.



"We wanted to find out which individuals in Guinea baboons influence collective decisions like group departures," said study co-author William O'Hearn, a doctoral student in Cognitive Ethology at DPZ. "We already know that in chacma, olive and yellow baboons, males and females lead the groups; in hamadryas baboons, it's exclusively males. So it was interesting to ask what the situation is in Guinea baboons."&nbsp;



By observing a group of 131 Guinea baboons in the Niokolo-Koba National Park in Senegal over a period of two years, the researchers found that both sexes successfully initiated group departures and acted as group leaders. Moreover, during group progressions, bachelor males were predominantly found in the front of the group, while reproductively active males and females were observed with similar frequency across the whole group.



“The results of the study show that although Guinea baboons live in a similar social system as hamadryas baboons, they have a different leadership structure," explained study co-author Julia Fischer, head of the Cognitive Ethology Laboratory at DPZ.&nbsp;



"Social organization alone does not determine who leads the group. More important are the inter-sexual relationships among the animals. In Guinea baboons, females have a high degree of social and physical freedom and are less subordinate to males than in hamadryas baboons. This is reflected in their behavior during collective movement decisions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-01356-6">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Guinea baboons give females more freedom and authority

New research led by the German Primate Center (DPZ) has...

About a million years ago, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379106002332">Mid-Pleistocene Transition</a> (MPT) occurred – a major shift in the response of Earth’s climate system to variations in our planet’s orbit around the Sun. If before MPT, cycles between warmer (interglacial) and colder (glacial) periods had occurred rarely (approximately every 41,000 years), afterwards they became more frequent and intense, giving the Earth the regular ice-age cycles that have persisted since the origins of humanity.&nbsp;



Until recently, scientists believed that the main cause for this transition had been a change in the phenomena called&nbsp;<a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2948/milankovitch-orbital-cycles-and-their-role-in-earths-climate/">Milankovitch cycles</a> – cyclic changes in the Earth’s orbit and orientation towards the Sun which affect how much solar energy can the Earth absorb. However, new research has shown that these cycles did not undergo any significant change during the MPT.



By analyzing cores of deep-sea sediments from the South and North Atlantic, a research team led by <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> has found that about a million years ago, a large system of ocean currents that helps heat move around the globe, called the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/oceans/amoc">Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation</a> (AMOC), experienced a severe weakening.&nbsp;



“What we found is the North Atlantic, right before this crash, was acting very differently than the rest of the basin,” said study lead author Maayan Yehudai, a doctoral student at Columbia University. Immediately before AMOC’s weakening, ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere had begun to stick more effectively to their bedrock, causing glaciers to grow thicker and thus leading to a global cooling that initiated the new climatic pattern characterized by stronger and more frequent ice ages.



“Our research addresses one of the biggest questions about the largest climate change we had since the onset of the ice ages,” explained Yehudai. “It was one of the most substantial climate transitions and we don’t fully understand it. Our discovery pins the origin of this change to the Northern Hemisphere and the ice sheets that evolved there as driving this shift towards the climate patterns we observe today.&nbsp;



“This is a very important step toward understanding what caused it and where it came from. It highlights the importance of the North Atlantic region and ocean circulation for present and future climate change,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/118/46/e2020260118">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Major climate shift a million years ago linked to ocean currents

About a million years ago, the Mid-Pleistocene Transition (MPT) occurred...

Nature offers many examples of individual organisms that live and act together in groups known as biological collectives or “superorganisms.” In bee colonies, for instance, the interactions of individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-are-experts-at-social-distancing/">bees</a> add up to benefit the entire collectivity. However, until recently, it was not clearly understood how bee colonies can make decisions in the face of changing conditions that are crucial for their survival.



A research team from the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California, San Diego</a> has found that colony size is a key factor in bees’ individual and collective decision-making. Honey bees use a vigorous “waggle dance” to inform their mates about potential food sources. However, when the food source deteriorates or when there are predators close by, the bees produce “stop signals,” letting waggle dancers know that the source is not a viable option anymore.



By collecting data over several years on both small and large bee colonies, the scientists discovered that large, established colonies with sufficient levels of food stores were less likely to take chances with risky food sources than smaller colonies that were pressed to quickly find adequate food sources.



“We created an artificial stop signal that, like natural stop signals, caused waggle dancers to briefly pause,” explained study lead author Heather Bell, a visiting scholar at the University of California, San Diego. “We then used the artificial signal on waggle dancers from colonies of different sizes. By measuring how long waggle dances lasted, we found that bees from small colonies were indeed less likely to listen to the message from our artificial signal than those from large colonies.”



“It all boils down to risk. Smaller colonies will take more risk because they need food,” added study senior author James Nieh, a professor of Ecology, Behavior, and Evolution at the same university. “When a swarm starts a new colony, they are in a desperate situation and likely more willing to take chances.”



The results of this study can help scientists better understand how bees and perhaps other animals adapt to dynamic conditions, including climate change.&nbsp;



“Global climate change is shifting many things, including when flowers bloom, which in turn is likely shifting the habits of predators. Honey bees have an amazing resilience to these changes in part because of their intricate communication system, so this study helps us understand how they can adapt better,” Professor Nieh concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

When it comes to bee colonies, size matters

Nature offers many examples of individual organisms that live and...

Most people are aware that getting plenty of rest is essential to staying healthy, and experts recommend that adults get seven to nine hours of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-sleep-changes-how-you-walk/">sleep</a> every night. However, the importance of precise bedtimes remains relatively unexplored, and new research from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> is attempting to change this.



A study led by researcher Dr. David Plans has concluded that the risk of heart disease is greatly decreased by going to sleep between 10 and 11 pm. Dr. Plans noted that this bedtime range is very specific, with heart-related problems increasing for both later and earlier bedtimes.



“The body has a 24-hour internal clock, called circadian rhythm, that helps regulate physical and mental functioning,” explained Dr. Plans. “While we cannot conclude causation from our study, the results suggest that early or late bedtimes may be more likely to disrupt the body clock, with adverse consequences for cardiovascular health.”



Based on data in the UK Biobank, the study objectively measured the bedtimes of over 88,000 adults with an average age of 61 years. The sleep onset data was collected through wrist-worn smart devices. Participants also completed questionnaires to provide information on their demographic, lifestyle, and physical condition.



The individuals were followed for an average of 5.7 years. During this time frame, 3,172 participants were diagnosed with cardiovascular disease. The lowest risk was found among those who had bedtimes between 10 and 11 pm, while the highest risk was found among individuals who fell asleep at midnight or later.&nbsp;



“Our study indicates that the optimum time to go to sleep is at a specific point in the body’s 24-hour cycle and deviations may be detrimental to health” stated Dr. Plans. “The riskiest time was after midnight, potentially because it may reduce the likelihood of seeing morning light, which resets the body clock.”



Although late bedtimes were significant, the analysis revealed that there was a 24 percent increase in cardiovascular risk among those who typically fell asleep before 10 pm. The association was strongest among women, who appeared to be affected by both early and late sleep schedules, while heart-related issues in men were only linked with bedtimes before 10 pm.



It is currently unclear as to why there is a stronger association between cardiovascular disease and sleep onset in women. Plans hypothesized that “it may be that there is a sex difference in how the endocrine system responds to a disruption in circadian rhythm.”



He continued to suggest an alternative conclusion, that the older age of study participants could be a confounding factor since women’s cardiovascular risk increases post-menopause – meaning there may be no difference in the strength of the association between women and men.



The research is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ehjdh">European Heart Journal – Digital Health</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals a precise bedtime that reduces heart disease risk

Most people are aware that getting plenty of rest is...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/118/46/e2112108118">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> has found that poorly drained agricultural soils produce nitrous oxide emissions in quantities large enough to contribute to climate change. According to the scientists, such negative effects far exceed the potential benefits of using these soils as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/">carbon sinks</a>.



Researchers, policymakers, and farmers have long explored the potential of agricultural soils to sequester carbon, and thus mitigate climate change. However, a research team led by <a href="https://www.iastate.edu/">Iowa State University</a> has argued that such strategies should take into account the fact that such soils emit nitrous oxide, a gas that has 298 times the warming potential of carbon dioxide over 100 years.



As they cycle nitrogen, microorganisms in the soil emit nitrous oxide as a byproduct. Furthermore, since nitrogen stimulates nitrous oxide production, adding nitrogen fertilizers to the soil results in even more emissions.&nbsp;



In order to gather data for the study, the researchers used small containers placed on various locations on top of corn and soybean fields in central Iowa that measured nitrous oxide emissions every four hours.



“In this study, we show that the climate warming effects of nitrous oxide emissions from local corn and soybean soils are two-fold greater than the climate cooling that might be achieved by increasing soil carbon storage with common agricultural practices,” said study senior author Steven Hall, an associate professor of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology at Iowa State University.



According to Professor Hall and his team, these findings suggest that management plans should also encourage nitrous oxide mitigation strategies together with carbon sequestration. Such strategies include more efficient uses of nitrogen fertilizers, the employment of new products such as enhanced efficiency fertilizers, or the application of biochar to agricultural fields.



“If we want to maximize our climate benefit, we want to be strategic about it. We’re not simply going to flip the switch on climate just by putting more carbon in the soil. Nitrous oxide emissions need to be a priority as well,” concluded Hall.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Agricultural soils contribute to climate crisis by releasing nitrous oxide

A new study published in the journal Proceedings of the...

Herbs and spices bring flavor to our meals and make them more interesting. Moreover, a new study finds that the addition of herbs and spices to food that is high in saturated fat and carbohydrate may lower blood pressure and reduce the risks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-air-pollutants-contribute-to-cardiovascular-disease/">cardiovascular disease</a>.



Professor Penny Kris-Etherton of Evan Pugh University and Professor Kristina Petersen, co-principal investigator of the study while at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>, said the findings of the study offer people a simple way to help improve their heart health.



“Adding herbs and spices to your food is a great way to add flavor without adding extra sodium, sugar or saturated fat,” said Professor Kris-Etherton. “And, if you go a step further and add these seasonings to foods that are really good for you, like fruits and vegetables, you can potentially get even more health benefits by consuming that extra produce.”



During the study, 71 people with risk factors for heart disease, such as obesity and high blood pressure, were asked to add a mixture of herbs and spices to their daily meals. Three levels of herb and spice use were defined; the low-spice diet involved the addition of 0.5 g per day, the medium-spice diet added 3.2 g per day and the high-spice diet made use of 6.5 g of herbs and spices per day. The mixture added to the food contained 24 different herbs (such as basil and rosemary) and spices (including cinnamon and turmeric), all commonly used in the daily preparation of food.



Every participant took part in all three of the diet trials and each trial lasted for four weeks. Blood pressure was measured, and blood samples from every participant were tested, at the start of each four-week trial and then again at the end. Trials were separated by a two-week break during which the participant ate a normal diet.&nbsp;



Apart from adding the herbs and spices to the food, the diets were based on an average American diet and were not adjusted in any way other than by adding the flavorings.



The results showed that participants had a lower systolic blood pressure after consuming the high-spice diet than after the medium-spice diet. They also had lower diastolic blood pressure after the high-spice diet than they did after the low-spice diet.&nbsp;



Kris-Etherton said the results were especially exciting to her because the diets in the study were not designed to be specifically heart healthy, and only differed from an average diet by the amount of herbs and spices added.



“As nutritionists, we’re interested in new ways we can use diet to benefit health, and cardiovascular health in particular,” said Professor Petersen. “We were curious about how herbs and spices could affect heart health, since they are versatile and can be added to many different types of food.”



It has long been recognized that high blood pressure is a risk factor in cardiometabolic diseases like heart disease, strokes and type two diabetes, and that these diseases are a leading cause of death in the United States. Sodium intake, in the form of table salt, has been implicated as a factor in high blood pressure. Professor Petersen said that while people have been encouraged to flavor their food with herbs and spices instead of salt, less was known about whether herbs and spices have health benefits of their own.



“I think it’s really significant that participants consumed an average American diet throughout the study and we still found these results,” said Kris-Etherton. “We didn’t decrease sodium, we didn’t increase fruits and vegetables, we just added herbs and spices. It begs the next question that if we did alter the diet in these ways, how much better would the results be?”



The researchers suggest that future studies should test the effects of including herbs and spices into a healthy diet that is lower in salt, added sugars and solid fats. The results could help guide future dietary recommendations.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn">the&nbsp;American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Herbs and spices linked to lower blood pressure

Herbs and spices bring flavor to our meals and make...

All <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/">vertebrates</a> have a similar body plan, including a head, spine, and four appendages. Although these appendages vary greatly in shape, size, and function (from fins and wings to arms or legs), a new genetic analysis led by the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a> and the <a href="http://www.cabd.es/en/">Andalusian Center for Developmental Biology</a> has found that the genes which control the development of different types of appendages share a deep evolutionary history.



By using a genetic editing tool called <a href="http://www.crisprtx.com/gene-editing/crispr-cas9">CRISPR</a>, the scientists proved that a gene which controls the growth of bones at the terminal end of fish fins (gli3) plays a similar role in the formation of fingers and toes in four-legged vertebrates. The gli3 gene controls this process in both paired fins (the progenitors to limbs), and the unpaired dorsal fin that is common to all fish species. The single dorsal fin evolved before the emergence of paired fins.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that the last common ancestor between ray- and lobe-finned fish, which lived approximately 500 million years ago, had the same appendage-shaping genetic toolkit that is possessed by all modern-day vertebrates.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“There's this deep homology or similarity between fins and limbs, something ancient in structures that really don't look alike,” said study co-author Neil Shubin, a professor of Anatomy at the University of Chicago.&nbsp;



“We're showing a deeply conserved, deeply ancient and preserved gene function that's been around for hundreds of millions of years in vastly different structures. So, the molecular toolkit is ancient, and it does the same thing in different kinds of animals.”



Scientists already knew that humans and mice who have a mutation in the gli3 gene often grow extra digits (polydactyly). Professor Shubin and his colleagues wanted to find out whether gli3 worked in a similar way among fish.&nbsp;



By using CRISPR gene-editing tools, the researchers knocked out the gli3 gene in the medaka, or the Japanese rice fish. They discovered that this fish also developed a version of polydactyly, with multiple radial bones at the base of the fin and more fin rays.



“The speculation is that you have a primitive function of&nbsp;gli3&nbsp;present in all vertebrate appendages ever since about 500 million years ago, and that was to promote proliferation, or the number of cells and hence the number of bones in the terminal end.”



“We all share a certain genetic toolkit, even though the anatomy may look very different in adult stages. We're finding these hidden, but very important, mechanistic similarities,” Shubin concluded.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/118/46/e2100575118">Proceedings of the National Academy of Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fins and limbs share a deep evolutionary history

All vertebrates have a similar body plan, including a head,...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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