Imagine this: it’s a Saturday afternoon, and you’re enjoying yourself in the park. You decide to have a seat in the grass under a tree. The sun is shining, there’s a nice breeze, and everything is perfect. The next day, you have a slight itch around your ankles. Then you notice it around your waistband. Suddenly, you’re digging your fingernails into your skin like there’s no tomorrow. Oh no, you have chiggers! If you’ve ever been unfortunate enough to experience these buggers, you're already familiar with the horribly itchy bites they deliver.



But what even is a chigger and where do they live? Why was I chosen as their target? Am I going to experience this misery for the rest of my life? These are some questions you may ask yourself during a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.medicinenet.com/bug_bite_treatment/views.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">post-exposure scratching session</a>. To help answer these questions, and to put a face to the name 'chiggers,' we’ve written a quick biography about the animal itself. We’ll also discuss where they live so you can try your best to avoid them in the future!



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/shutterstock_1617052924-1024x724.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899045"/></figure>







<h2 id="h-what-is-a-chigger">What Is a Chigger?</h2>



We’ll mention a few taxonomic ranks in this description of chiggers, so if you want a quick taxonomy lesson before we continue,&nbsp;<a href="https://basicbiology.net/biology-101/taxonomy" target="_blank" rel="noopener">click here</a>. Biologically speaking, they are a type of arthropod in the phylum Arthropoda. Other arthropods include crabs, millipedes, beetles, and many other critters with a hard outer shell. Within the group of Arthropoda, chiggers fall into the class Arachnida, also known as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arachnids-spiders-scorpions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the arachnids</a>. Arachnids have 8 legs and include spiders, ticks, mites, and other creepy-crawlies that are the subject of many phobias. Chiggers are, in fact, a type of mite (they're sometimes called harvest mites). They reside in the family Trombiculidae, but since that name is rather hard to remember, we’ll stick with their common name for the rest of the article.



So, to review:&nbsp;chiggers are a type of mite and are closely related to spiders and ticks.&nbsp;There are many species of mite that we call chiggers - over 3,000 species! Although, only about 15 of these red bugs cause horrible itching in humans.



Perhaps the worst thing about chiggers is that they are nearly microscopic. Even at their largest, it's incredibly hard to see them with the naked eye. Usually, they will just look like a tiny red dot moving about on a surface. This makes spotting them almost impossible, so it’s best to just understand what type of habitat they like to live in to avoid contact altogether.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/shutterstock_1317752612-1024x678.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899047"/></figure>



<h2 id="h-where-does-a-chigger-live">Where Does a Chigger Live?</h2>



To have any chance of avoiding chigger bites, you need to know where they live. If you were hoping you reside in a place without chiggers, tough luck. They live&nbsp;<a href="https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-cosmopolitan-species.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">all over the world</a>. They can be found on 6 continents in nearly every&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-system-developed-or-monitoring-the-worlds-biomes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">biome</a>. Luckily for many of you, they are most prevalent in tropical regions and warmer parts of temperate regions. Cold temperate and arctic regions are still home to some species of chiggers, but their bites are quite uncommon.



Although their distribution is incredibly wide (including most of North America), chiggers won’t live in every type of habitat. They mostly like to reside in wet, overgrown areas like pastures and grasslands, and among the leaf litter on the forest floor. But they can still be found in more manicured grassy areas like lawns and in parks. Throughout their entire life cycle – at least when they are not biting humans – they rarely venture more than a foot off the ground. You won’t ever find them in the vegetation of shrubs or trees. Still, that leaves a lot of room for chiggers to roam.



In temperate regions, chiggers are most abundant in the early summer after temperatures start to rise. Of course, your exposure is also influenced by chance. You may be lucky enough to lay down in wet grass and find no chiggers, or unlucky enough to get them while walking across a dry lawn in late summer.



<h2 id="h-what-makes-a-chigger-bite">What Makes a Chigger Bite?</h2>



Now let’s talk about why they bite. Like many other arthropods, chiggers have four distinct phases in life: egg, larva, nymph, and adult. Only the larval form of chiggers bite. This means that the egg, nymph, and adult form are completely harmless to humans! But let’s not cut them too much slack yet, we still have to discuss why, and how they bite.



After a larva hatches from an egg, it waits. When a prospective host (human, deer, dog, etc.) brushes by the chigger, the larva latches on and begins to find some skin to feed on. For some reason, they seem to prefer spots on the body that are close to clothing, like the waistband or socks. Here’s where the graphic stuff comes in - reader beware!



The larva then pierces the surface of the skin and deposits&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-digestive-plant-enzymes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">digestive enzymes</a>. The digested soup of skin cells is then slurped up by the larva, and this can go on for two or three whole days. Once the larva has its fill, it detaches from the body and falls back down to the ground, where it continues its life cycle. After detachment, the skin becomes red and itchy.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/shutterstock_1675849252-1024x681.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899046"/></figure>



<h2 id="h-how-can-i-avoid-chiggers">How Can I Avoid Chiggers?</h2>



If that last paragraph made you squirm, you may be wondering how best to avoid the horror of chigger bites. If it didn’t, you may still want to follow this advice to save yourself from days of itchiness.



The best thing to do is to avoid exposure altogether.&nbsp;Now that we know chiggers like to live in moist grassy areas, you may want to think twice before taking a nap directly on the grass after a warm summer rain. Instead, bring a blanket. Long pants and a long-sleeved shirt can help to keep the intense itching at bay.



Insect repellant&nbsp;(especially those with DEET) is also a tried and true method to avoid chiggers. Before you walk through some tall grass or hike through the forest, spray some bug repellent just around your ankles and on your shoes. This will prevent them from latching onto your feet and crawling up your legs to find a suitable biting spot.



Antihistamines&nbsp;are a great tool if you find yourself already bit. Other over-the-counter remedies like calamine lotion or hydrocortisone, permethrin, or benadryl can also help to soothe the welts and blisters that can form.



Hopefully, this article didn’t discourage you from enjoying the park on a beautiful late summer day. Enjoy your outdoor adventures, but do watch out for the chiggers!



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Ouch! What Is a Chigger and Where Do They Live?

Imagine this: it’s a Saturday afternoon, and you’re enjoying yourself...

Rivers attract hydrologists, kayakers, anglers, and artists alike. Somewhere between their consistency and unpredictability, they mesmerize people everywhere. But just as rivers have global influence, intricate and tiny worlds exist within a riparian ecosystem. Riparian ecosystems describe the interface between rivers and the surrounding landscape. Here, we’ll take a closer look at these watery worlds.
<h2>Life by the Water</h2>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="960"]<img src="https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2016/03/05/20/32/aquatic-1238786_960_720.jpg" alt="Riparian vegetation is distinct from more upland plants" width="960" height="640" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/shutterbug75-2077322/">Shutterbug75</a> from Pixabay.[/caption]

Because riparian areas surround rivers and streams, it makes sense that they drastically differ from the upland habitats. Most importantly, the presence of water makes these ecosystems distinct. Along with water other major <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">indicators</a> of riparian areas soil and vegetation.
<ul>
 	<li>Water</li>
</ul>
Riparian habitats occur directly next to bodies of water. These ecosystems are well-grounded along natural streams and rivers. However, they can also develop <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">adjacent to constructed</a> canals and ditches.
<ul>
 	<li>Soil</li>
</ul>
Due to the natural flux of flow and water tables level, the soil is subject to shifting. The layers of sediment vary in texture and their ability to hold moisture.
<ul>
 	<li>Vegetation</li>
</ul>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="960"]<img src="https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2020/07/29/04/25/water-5446873_960_720.jpg" alt="Riparian ecosystems are the interface between land and water." width="960" height="640" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/memorycatcher-168384/">MemoryCatcher</a> from Pixabay[/caption]

The vegetation can often be a key giveaway for riparian areas. Especially in contrast to the upland habitats, riparian ecosystems can look totally different. Imagine willows, rushes, and reeds lining the banks or draping cottonwoods and hemlocks creating shady pools.
<h3>Transitions and Diversity</h3>
Perhaps the most defining characteristic of a riparian ecosystem is that it's always changing. Whether it’s a wetland, riverbank, or floodplain, these are landscapes in flux. Riparian areas specifically refer to the transition between land and water. Transitions, like these, between two different ecosystems, are called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ecotone" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ecotones</a>. 

As a result, riparian ecosystems differ dramatically from one another while also nurturing distinct ecological patches within a single stretch of bank.  In ecology, this type of ecosystem is described by the word heterogeneous. The prefix hetero- means “other” and -geneous meaning “kind.” For example, while flooding is often deemed as a natural disaster, intermittent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flooding-help-river-ecosystems/">flooding</a> can be a cyclical part of what makes a healthy river. These types of disturbance play a key role in keeping the landscape diversified.

Overall, a heterogeneous ecosystem has a landscape dappled in diversity! These distinct habitats support a wealth of plant and animal life and also provide critical ecosystem services.
<h2>Importance of Riparian Ecosystems</h2>
The importance of the water flowing in the rivers and streams may seem clear, so why care about the area beside the water? Just as riparian areas refer to the interface of both the water and land, their importance transcends a single category. Riparian ecosystems make great habitats for animals, but they also have huge economic impacts on society. They <a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2008_jones_g003.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increase property value</a>, foster lucrative recreational industries (fishing), and keep water safe and drinkable.
<h3>What the Rivers Do for You: Ecosystem Services</h3>
Ecosystem services are defined as the benefits humans receive from an ecosystem. These benefits include resources (like food and medicine), but they can also be broader (like nutrient cycling). Riparian habitats are powerhouses when it comes to ecosystem services. Read the examples below to learn how these ecosystems directly support us.
<h4>Create Microclimates</h4>
The plants in riparian ecosystems create weather patterns! Called microclimates, these small adjustments to temperature and humidity can have large scale impacts. For example, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/tsuga-canadensis/">Eastern Hemlock</a> is a common tree found along waterways in the eastern United States. Its thick branches shade the river below. Unfortunately, the invasive wooly adelgid has caused a significant decline in hemlock populations. Without these common shade trees, the waterways are becoming more <a href="https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&amp;httpsredir=1&amp;article=1396&amp;context=master201019" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">acidic</a>, which throws the delicate aquatic life off balance. 
<h4>Prevent Erosion</h4>
The vegetation along riparian areas play key roles in stabilizing the landscape. This is especially important considering the erosive nature of rushing water. Riparian plants really help keep the structure of river banks! An impressive list of riparian plants that support ecosystem health can be found <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_043594.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>.
<h4>Provide Habitat</h4>
Riparian plants and surrounding ecosystems provide habitat for a wide range of aquatic, amphibious, and terrestrial animals. Riparian habitat is especially important for <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=pv0TAAAAYAAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA156&amp;dq=important+riparian+habitat&amp;ots=_2u50JowjE&amp;sig=KSnOomykY_mcd23QsjJ3jr1TXSs#v=onepage&amp;q=important%20riparian%20habitat&amp;f=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">migrating birds</a> that need resource-rich safe havens for stopover sites.
<h4>Reduce Water Pollution</h4>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<img src="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1531208853003-c1ec1b8a81d7?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&amp;ixid=eyJhcHBfaWQiOjEyMDd9&amp;auto=format&amp;fit=crop&amp;w=1000&amp;q=80" alt="Riparian Ecosystem Aerial View" width="1000" height="622" /> Image by <a href="https://unsplash.com/@wynand_uys">Wyland Uys</a> from Unsplash[/caption]

The riparian zone act as buffers between the upland and the water. They act as the t-cells for the river,  keeping the ecosystems healthy. Plants that grow in the river’s buffer zone can filter out between <a href="https://www.pecva.org/our-mission/clean-air-and-water/626-riparian-buffers-the-very-best-protection" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">50-100%</a> of the nutrients and sediments. Including everything from organic waste to pesticides, these ecosystems have a true superpower. That’s our drinking water they’re cleaning!
<h3>Delicate: Riparian Ecosystems at Risk</h3>
Overall, we clearly see how much value riparian ecosystems have for our well-being. That's why it's upsetting to learn the risks that they face throughout the globe.

Firstly, the most common disruption to river health results from the destruction of the banks. To clarify, everything from clearing vegetation to converting the land for agriculture or development, destroying these habitats can completely upset entire watersheds. Often, overgrazing and pollutants compound these developments, making the problem even worse.

Additionally, invasive species can overtake the ecosystems. Changing the whole structure of the plant community, a new species can wipe out the treasured diversity of the riparian ecosystems.

In conclusion, riparian ecosystems bring life and excitement to riversides around the globe. They contribute important habitat for wildlife while also providing key ecosystem services we could not do without. Next time you're out by the river, take a second to appreciate the plants and animals that live on the banks. Maybe bring a pair of binoculars or a plant identification book to get to know the area a bit better!

[Cover image courtesy of <a href="https://unsplash.com/@tsomme?utm_source=unsplash&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_content=creditCopyText" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Thomas Somme</a> on Unsplash]

Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

What Are Riparian Ecosystems?

Rivers attract hydrologists, kayakers, anglers, and artists alike. Somewhere between...

Not many people can say first-hand what the bottom of the ocean looks like. Fewer people have been to the deepest part of the ocean than have walked on the surface of the moon. Our maps of the floor of the ocean are far less detailed than those of the surface of the moon. Despite covering 71% of the surface of our planet, and being the likely birthplace of all life, we know surprisingly little about our oceans.

The bottom of the ocean is filled with rare and unique species seen nowhere else. Many of these look otherworldly, and some of the species that live here are still completely unknown to science. However, despite knowing so little, what we have learned, seen, and photographed is incredible.
<h2>Uncharted Territory</h2>
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1877222 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/1280px-Elevation.jpg" alt="A map of the elevation of the earth including the bottom of the ocean." width="1280" height="640" />
The ocean floor is huge and covers <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/planet-ocean/seafloor/just-how-big-ocean" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">360 million square kilometers</a> of the earth’s surface. Though we have detailed topographical maps of the rest of the earth’s surface, this is harder to do for the ocean. The satellite radar techniques used to chart the topography on land don’t work well through water. This leaves us with only low-resolution maps of the ocean floor. Each pixel of these maps represents a 5km by 5km square. This only gives a vague idea of the geology and geography of our oceans. However, more advanced sonar methods provide a 10 fold improvement or greater!
<h3>Mapping the Ocean Floor with Sonar</h3>
The ocean poses particular technical challenges, which is why so little is known. The process of creating high-resolution maps of the ocean floor is time-consuming and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/map-ocean-floor/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">expensive</a>. In order to map the ocean floor, <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/lewis_clark01/background/seafloormapping/seafloormapping.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">specially equipped ships move directly over the area</a>. This process is slow and difficult. Therefore, only <a href="https://dosits.org/people-and-sound/examine-the-earth/map-the-sea-floor/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">10-15% of the ocean floor has been mapped</a> directly with sonar.
<h3>Malaysia Airline MH370</h3>
Interestingly, some of the highest quality broad seafloor maps we have came from <a href="https://geoscience-au.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=038a72439bfa4d28b3dde81cc6ff3214" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the search for the missing airplane, MH370, </a>in March of 2014. The plane was believed to have crashed into the Indian Ocean along the path of the last satellite with which it communicated. In hopes of finding the aircraft, 710,000 square kilometers of the ocean floor were mapped in detail. These maps have 15 times more detail than previous maps of the area. This included maps of regions of the seafloor over 40 million years old. This area is covered with 300 meters of sediment. This would be enough muck to bury the entire Eiffel Tower. This search also revealed details of the Broken Ridge and Diamantina Trench. These features are a result of the tectonic shifts that occurred 40 million years ago.

The type of information collected during this search is very useful to oceanographers and geologists. The floor of the ocean contains many hints to our planets tectonic history. The ocean floor also has significant impacts on weather patterns. Understanding the <a href="https://www.popsci.com/bottom-ocean-looks-like-3d-maps/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">details of the seafloor’s topography</a> could help predict weather patterns. <a href="https://www.udel.edu/udaily/2016/june/redbird-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Researchers at the University of Delaware</a> have developed “fingerprint algorithms” that use high-resolution maps of the ocean floor to analyzed past storms in order to improve predictions.
<h2>The Abyssal Plains</h2>
The ocean contains amazing mountain ranges, volcanoes, incredibly deep trenches, and strange creatures. However, the majority of the ocean floor is far more boring. The <a href="https://www.reference.com/geography/bottom-ocean-look-like-4fc4d2ad9011a1d2" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">abyssal plains</a> cover the majority of the ocean. These vast, flat expanses cover over half of the Earth’s surface. They are mostly filled with featureless sediment stretching for immeasurable distances.

[caption id="attachment_1877224" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1877224 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/1280px-BlackSmoker.jpg" alt="bottom of the ocean" width="1280" height="854" /> This "black smoker" is a hydrothermal vent that supports life in the deep sea.[/caption]

Occasionally, the carcass of a whale or a hydrothermal vent interrupts the vast emptiness of the abyssal plains. In those cases, isolated ecosystems thrive off of the rare pocket of energy. This expanse starts after the continental shelf, where the ocean drops off to an <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oceandepth.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">average depth of 3.7 km</a>.

Enormous trenches and mountain ranges also interrupt the vast abyssal plains. The trenches are the most remote places on the planet. <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-deep-is-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Challenger Deep is the deepest point in the ocean</a>, reaching 10.9 km (6.8 miles) below the surface. This is so deep that if Mt. Everest began at the bottom of the Challenger Deep, its peak would be in complete darkness, still 2 km (1.3 miles) below the ocean surface.

Only three people have ever been to the Challenger Deep, on two separate occasions. In 1960, French oceanographer Jacques Piccard and Navy Lt. Don Walsh descended to the deepest point on earth. In <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jimclash/2017/05/04/what-does-the-deepest-point-on-the-planet-look-like/#587865a45e17" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">an interview with Jim Clash of Forbes</a>, Lt. Don Walsh described the appearance of the Challenger Deep:
<blockquote>“It was yellowish-white and didn't look quite like sediments we had seen before. It's diatomaceous ooze, the skeletons of diatoms. Because calcareous ooze is shells of small critters in the sea, and calcium-based, it dissolves at great depths. So we were left with bottom sediment inert to pressure -- just little balls of glass, if you look at them microscopically. To me, it was like being in a big bowl of milk.”</blockquote>
<h2>Litter in the Depths</h2>
Though the bottom of the ocean sounds like an untouched pristine environment, humans have left their marks here too. <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/planet-ocean/tides-currents/ocean-trash-plaguing-our-sea" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Like the rest of the ocean</a>, <a href="https://www.upworthy.com/a-rover-dived-to-the-bottom-of-the-ocean-15-photos-show-what-it-found-there" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">human trash litters the remote ocean floor</a>. Shopping bags, beer cans, microplastics, and <a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/44552519/Anthropogenic_Litter_and_macrophyte_detr20160408-23751-1gm948l.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">even missiles</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deepest-ocean-dive-garbage/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> are found in these newly explored areas</a>. Without knowing much about these ecosystems, it is hard to know what the impacts of this trash are. Some seem to provide new habitats for some species. However, these <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2015.00003/full" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">may disturb the ecosystem in irreversible ways long before we understand these systems</a>.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-ocean-plastic-threaten-species/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decreasing human trash</a>, particularly plastics, is the most important step we can take to protect these and many other ecosystems.

Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

What Does the Bottom of the Ocean Look Like?

Not many people can say first-hand what the bottom of...

Vibrant,Field,Of,Wildflowers

Grassland plants don't get enough attention from conservationists, writers, filmmakers, or policymakers. Most people know next to nothing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-crucial-role-global-agriculture-environment-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">about grasslands</a>, other than the obvious fact that they are grassy. I'm here to show you that grasslands are dynamic places full of all sorts of wonder.
<h2><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1882867" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/grassland-biome.png" alt="map of grasslands" width="1024" height="521" /></h2>
A basic map of habitat types of the world. Grasslands are shown in brown. [Map by <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Genetics4good" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Genetics4Good</a> via <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_vegetation_zones.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Wikimedia</a>]
<h2>What Is a Grassland?</h2>
A grassland is an ecosystem dominated by plants in the grass family, Poaceae. This type of ecosystem began to take over about <a href="http://www.eartharchives.org/articles/the-evolution-of-plants-part-5-the-grassland-empire/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">6 million years ago</a>, which is relatively recent in terms of geology.

Around this epoch, the world's climate began to dry out and got colder due to polar ice caps sucking up moisture. This climate made life more difficult for forests, which died off in places like the middle of North America and the steppe of Central Asia.

As grasslands expanded, so too did the charismatic megafauna we associate with them. Elephants, lions, gazelles, and hundreds of other species extended their range throughout Africa, Asia, and the Americas (yes, there were lions, giant beavers, and wooly mammoths that lived in the U.S. before humans got here).

But how did grasslands persist once the climate shifted again? Well, grasslands evolved to deal with frequent fires. These fires killed any woody shrubs and trees trying to grow in the grasslands but didn't kill the grasses.

Grazers also ate tasty woody plants trying to gain a toehold in the grasslands. Lastly, as we will explore later, grassland root systems are so tightly woven that it is difficult for other plants to establish in a mature grassland.
<h2>What Are the Different Kinds of Grasslands?</h2>
There are three main types of grasslands in the world: natural, semi-natural, and so-called 'improved.' 'Improved' grasslands are agricultural grasslands- think corn in the midwest. Farmers replaced native plants with non-native grasses to harvest frequently as a crop.

Semi-natural grasslands are managed for hay or other fodder. However, they don't see the application of fertilizers and herbicides. Semi-natural grasslands can make for important wildlife habitats because they contain a number of species, rather than just a single crop.

Natural grasslands are those that haven't been plowed. They are grazed by cattle, sheep, goats, or natural grazers. These grasslands are increasingly rare as they get converted to 'improved' grasslands.

This article focuses on natural and semi-natural grasslands because their plants are more interesting than corn and wheat.

So, now that we know what grasslands are, let's take a look at why we would care about grassland plants!
<h2><img class="alignnone wp-image-1882866 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/buffalo-4139947_1280.jpg" alt="bison, grasslands" width="1280" height="853" /></h2>
A bison stands on a shortgrass prairie, one of the most threatened ecosystems on the planet. [Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/wolfgang_hasselmann-12114733/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Wolfgang Hasselmann</a>.]
<h2>Grassland Roots Provide Invaluable Services</h2>
Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of grasslands lies in the roots of the grasses. While they may look simple on the surface, there is a ton going on underneath the soil. Unlike forests, which put most of their growth aboveground, grasslands focus 80% of their growth belowground.

This means that for every pound of grass that you can see, that plant has put five pounds of matter beneath the soil. Moreover, these roots build on top of the previous year's growth, whereas the leaves die back every year. Some grasses have roots that extend 15 feet into the soil!

This awesome root network the main reason that grasslands make great agricultural soils. The vast roots add tons and tons (literally) of carbon into the soil over centuries. This carbon provides food for all sorts of fungi, bacteria, and animals in the soil. These organisms along with the rich carbon provide plants with abundant nutrients for growth.

When farmers turn grasslands into crops, they start with rich topsoil that can be turned into impressive amounts of corn and wheat. This is why humans turned <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ecs2.2582" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">80% of grasslands in North America</a> into croplands.

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1882865" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/elephants-277329_1280.jpg" alt="savannah, elephant" width="1280" height="701" />Elephants roam a tropical savannah ecosystem, a type of grassland. [Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/mariamichelle-165491/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Maria Michelle</a>.]
<h2>Grassland Plants Sequester Monster Amounts of CO2</h2>
Grassland roots are useful for something else: taking CO2 out of the atmosphere. As plants grow, they breathe in CO2 and add it to their bodies. This is helpful for climate change because CO2 causes global warming. Plants store this carbon over their lifetime until they die and decompose or are burned in a fire.

Forests are hugely beneficial for carbon sequestration because they are productive ecosystems that have enormous biomass. However, as forest fires become more severe and common with climate change, forests can pose as a risk rather than an asset. If a forest burns to the ground, all of that carbon stored over centuries floats into the air as CO2, furthering global warming.

Researchers are UC Davis found that <a href="https://climatechange.ucdavis.edu/news/grasslands-more-reliable-carbon-sink-than-trees/#:~:text=Unlike%20forests%2C%20grasslands%20sequester%20most,in%20woody%20biomass%20and%20leaves.&amp;text=When%20fire%20burns%20grasslands%2C%20however,more%20adaptive%20to%20climate%20change." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">grasslands are more reliable carbon sinks</a> than forests in modern-day California. This is because of those special roots. If a grassland burns, only about 20% of the carbon goes into the air because 80% of the carbon is underground, where the fire won't burn. In a place with increasing wildfires, such as California, a grassland is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-grass-carbon-sink/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">safer long-term bet for carbon storage</a>.

That being said, forests remain the world's best source of carbon sequestration, and we shouldn't write them off. But just remember that grasslands <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/topics/grassland-carbon-management" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">contain about 12% of terrestrial carbon</a>, which is no small amount.
<h2>Grasslands Are More Biodiverse Than Rainforests</h2>
Yeah, you read that right. And it's true (sometimes). While rainforests are undoubtedly the most biodiverse places on the planet on a large scale, grasslands have them beat in small areas. In places under 100 square meters, grassland plants are usually more diverse than rainforests.

Researchers found 131 plant species in a 500 square foot area of grasslands in the Czech Republic! Even more impressive, scientists found 43 species of plants in just one square foot in Estonia, a world record. That's equivalent to three species of plants growing on an area the size of your phone!

Grasslands can be so diverse because there isn't huge competition for sunlight. In forested ecosystems, trees catch the majority of the light, preventing plants in the understory from getting as much sun. Since grasslands start anew each season, the playing field is more or less equal for all the competing species.

You can be sure that a dizzying diversity of insects accompanies all of these grassland plants as pollinators and herbivores. Similarly, an exciting variety of birds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-5-resourceful-grassland-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">mammals call grasslands home</a>.
<h2><img class="alignnone wp-image-1882868 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/6358350361_ddf68898c3_c.jpg" alt="Big bluestem, grassland plants" width="799" height="530" /></h2>
Big bluestem, perhaps the most important species to the North American tallgrass prairie. [Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/58763931@N06/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Friends of the Prairie Learning Center</a>.]
<h2>Aesthetic Value Of Grassland Plants</h2>
Alright, sometimes grassland plants are cool just because they look cool. Check out that purple coneflower, or echinacea, at the top of the article. Beautiful, right? Big bluestem, the picture just above, is a grass that can grow up to 12 feet in the right conditions. In the fall it turns a brilliant red and yellow.

Granted, grasslands take a little more effort to appreciate than rugged mountains or a lovely beach. You've got to get on your hands and knees and take time to really see what's going on. Try it!

One of the best places to catch exciting grassland plants is next to train tracks because those areas haven't been disturbed by farming or grazing. If you want to check out more fun pictures of grassland plants, <a href="https://www.wildflower.org/collections/collection.php?collection=ss_06#:~:text=The%20four%20dominant%20species%20in,die%20back%20in%20the%20winter." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">check this out.</a>
<h2><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1882864" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/chimneys-5224141_1280.jpg" alt="industrial agriculture" width="1280" height="720" /></h2>
Industrial agriculture on a former natural grassland ecosystem. This habitat supports one species of grass: corn, versus hundreds of species of grasses and wildflowers it sported historically. [Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/didgeman-153208/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Thomas B</a><a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/chimneys-arable-horizon-flicker-5224141/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">.</a>]
<h2>Rarity of Grassland Ecosystems</h2>
A lot of people get excited about rare things. If that resonates with you, you should definitely be excited about grassland plants. The tallgrass prairie of North America is the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/tapr/learn/nature/a-complex-prairie-ecosystem.htm#:~:text=Today%2C%20the%20most%20fertile%20and,Kansas%20called%20the%20Flint%20Hills." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">rarest ecosystem in the world</a>. Only 1-4% of it is left, and most of that is in the Flint Hills of Oklahoma and Kansas. The rest is now agriculture, urban, or unsustainably grazed.

Globally, grasslands are threatened ecosystems. <a href="https://www.unep-wcmc.org/featured-projects/mapping-the-worlds-special-places#:~:text=The%20Challenge,of%20the%20global%20ocean%20area." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">About 15.5% of terrestrial land</a> is conserved in some way or another, but only <a href="https://www.iucn.org/commissions/world-commission-protected-areas/our-work/temperate-grasslands" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">4.5% of grasslands</a> are protected. They aren't immediately charismatic or breath-taking, but they still require conservation. They filter our water, take the carbon out of our air, prevent our soil from eroding, and provide food for animals and humans around the world!

I hope this article has inspired you to care a little bit more about grassland plants. Next time you find yourself driving next to a good looking grassland, try pulling over and exploring it for yourself. You may be surprised at what you find!

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Why You Should Be Excited About Grassland Plants

Grassland plants don't get enough attention from conservationists, writers, filmmakers,...

Tigers are among the most charismatic creatures that roam our Earth. They are popular school and sports mascots. They are the namesake for fish, types of stones, birds and various insects. No matter how you cut it, tigers are a species of legendary recognition around the world. How is this culturally and naturally important creature doing in the 21st century? Are tigers endangered?  

In short, yes, tigers are endangered. But to answer this more completely, let's first define the term ‘endangered.’

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1875467" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/tiger-shaking-water-off-of-itself.jpg" alt="" width="3826" height="1920" />

&nbsp;
<h2>What Does Being ‘Endangered’ Mean?</h2>
The term ‘Endangered Species’ is a relatively recent term. It was first used in the late 1950’s or early 1960’s. The most simple definition of the term is ‘a species at risk of extinction.’ Various groups can designate a plant or animal as an endangered species. The United States federal government is perhaps the most well-known entity. They use the Endangered Species Act to designate protections. State governments also have the ability to pronounce an endangered species within their state. 

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the most prominent authority for listing species internationally. The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">IUCN Red List</a> is the definitive guide to the conservation status of species globally.

The conservation status of a species is broken into categories. The most common species are of ‘Least Concern.’ These are species like crows and dandelions. ‘Threatened’ species are at risk of extinction, ‘Endangered Species’ are at a high risk of extinction, and ‘Critically Endangered’ species are on the brink of extinction. The IUCN has reviewed nearly 100,000 species, and determined that about 27,000 of these are ‘Threatened’, ‘Endangered’, or ‘Critically Endangered.’ 

&nbsp;
<h2>What Makes a Species at Risk of Extinction?</h2>
There are a few factors that make some species more likely to go extinct than others. We will explore these factors, and then examine how they relate to tigers. 

&nbsp;
<h3>Long Reproductive Cycle</h3>
Species that take a longer time to reproduce and care for their young are more likely to be endangered. Animals like house mice are a classic (and sometimes pesky) example of creatures that have resilient populations. 

Mice can increase their populations rapidly, due to:
<ol>
 	<li>Quick pregnancy of three weeks</li>
 	<li>Large litters of 6-10 pups</li>
 	<li>Short time to sexual maturity, at six weeks from birth</li>
 	<li>Their ability to become pregnant less than a month after giving birth</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Tigers, on the other hand, exhibit:
<ol>
 	<li>Slow pregnancy of 100+ days</li>
 	<li>Moderate litter size of three pups</li>
 	<li>Slow to reach sexual maturity, at four years old.</li>
 	<li>Mothers care for young for two years before mating again</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1875461" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/tiger-586031_1280.jpg" alt="Tiger, cub" width="1280" height="924" />

&nbsp;

Compared to mice, tigers are very slow to reproduce. Tigers are inherently more vulnerable to extinction than most animals because of this long reproductive cycle. They simply can’t establish populations quickly, even when given the opportunity. 

&nbsp;
<h3>Large Home Range</h3>
A Home Range is the amount of space a species needs to live its life. Animals that need less space to perform their daily tasks are less likely to go extinct. When an animal needs lots of space, it is more likely that humans will invade its habitat.

A barnacle is an example of an animal that has a tiny home range. These animals can perform all of their functions from one point on a rock. Tigers, on the other hand, have enormous home ranges of 27-115 square miles. For perspective, the island of Manhattan is 22 square miles. This huge home range means that tigers need large tracts of undisturbed land to succeed. Wild lands are turning into farms and urban areas across the globe, especially in Asia. This doesn’t bode well for our tiger friends. 

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1875462" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/tiger-2535888_1280.jpg" alt="Tiger" width="1280" height="853" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Specific Habitat Requirements</h3>
Species that require very specific habitats are much more likely to go extinct than species that can do well in a variety of habitats. The Mission Blue Butterfly is an endangered butterfly around San Francisco. It lives only in the San Francisco Bay Area at elevations around 700 feet on two species of plants. Since the butterfly can’t live anywhere else, it is at a high risk of extinction due to development in its small habitat. When people develop this land, the butterfly has nowhere else to go. 

Fortunately, tigers can live in a broad variety of landscapes. Their historical range was from the frozen tundra of Russia to the steaming island jungles of Southeast Asia, and out to the deserts of the Middle East. Tigers can also adapt to eating different kinds of prey, making them resilient in regards to habitat requirements. 

&nbsp;
<h2>So What Does This All Mean for the Tiger?</h2>
Tigers have long reproductive cycles and require large home ranges. These two traits make them more vulnerable than most creatures. Their ability to live in many kinds of habitats is likely the only reason they are not currently extinct. 

The tiger's habitat has been severely impacted by human deforestation and development in Asia. This loss of habitat makes it difficult for tigers to find home ranges large enough to sustain a population. Poaching tigers for their fur and organs is another huge problem for the species. Due to their long reproductive cycle, it takes years to replace any hunted tiger. 

The global population of wild tigers is about 4000 individuals. This is 7% of the historical population. This small population, combined with large human pressures caused the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15955/50659951" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">IUCN to declare the tiger ‘Endangered’ in 1986</a>. So yes, the tiger is ‘Endangered.’ 

&nbsp;
<h2>What Are the Different Subspecies of Tiger? How Are They Doing?</h2>
<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tigers-species/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">There are nine distinct subspecies of tigers</a>. A subspecies is a geographically distinct group that does not breed with other subspecies. Three of the nine tiger subspecies have goon extinct. The Balinese and Javan tigers were subspecies that both lived on relatively small islands. They were more likely to go extinct that other subspecies because their habitat areas were the smallest to begin with. This feature made them more vulnerable to extinction than their mainland counterparts. 

The Caspian tiger is the third extinct subspecies. This central-Asian subspecies went extinct because the Russian army selectively hunted it for decades in the early 20th century. Furthermore, this subspecies hunted in wetlands. These wetlands were converted to crops, leaving few places for the tiger to call home.

&nbsp;

<img class="size-full wp-image-1875464" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Tiger-distribution-1.png" alt="Tiger range" width="508" height="397" />

Here is the conservation status of the six remaining subspecies:

<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15956/5333650" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Amur Tiger - Endangered</a>

<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/136853/4346984" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Indochinese Tiger - Endangered</a>

<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/136899/4348945" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bengal Tiger - Endangered</a>

<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/136893/50665029" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Malayan Tiger - Critically Endangered</a>

<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15966/5334836" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sumatran Tiger - Critically Endangered </a>

South China Tiger - Functionally Extinct. No individual has been seen since 2007

&nbsp;
<h2>Is There Hope for Tigers?</h2>
A glimmer of hope exists in for the tiger. There have been modest gains in the tiger population over the last few years. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nepals-tigers-double-population/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The global population is at 4,000, which is about 1,000 more than in 2006.</a> This increase is due to massive, international conservation efforts. <a href="http://tigers.panda.org/tx2/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The goal of these efforts is to increase the tiger population to 6,000 by 2022</a> (the next Year of the Tiger in China). 

While it seems that the conservation community may fall short of that goal, the tiger population could be on the rise. Let’s hope that we can look back in 50 years and call tiger conservation a success. 

&nbsp;

Are Tigers Endangered? What Does Endangered Even Mean?

Tigers are among the most charismatic creatures that roam our...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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