The African coelacanth, Latimeria chalumnae, earned its “living fossil” nickname because its skeleton seems almost identical to fossils over 65 million years old. Scientists have pored over this deep‑sea relic for decades, assuming its anatomy was already well documented.



A new study, however, shows that long‑standing descriptions of the fish’s head muscles were riddled with errors. 



The research suggests that correcting those mistakes reshapes how biologists think jawed vertebrates learned to bite, breathe, and swallow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-anatomy-mostly-mistaken">Old anatomy mostly mistaken</h2>



Re‑examining two rare museum specimens, researchers from the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) and the Smithsonian Institution discovered that just 13 percent of the previously identified evolutionary muscle novelties for the largest vertebrate lineages were correct.



What earlier anatomists called muscles in the buccopharyngeal cavity - tissue once thought to expand the mouth to suck in prey - turned out to be ligaments. Unlike muscles, ligaments are structures incapable of contraction.



Lead author Aléssio Datovo, a professor at USP’s Museum of Zoology, said the corrected map makes the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-fossils-could-inspire-advancements-in-human-health/">coelacanth</a> “even more similar to cartilaginous fish [sharks, rays, and chimaeras] and tetrapods [birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles] than previously thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-suction-feeding-evolved-later">Suction feeding evolved later</h2>



Bony fish split into two grand lineages roughly 420 million years ago: the ray‑fins (actinopterygians) and the lobe‑fins (sarcopterygians).



Modern ray-fins, from pet-store goldfish to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tuna-fishing-gear-is-harming-oceans-more-than-we-thought/">tuna</a>, use powerful mouth muscles to generate suction. This skill helped them diversify into half of all living vertebrate species. Coelacanths, lungfish, and most sharks rely on biting.



“In previous studies, it was assumed that this set of muscles that would give greater suction capacity was also present in coelacanths and, therefore, would have evolved in the common ancestor of bony vertebrates, which we now show isn’t true,” Datovo explained.



“This only appeared at least 30 million years later, in the common ancestor of living ray‑finned fish.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-securing-rare-deep-sea-fish">Securing rare deep-sea fish</h2>



Coelacanths lurk in submarine caves about 300 meters (about 984 feet) below the ocean surface. Since the first living specimen stunned scientists in 1938, fewer than a hundred have reached museum collections.



Datovo and Smithsonian co‑author G. David Johnson spent years persuading institutions to lend material. <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Field Museum in Chicago</a> and the Virginia Institute of Marine Science each entrusted them with a fish.



“Dissecting a specimen does not mean destroying it as long as it’s done properly,” Datovo noted. 



Over six painstaking months, he teased apart every muscle, bone, and nerve, preserving each element so future researchers can study it individually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fixing-70-years-of-errors">Fixing 70 years of errors</h2>



“There were many contradictions in the literature,” Datovo recalled. "We detected more errors than we’d imagined. For example, 11 structures described as muscles were actually ligaments or other types of connective tissue.”



Because muscles create motion and ligaments merely transmit it, mistaking one for the other had inflated the coelacanth’s supposed ability to expand its throat for suction. 



The team also identified nine completely new evolutionary transformations in cranial muscles tied to feeding and respiration across early vertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rebuilding-ancient-muscle-maps">Rebuilding ancient muscle maps</h2>



With fresh data in place, the researchers turned to micro‑CT scans posted by other labs. The team used these 3D images to slide coelacanth muscle attachments onto the skulls of extinct fishes whose soft tissues are long gone.



By slotting the correct muscles into place, they traced how jaw and throat mechanics evolved in the first jawed vertebrates. 



Because coelacanths sit near the base of the lobe‑fin line that gave rise to all amphibians, reptiles, birds, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/">mammals</a>, the revisions ripple through the entire vertebrate family tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-a-fish-anatomist">Honoring a fish anatomist</h2>



The paper doubles as an homage to Johnson, described by Datovo as “probably the greatest fish anatomist of his time.”



Johnson was born in 1945 and secured the loan of the rare specimens. He died in November 2024 while the manuscript was under review.



His meticulous approach to comparative anatomy shaped the project and ensured that each corrected label carries lasting authority.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coelacanth-holds-modern-insights">Coelacanth holds modern insights</h2>



Coelacanths have diverged little since dinosaurs went extinct, partly because they face few predators in their deep‑reef refuges. That stability, confirmed by a 2013 genomic study, creates a living window onto ancient body plans.



Updating the blueprint clarifies which innovations fueled the explosive diversification of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-endangered-rays-a-new-chapter-in-marine-conservation/">ray‑finned fish</a> and which traits lobe‑fins passed on to terrestrial tetrapods. 



Datovo’s team now plans to compare the revised coelacanth anatomy with muscles in amphibians and reptiles. They’re looking for shared features that might push the story closer to the water-to-land transition.



By peeling away decades of assumptions, the study reminds scientists that even icons of evolutionary stasis can still rewrite textbooks - provided someone is willing to pick up a scalpel and look again.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt1576" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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'Living fossil' reveals clues about how animals learned to breathe

The African coelacanth, Latimeria chalumnae, earned its “living fossil” nickname because its skeleton seems almost identical to fossils over 65 million years old. Scientists have pored over this deep‑sea relic for decades, assuming its anatomy was already well documented. A new study, however, shows that long‑standing descriptions of the fish’s head muscles were riddled with errors. The research suggests that correcting those mistakes reshapes how biologists think jawed vertebrates learned to bite, breathe, and swallow. Old anatomy mostly mistaken Re‑examining two rare museum specimens, researchers from the University...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-00911-8">Nature Geoscience</a> has found that tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-tree-species-remain-undiscovered/">tree</a> growth is driven by climate variability during the dry seasons. By analyzing tropical and subtropical tree-ring data – a reliable indicator of tree growth – a team of researchers led the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> in the US and the <a href="https://www.wur.nl/en/wageningen-university.htm">Wageningen University &amp; Research</a> (WUR) in the Netherlands has discovered that, when the dry-season season is warmer and drier than normal, the growth of tropical trees is highly reduced, suggesting that climate change may increase the sensitivity of tropical trees to climatic fluctuations.



“These (tropical) tree rings contain a wealth of information on the growth history of trees,” said study lead author Pieter Zuidema, a professor of Forest Ecology and Forest Management at WUR. “In this study, we exploit that potential. For the first time, we get a pantropical picture of how tropical tree growth reacts to climate fluctuations.”



By analyzing over 14,000 tree-ring data series from 350 locations across 30 tropical and sub-tropical countries, Professor Zuidema and his colleagues were surprised to find that, during the dry season, climate appeared to have a much stronger effect on tree growth than during the wet season.



“We know that photosynthesis and wood production of tropical trees generally peak during the wet season,” said study co-author Valerie Trouet, a dendroclimatologist at the University of Arizona.&nbsp;



“So, why do year-to-year fluctuations in trunk growth depend on the dry season? That surprised and puzzled us. Our explanation is that water is available for a longer period of time during years with wetter or cooler dry seasons. Put simply, the growing season is longer. This then leads to more trunk growth.”



These findings could help explain the large fluctuations in carbon uptake by tropical vegetation worldwide, showing that, during hotter or drier years, tropical vegetation grows less and thus takes up less carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Finally, the study suggests that slower growth may increase the risk of tree death, which would then become sources of carbon dioxide rather than carbon sinks.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate variability drives tropical tree growth during dry season

A new study published in the journal Nature Geoscience has...

The western United States is facing a heightened risk of heavy rains in areas that were recently scarred by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-can-increase-fires-in-tropical-peatlands/">wildfires</a>, new research warns. Heavy rainfall on burned areas can have devastating impacts, including debris flows, mudslides, and flash floods.



<ul><li>In 2018, debris flows in Montecito, California, caused by a brief and intense rainfall over an area that had burned a month earlier, left 23 people dead and widespread property damage.&nbsp;</li><li>Last year, torrential rains in Colorado’s Glenwood Canyon triggered a massive mudslide in a recently burned area, stranding more than 100 people and closing a portion of the canyon for weeks.&nbsp;</li></ul>



For this study, the research team focused on three regions - Colorado along with California and the Pacific Northwest. More than 90 percent of extreme fire events in these regions will be followed by at least three extreme rainfalls within five years.



This increased frequency came as a surprise for the research team. “Clearly we need to understand the risks better, as this creates a major threat to people and infrastructure," said study co-author Danielle Touma.



By the end of the century, there will be a doubling or more of weather conditions that lead to the risk of extreme wildfires throughout much of the West. Some regions will experience elevated extreme wildfire risk within the next few decades.&nbsp;



The researchers looked at the number of cases in which extreme rainfall is likely to fall on the same region after an extreme wildfire. They found that more than half of extreme wildfire events will be followed within a year by an extreme rainfall event across much of the West. In the Pacific Northwest, virtually all extreme wildfires will be followed within five years by extreme rainfall.&nbsp;



Once every three years, drenching rains in western Colorado or much of the Pacific Northwest may be expected just three months after extreme wildfires - a scenario that was virtually unheard of in recent decades.



Climate change is altering the seasonality of these events. The study found more extreme rains occurring in the early fall in Colorado and the Pacific Northwest, close to the peak fire season of May to September.



“The gap between fire and rainfall season is becoming shorter,” said Touma. “One season of disasters is running into another.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heavy rainfall poses extreme risks in the Western US

The western United States is facing a heightened risk of...

Many people are familiar with human hostility towards large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predators-help-prevent-biodiversity-loss/">predators</a>. Sometimes we are afraid for ourselves, but most persecution is due to fears of livestock depredation.&nbsp;



In many parts of the world, predator populations are seriously depleted, or in some cases, have been wiped out. Eradication programs combined with habitat loss are severe impediments to the survival of large predators. However, a recent <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12769">study</a> published in the journal Animal Conservation can give us some hope for the future.



Dr. Lingyun Xiao from the Department of Health and Environmental Sciences at <a href="https://www.xjtlu.edu.cn/en/">Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University</a> explored nomadic herders' relationships with the snow leopards (Panthera uncia) that they share space with on the Tibetan Plateau.



Specifically, they looked at livestock grazing and its impact on the snow leopard and their primary prey, the bharal (Pseudois nayaur). The results may be surprising. Dr. Xiao discovered that although the landscape is dominated by livestock (13 to 1), grazing had no adverse effect on snow leopards or their prey.



Dr. Xiao believes this has to do with the bharals' preferred habitat. Bharals are wild goats that prefer high altitudes and rugged mountains. As you can imagine, these are not places where you would expect to find an abundance of grass. Livestock, such as yak and sheep, desire lower areas such as river valleys with plenty of grass to nibble on. Because the primary prey species of the snow leopard occupies a different niche in the ecosystem, conflicts are minimal.



"We found that the space occupied by snow leopards and humans is actually separated to some extent, the conflict between snow leopards and humans is relatively small, and the coexistence of humans and animals can be achieved."



Dr. Xiao hopes this study encourages conservationists and policymakers to consider the ecological niches of animals when managing large carnivores and creating city plans.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14691795">Animal Conservation</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How snow leopards and nomads coexist on the Tibetan Plateau

Many people are familiar with human hostility towards large predators....

Formononetin is a compound found in a number of crop plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbs-and-spices-linked-to-lower-blood-pressure/">herbs</a>.&nbsp; It is a type of isoflavone, related to the hormone estrogen. Along with other other phytoestrogens, it predominantly occurs in plants of the bean family, including green, lima and soy beans. It has been shown to have anti-cancer properties and to help with the formation of new blood vessels.



New research has now also indicated that formononetin may be useful in the treatment of food allergies. Nearly 10 percent of the world’s population suffers from allergy to certain foods or to compounds within those foods, and this can sometimes be fatal. The new research combined advanced computational methods with experimental studies to understand how this plant compound might be used to treat food allergies.



“Our findings show that formononetin is a particularly good therapeutic candidate for treating food allergies,” said Ibrahim Musa, a doctoral candidate in pathology, microbiology and immunology at New York Medical College. “Our research also revealed new mechanisms and targets that can be utilized to design future drugs for treating food allergies and other allergic disorders or to prevent severe anaphylaxis seen in allergic diseases.”



Musa will present the findings of the new research at the annual meeting of the&nbsp;<a href="http://www.asbmb.org/">American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology</a>, to be held April 2–5 in Philadelphia.



Allergic reactions to food occur when a person’s body mistakenly identifies a chemical component in the food as an invading pathogen and then tries to protect the body from this apparent invasion. The presence of the allergen causes the immune system to produce immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies that react to the food in an attempt to neutralize the “threat.” This is what can cause allergy symptoms such as hives, asthma, itching, diarrhea, trouble breathing or even anaphylactic shock.



Previous research has shown that formononetin can decrease the production of IgE, and this makes it a potential candidate in the treatment or prevention of food allergies. In the current study, the researchers turned to an approach known as systems pharmacology, which involves using data from publicly available databases to identify gene and protein targets regulated in food allergy and mast cell diseases. Mast cells also play an important role in IgE-mediated allergic diseases.



Using this approach, they identified possible gene and protein targets involved in allergic reactions to foods. They validated these using cultured cell lines that are commonly used in allergy studies and found that formononetin did influence the expression of gene and protein targets that had been identified using systems pharmacology.



“Our study demonstrates that systems pharmacology can be used to predict drug/ compound–target interaction,” said Musa. “What’s more, the mechanism of action identified for formononetin is also important for other allergic diseases such as allergic asthma and hay fever. This suggests that formononetin, or other therapeutic candidates that decrease IgE production, could be useful for treating these diseases.”



The researchers have developed a mouse model that is allergic to peanuts and they plan to study the effects and side effects of formononetin use in these mice, in the next stage of their research.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant compound offers new hope for people with food allergies

Formononetin is a compound found in a number of crop...

An Ecuadorian judge recently greenlighted a mining project in the Intag Valley, a place of stunning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higher-levels-of-biodiversity-reduce-extinction-risks-in-birds/">biodiversity</a> in the Andes Mountains. A group of 12 environmental and research organizations argued that the judge violated the rights of indigenous people to be consulted and rights of nature in the original February decision. On March 16, the judge decided not to issue a written explanation for his decision.&nbsp;



“The judge of Cotacachi didn't analyze the minimum standards for protection of humans and natural rights that we demand in this case, generating a serious violation of the rights enshrined in the constitution and judgments of the constitutional court of Ecuador,” said Gustavo Redin, a lawyer arguing the case on behalf of local communities.



The Intag Valley is an important biodiversity hotspot, home to many unique native species, including the <a href="https://www.rewild.org/news/back-from-extinction-longnose-harlequin-toads-remain-suspended-in-a-state-of">longnose harlequin toad</a>, a critically endangered species found in the mining concession. The toad was thought to be extinct until it was surprisingly rediscovered alive but endangered in 2016. Unfortunately, the longnose harlequin toad wasn’t even included in the mining environmental impact assessment.



The Jambatu Research and Conservation Center surveyed amphibians in the mining concession area and found 22 frog species living in the area but estimates the real number could be more like 100 species. Jambatu has also been involved in captive breeding efforts for the longnose harlequin toad in an effort to reintroduce a larger population of toads.&nbsp;



“If you don't fight, then you have already lost,” said Andrea Terán-Valdez, collections manager at Jambatu Amphibian Research and Conservation Center. “We have to try. We have to keep on trying. We are doing our part, the community is doing their part, and we need the courts to honor the rights of nature. Otherwise, we will all lose.”



The harlequin toad and many other frogs and toads are already threatened by infection from chytrid fungus, climate change and continuing habitat destruction. This mining concession could easily mean the extinction of the longnose harlequin toad if it goes ahead.&nbsp;



There are other factors at play as well, explained Lina Valencia, the Andean countries coordinator for Re:wild. “The livelihoods and wellbeing of the communities in Intag depend on a conserved forest and healthy watersheds."



"This mining concession will have detrimental effects to the forests, rivers and species that live there," said Valencia. "Species don’t often get a second chance, especially harlequin toads. A mining concession would be disastrous for fragile species like the longnose harlequin toad.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Conservation groups challenge mining that threatens an Ecuadorian toad

An Ecuadorian judge recently greenlighted a mining project in the...

Paradise,View,Of,Moorea,Islands,,Cook's,Bay,,French,Polynesia

The islands of the South Pacific are well-known for their biodiversity. However, their sharp peaks, hot and humid weather, and remote locations have limited scientists’ ability to properly document the multitude of life-forms inhabiting them. Now, a study led by the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a> has provided the first detailed description of the amazing array of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-everywhere/">fungi</a> populating the Polynesian island of Mo’orea.



“Fungi are really important parts of ecosystems,” said study first author Todd Osmundson, a professor of Biology at the <a href="http://archive">University of Wisconsin-La Crosse</a>. “They act as primary decomposers, and in some cases as pathogens that break down decaying organic matter and recycle the nutrients into forms that other organisms can use. They're also really important as symbionts. They live with other organisms and benefit that organism in exchange for other things. For instance, some fungi will attach to the roots of plants and exchange nutrients with them.”



As part of the <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ecosystems/coral-reefs/welcome-moorea-biocode-project">Mo’orea Biocode Project</a> – which ran from 2007 to 2010 and was the first all-taxa-survey of a tropical island that included DNA details of all marine and terrestrial organisms larger than bacteria – the scientists spent months trekking the island in search of new species of fungi. They gathered a total of 553 specimens and sequenced the DNA of 433 of them. Since only a few of the sequenced specimens have exact genetic matches with other known species, the Mo’orea collections are likely to contain an impressive number of new species.



“It's like a treasure trove,” said study senior author Matteo Garbelotto, an adjunct professor of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management at UC Berkeley. “It’s truly uncharted territory in evolutionary biology and biodiversity of the fungal kingdom, and this is one the first attempts to generate baseline information on fungal diversity,&nbsp;not just for Mo'orea, but for the entire and vast Insular Oceania region.”



By comparing the DNA of these fungi to those of other species around the world, the scientists found that the majority of the species – or, rather, their ancestors – may have been carried by easterly winds from Australia or other South Pacific islands.&nbsp;



However, a few of them though may have been brought to Mo’orea by humans travelling from East Asia, South America, or Europe. “In many ways, Mo’orea is not a pristine island, and that actually makes it more interesting to me,” explained Professor Garbelotto.&nbsp;



“The island has completely pristine areas and also has areas that have been inhabited and deeply changed by humans, starting with the arrival of Polynesians 3,000 years ago and continuing until relatively recently with the arrival of the French, the English and the Americans. Compared to places that are completely pristine, Mo’orea is more interesting to me because it's more representative of what the world actually is,” he concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jbi.14354">Journal of Biogeography</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

"Treasure trove" of fungi discovered on a South Pacific island

The islands of the South Pacific are well-known for their...

Although the sequencing of the human genome was heralded as a breakthrough when it was announced to the world in 2001, the truth was that large sections of chromosomes had not actually been sequenced in full at that time. Twenty years later, and with the help of improved technology for reading longer sections of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-dna-can-be-used-to-monitor-whales/">DNA</a> with high accuracy, scientists have finally been able to fill in the gaps in all 23 chromosomes. The results, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, reveal hitherto unknown secrets about human evolution and ancestry.



When the current study began, not a single human chromosome had been fully sequenced. The areas where information was missing included mostly the regions around each centromere, the site where a constriction divides the chromosome into two “arms.” The DNA in this region is characterized by multiple, repeating sequences of code that are difficult to tell apart, or to join up correctly when read in short sections. Thanks to the use of new technology that allows ultra-long sections of DNA to be sequenced, it has now been possible to establish the genetic code on all the human chromosomes, from end to end.&nbsp;



“Uncovering the complete sequence of these formerly missing regions of the genome told us so much about how they’re organized, which was totally unknown for many chromosomes,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://www.altemoselab.org/">Nicolas Altemose</a>, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of California, Berkeley, and a co-author of four new papers about the completed genome. “Before, we just had the blurriest picture of what was there, and now it's crystal clear down to single base pair resolution.”



Altemose is first author of one paper that describes the base pair sequences around the centromere. A&nbsp;<a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.05.26.445798v1">paper&nbsp;</a>explaining the methods used for the sequencing will appear in the April 1 print edition of the journal&nbsp;Science, while Altemose’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.07.12.452052v2">centromere paper</a>&nbsp;and four others describing what the new sequences tell us, are summarized in the journal with the full papers posted online. Four companion papers, including one for which Altemose is co-first author, will also appear online April 1 in the journal&nbsp;Nature Methods.



Until the completion of this study, the reference human genome, known as GRCh38, was used by doctors when searching for mutations linked to disease, as well as by scientists looking at the evolution of human genetic variation. However there were large gaps that remained unsequenced, not only in the area of the centromeres, but also near the telomeres – the terminal ends of each chromosome – and around the genes that code for ribosomal proteins. This meant that not all variations of human genes had been identified, limiting the understanding of genetic diseases.



The newly completed human genome, referred to as T2T-CHM13, was sequenced and analyzed by a team of more than 100 scientists under the auspices of the <a href="https://sites.google.com/ucsc.edu/t2tworkinggroup/">Telemere-to-Telomere Consortium</a>, or T2T, named for the telomeres that cap the ends of all chromosomes. The consortium’s gapless version of all 22 autosomes and the X sex chromosome identifies 3,055 billion base pairs, or nucleotide pairs, the building units from which chromosomes and genes are built. These base pairs form the genetic “code” that determines the activities of cells and is passed on to future generations.&nbsp;



Within the 3,055 billion base pairs, the team also identified 19,969 protein-coding genes. Of these, about 2,000 were new ones, but most of them were no longer functional. In total around 115 of the newly identified genes were probably functional. The T2T team also found about 2 million additional gene variants in the human genome, 622 of which occur in medically relevant genes. These will help doctors to diagnose genetically based illnesses.



"In the future, when someone has their genome sequenced, we will be able to identify all of the variants in their DNA and use that information to better guide their health care,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://www.genome.gov/staff/Adam-M-Phillippy-PhD">Adam Phillippy</a>, one of the leaders of T2T and a senior investigator at the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) of the National Institutes of Health. “Truly finishing the human genome sequence was like putting on a new pair of glasses. Now that we can clearly see everything, we are one step closer to understanding what it all means.”



DNA sequences around the centromere hint at evolutionary past



One area that has brought new understanding is the genetic sequences around the centromere region. The T2T team used the new sequencing techniques to locate the place within the centromere where the kinetochore is found. This is a disc-shaped protein structure that is crucial when duplicated chromosomes are pulled apart into “daughter” cells during the process of cell division. When the chromosomes are separated successfully, this ensures that each daughter cell has a complete set of chromosomes.



“When this goes wrong, you end up with missegregated chromosomes, and that leads to all kinds of problems,” said Altemose. “If that happens in meiosis, that means you can have chromosomal anomalies leading to spontaneous miscarriage or congenital diseases. If it happens in somatic cells, you can end up with cancer – basically, cells that have massive misregulation.”



What the researchers found in and around the centromeres were layers of new nucleotide sequences overlaying layers of older sequences as if, through evolutionary time, new centromere regions have developed repeatedly to bind to the kinetochore. The older regions are characterized by having more mutations and deletions, indicating that they are not functional and are no longer used by the cell. The newer sequences where the kinetochore binds, however, are much less variable, and more functional.&nbsp;



Protein-DNA interactions are critical



Altemose is also interested in finding and understanding the areas in the chromosomes where proteins interact with DNA. “Without proteins, DNA is nothing,” said Altemose, who earned a Ph.D. in bioengineering jointly from UC Berkeley and UC San Francisco in 2021, after having received a D.Phil. in statistics from Oxford University.



“DNA is a set of instructions with no one to read it if it doesn't have proteins around to organize it, regulate it, repair it when it's damaged and replicate it,” explains Altemose. “Protein-DNA interactions are really where all the action is happening for genome regulation, and being able to map where certain proteins bind to the genome is really important for understanding their function.”



The DNA analysis that led to the complete sequencing of the 22 autosomal chromosomes and an X chromosome was conducted on one individual’s genome only. Subsequently, the researchers also sequenced a complete Y chromosome from another individual, a project that took almost as long to complete as it did to sequence the rest of the genome, Altemose said. The analysis of this new Y chromosome sequence will appear in a future publication.&nbsp;



DNA sequences used to trace human lineages



Altemose and his team, which included UC Berkeley project scientist Sasha Langley, also used the new reference genome, T2T-CHM13, to compare the centromeric DNA of 1,600 individuals from around the world. The results revealed major differences in both the sequence and copy number of repetitive DNA around the centromeres. Previous studies have shown that when groups of ancient humans migrated out of Africa to the rest of the world, they took only a small sample of genetic variants with them. Altemose and his team confirmed that this pattern is also seen in the variation of nucleotide sequences around the centromeres. “What we found is that in individuals with recent ancestry outside the African continent, their centromeres, at least on chromosome X, tend to fall into two big clusters, while most of the interesting variation is in individuals who have recent African ancestry,” Altemose said. “This isn’t entirely a surprise, given what we know about the rest of the genome. But what it suggests is that if we want to look at the interesting variation in these centromeric regions, we really need to have a focused effort to sequence more African genomes and do complete telomere-to-telomere sequence assembly.”



Altemose also noted that DNA sequences around the centromere could possibly be used to trace human lineages back to our common ape ancestors. “As you move away from the site of the active centromere, you get more and more degraded sequence, to the point where if you go out to the furthest shores of this sea of repetitive sequences, you start to see the ancient centromere that, perhaps, our distant primate ancestors used to bind to the kinetochore,” Altemose said. “It’s almost like layers of fossils.”



The important role of ultra-long-read nanopore sequencing



The success of the T2T team’s sequencing project is due to improved techniques for sequencing long, continuous stretches of DNA, which helps when determining the order of highly repetitive stretches of chromosomes. Among these are PacBio’s HiFi sequencing, which can read lengths of more than 20,000 base pairs with high accuracy.&nbsp;



“These new long-read DNA sequencing technologies are just incredible; they're such game changers, not only for this repetitive DNA world, but because they allow you to sequence single, long molecules of DNA,” Altemose said. “You can begin to ask questions at a level of resolution that just wasn’t possible before, not even with short-read sequencing methods.” Altemose plans to explore the centromeric regions further in future research, using an improved technique he and colleagues at Stanford developed to locate the sites on the chromosome that are bound by proteins, similar to how the kinetochore binds to the centromere. Meanwhile, the T2T consortium will be working on developing a reference genome that represents all of humanity, rather than just one individual.&nbsp;



It is envisaged that the information from the fully sequenced human genome will contribute to our understanding of chromosome functioning, human disease and genomic variation, as well as giving us clues to patterns of human evolution and movement around the planet.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Complete sequencing of the human genome reveals new findings

Although the sequencing of the human genome was heralded as...

Starfish,And,Sponge,Of,The,Mediterranean,Sea.

Half a century ago on the shoreline of a rocky tide pool, the ecologist Robert Paine discovered something amazing: the removal of a single species from an ecosystem could dramatically alter its structure and functions. In the environment Paine studied, starfish acted as a “keystone species” in that their presence and role as a top predator in that particular region was fundamental for maintaining the balanced co-existence of a variety of species.&nbsp;



In a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a> (UZH) and the University of California, Davis, a team of ecologists and geneticists have found that even the presence or absence of a single gene could act similarly to Paine’s “keystone species.” According to the scientists, a gene not only encodes information that determines an organism’s fitness, but could also have a crucial role in structuring inter-species relationships in an ecological community. &nbsp;



The researchers constructed an experimental ecosystem in the laboratory, consisting of a predator (a parasitic wasp), two herbivores (aphids), and a plant (Arabidopsis thaliana&nbsp;– a genetic model organism often used in laboratory studies). By testing the effect of three plant genes that control chemical defenses against herbivores, the scientists found that the herbivores and the predator were more likely to survive on plants with a mutation at a gene called AOP2.



“This natural mutation at AOP2 not only affected the plant’s chemistry, but also made the plant grow faster, which in turn helped the herbivores and predator coexist, thereby preventing the ecosystem from collapsing,” explained study lead author Matthew Barbour, an evolutionary biologist at UZH. Thus, similarly to a keystone species such as Paine’s starfish, AOP2 acts as a “keystone gene” playing a critical role in maintaining ecosystem integrity.



The discovery of such keystone genes will likely have significant implications on how to conserve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higher-levels-of-biodiversity-reduce-extinction-risks-in-birds/">biodiversity</a> in a rapidly changing world. In order to foster more diverse and resilient ecosystems, individuals with different variants of a gene or even genetically modified organisms could be added to existing populations.



However, since this study suggests that even small genetic changes could unleash a cascade of unintended and unforeseen consequences for ecosystems. such interventions will be far from straightforward, and should only be conducted after careful analysis of all possible consequences.&nbsp;



“We’re only just beginning to understand the implications of genetic change on how species interact and coexist. Our findings show that the current loss of genetic diversity may have cascading effects that lead to abrupt and catastrophic shifts in the persistence and functioning of terrestrial ecosystems,” concluded Dr. Barbour.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abf2232">Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A single gene could control biodiversity in an ecosystem

Half a century ago on the shoreline of a rocky...

Until recently, assessing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkey-sperm-cells-could-treat-human-infertility/">fertility</a> of breeding bulls has been a complicated and expensive matter, involving laboratory tests of the bulls’ semen. Now, a research team from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> has developed a novel fertility assessment method called RHEOLEX that is quicker and easier to perform than the traditional ones, resembling a home pregnancy test.



The scientists found inspiration in a biological process occurring in mammals called “rheotaxis,” through which the female reproductive tract simultaneously guides and selects high-quality sperm. By mimicking the cow’s female reproductive tract’s dimensions and hydrodynamic features in a microfluidic device, the researchers managed to assess the reproductive quality of bulls’ sperm within just a few minutes.&nbsp;



While traditionally, sperm quality is evaluated using computer-assisted sperm analysis that measures swimming speed and concentration, such a method ignores the strenuous process of sperm moving along the female’s reproductive tract described through the concept of rheotaxis.



“This method, along with the motile (fast speed) sperm concentration determination, can quickly predict fertility levels in artificial insemination,” said study lead author Mohammad Yaghoobi, a doctoral student in Food Science at Cornell. “We can predict the bull’s in vivo sperm fertility level within five minutes.”



According to Yaghoobi, unlike conventional semen quality parameters, which often fail to provide statistically significant predictions, the RHEOLEX method is an easy and accurate biomarker for determining in vivo male fertility.



“We are essentially taking rheotaxis results and translating that into signals that tells us the bull fertility level, which is great, because it can save companies a lot of money by selecting the best bulls. We are using nature’s selection process and that’s a huge difference,” said study senior author Alireza Abbaspourrad, an assistant professor of Food Chemistry and Ingredient Technology at Cornell.



“With this new RHEOLEX method, you can conduct better selection and breeding for bulls and cows, which can translate into higher quality and quantity products like improved milk and meat. This saves breeders and producers time,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2022/lc/d2lc00150k">Lab on a Chip</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New test can detect bulls’ fertility status in minutes

Until recently, assessing the fertility of breeding bulls has been...

We all love to have our pets close to us, in our homes and on our laps. Sadly, it seems that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avocado-may-be-a-safe-source-of-fiber-for-dogs/">dogs</a> and cats are being exposed to harmful organic chemicals in the home environment and that these chemicals are also being left in their feces and urine. If they are being affected in this way, we may well ask whether we too are ingesting or inhaling these organic substances.&nbsp;



The toxic chemicals are known as aromatic amines, and they are organic molecules formed from ammonia that is bonded to an aromatic ring. These molecules are used extensively in several different industries: they are used in the manufacture of drugs, pesticides and rubber tires; they are also used as curing agents in the preparation of plastics, and are intermediates in the preparation of dyes (for example, azo dyes) to color textiles, rubber, leather, printing ink, paints, lacquers, and metal finishes. Aromatic amines are constituents in cigarette smoke and are even found in hair dye and in the pigments used in cosmetics.&nbsp;



The reason that these molecules are of concern is that several of the different types of aromatic amines have been associated with the development of cancer. In particular, aromatic amines are known to cause bladder cancer in humans and dogs, and workers in industries that manufacture dyes, leather products, cables, rubber products, plastics, and textiles have all been shown to suffer increased incidence of this type of cancer.&nbsp;



In a recent study led by researchers at NYU Grossman School of Medicine, urine samples collected from dogs and cats were analyzed for the presence of 30 different types of aromatic amines. The 42 dogs and 21 cats lived in private households, veterinary hospitals, or animal shelters in Albany, NY. Another group of 77 pets, also living in the same region, provided fecal samples that were tested for these toxic chemicals as well. The researchers recorded each animal’s age, breed and sex.



The study identified eight types of aromatic amines that were found in more than 38 percent of the dog and cat urine samples, and nine different aromatic amines that were found in more than 73 percent of the pet fecal samples. Cats were found to have at least three times the concentrations of aromatic amines in their urine as dogs did.&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that pets are coming into contact with aromatic amines that leach from products in their household environment,” said study lead author Dr. Sridhar Chinthakindi, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://nyulangone.org/">NYU Langone Health</a>. “As these substances have been tied to bladder, colorectal, and other forms of cancer, our results may help explain why so many dogs and cats develop such diseases.”



He also explained that, apart from such direct exposures, pets are most likely also exposed to these substances indirectly. For example, past research has shown that a common flea control medication called amitraz can be broken down into an aromatic amine called 2,6-dimethylaniline (2,6-DMA) by microbes living in animals’ digestive systems. This aromatic amine was the one most commonly detected in the pet urine, accounting for almost 70 percent of the aromatic amines found in dog urine and nearly 80 percent of those found in cat urine. The amine 2,6-DMA is a toxic, teratogenic and carcinogenic metabolite of amitraz.



These findings, published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/environment-international">Environment International</a>, showed that there was almost no difference in aromatic amine exposure between animals that lived at home and those that were staying in a shelter or at a veterinary clinic. According to Chinthakindi, this highlights how commonly these substances are present in the environment, and how difficult they are to avoid. In addition, pet age and sex had no effect on the concentrations of aromatic amines found in the feces or urine.



“Since pets are smaller and more sensitive to toxins, they serve as excellent ‘canaries in the coal mine’ for assessing chemical risks to human health,” said study senior author Dr. Kurunthachalam Kannan, a professor in the Department of Pediatrics at NYU Langone. “If they are getting exposed to toxins in our homes, then we had better take a closer look at our own exposure.”



Dr. Kannan warns that it is not clear what level of aromatic amine exposure is safe for pets and so no limit has yet been set by regulatory organizations to protect them.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study authors plan to explore the link between aromatic amine exposure and bladder, thyroid, and testicular cancer in pets, in the next phase of their research.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pets are exposed to toxic chemicals in our homes

We all love to have our pets close to us,...

On January 15, a volcano erupted and destroyed much of the island nation of Tonga. Immediately after the historic eruption, scientists began trying to analyze and reconstruct the events. An international team, including experts from UC Santa Barbara, has reported their findings in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/Earthquake-Research-Advances">Earthquake Research Advances</a>.&nbsp;



“This is definitely, without a doubt, the largest eruption since Mt. Pinatubo in 1991,” said study co-author Melissa Scruggs.



The research suggests that an early eruption the day before may have laid the foundation for the larger, more violent eruption by sinking the volcano's main vent below the earth’s surface. Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai (HTHH) is a stratovolcano, a cone shaped volcano that can have periodically violent explosions but often has smaller ones.&nbsp;



Part of the Tofua Volcanic Arc, HTHH is created by the Pacific Plate being pushed below the Indo-Australian Plate, causing heat and pressure and building a 100 kilometer volcano chain. The landscape is a dynamic one. In only 2015, two islands were joined by the volcano’s eruption and this second eruption destroyed that new island.&nbsp;



When HTHH erupted, an ash plume shot 58 kilometers into the sky, “It went halfway to space,” Scruggs said. As the steam rose into the air, ice crystals formed and like a biblical pillar of smoke, lighting surrounded the ash cloud. In fact, the scientists estimate that as much as 80 percent of all the earth’s lightning at the time was around the eruption.&nbsp;



Shockwaves traveled faster than predicted by models and caused tsunamis across the Pacific and farther afield. The shockwaves moved faster because the models are based on tsunamis caused by earthquakes, not volcanic eruptions.&nbsp;



Atmospheric pressure waves seem to have caused a second meteo-tsunami in the Caribbean, which isn’t connected to the Pacific. This was something new for scientists, “Basically the whole ocean just kind of sloshed around for five days after the eruption,” Scruggs said.&nbsp;



So much happened that was unprecedented to science, and the researchers emphasize there’s still much to learn. A better understanding of this eruption may ultimately help improve early warning methods in the future.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Tonga Geological Services



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New clues about the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai eruption

On January 15, a volcano erupted and destroyed much of...

New research suggests that in order to survive, prehistoric mammals bulked up physically - rather than developing their brains - after <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/new-evidence-reveals-that-dinosaurs-died-in-the-spring/">dinosaurs</a> became extinct.&nbsp;



66 million years ago, a catastrophic asteroid impacted the earth and ended the reign of dinosaurs. The 10-million-year period after this event is called the Paleocene. During this time, mammals increased their body size to adapt to the drastic changes on Earth.



The evolution of modern-day mammals is well known in the scientific community. Until now, it has been unclear how they developed in the first million years following the mass extinction.



A team from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a> performed CT scans on newly discovered fossils from the Paleocene. The scans revealed that mammals’ brains decreased while their body size increased at a much faster rate.&nbsp;



The experts also found that animals relied heavily on their sense of smell because other senses were less developed, including vision. In order to survive in the new world, these findings suggest it was more important to be big than intelligent.



Around 10 million years later, modern mammal groups such as primates developed bigger brains, complex senses and motor skills. This would have improved their survival chances at a time when competition for resources was extreme.



“Large brains are expensive to maintain and, if not necessary to acquire resources, would have probably been detrimental for the survival of early placental mammals in the chaos and upheaval after the asteroid impact," said lead researcher Dr Ornella Bertrand.



Mammals today are highly intelligent. This can lead us to assume that brains helped our ancestors outlast the dinosaurs and survive extinction – but this research argues, that isn't the case.&nbsp;



“The mammals that usurped the dinosaurs were fairly dim-witted, and only millions of years later did many types of mammals develop bigger brains as they were competing with each other to form new ecosystems," said study senior author Professor Steve Brusatte.



The badlands of New Mexico are frequently visited by scientists as one of the few places where skeletons of the mammals that lived immediately after the mass extinction of dinosaurs can be found.



“Collecting and CT scanning many of the beautiful fossil skulls has led to this new understanding of what these bizarre animals were like and the evolution of the mammalian brain," said Dr. Thomas Williamson, Curator of Palaeontology at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient mammals bulked up to deal with drastic changes

New research suggests that in order to survive, prehistoric mammals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.



That solace came through H.G. Wells' The Time Machine. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.



In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.



Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."



"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."



In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.



This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



His work, published in respected journals including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.



Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's This American Life</a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's Today Show</a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.



There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.



The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.



Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."



His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.



More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.







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Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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