Common,Lionfish,{pterois,Volitans},Is,An,Invasive,Species,In,The

Invasive Species Introduction (Plants & Animals)

Asian carp in the Mississippi River. Kudzu vine in Fiji....

Terraced,Paddy,Field,In,Mae-jam,Village,,,Chaingmai,Province,,

People around the world have discovered clever ways to farm in tough conditions. Their land could be too dry, too wet, too hot, or prone to insects or damaging storms. If the land is too steep, people might try terrace farming. Cultures in Peru, Japan, the Philippines, Mexico, the Mediterranean, East Africa, Yemen, and China have all independently created the concept of terrace farming, or terracing.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1874101 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IMG_0009.jpg.jpg" alt="terraces, terrace farming" width="1280" height="739" />
 
<h2>Why Doesn't Regular Farming Work on Hills?</h2>
Conventional farming removes all trees and plants to replace them with a crop, such as wheat. This sort of farming fails on steep slopes because it creates erosion and landslides. 
<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/erosion/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Erosion</a> is the process of soil wearing away due to water or wind. Without trees and other vegetation to slow down water, rain storms cause significant erosion on the land.
The water has less resistance as it runs down the hill, so it can run faster and pick up more soil as it moves.
This erosion carries vital nutrients and productive soil downhill, away from the farmland. Over many years, this sort of erosion can cause a slope to become infertile.
Additionally, a de-vegetated slope is more prone to mudslides if it becomes waterlogged from lots of rain. A mudslide could ruin an entire years crop and make the land much harder to farm in the future. Yikes!
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1874100 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IMG_0008.jpg.jpg" alt="terraces, terrace farming" width="1920" height="1030" />
 
<h2>How Is Terracing Done?</h2>
Terracing turns a slope into level, benched out steps by moving soil and creating retaining walls. This restructuring allows un-farmable hillsides to become stable, productive farmlands. Some typical crops grown in terraces include barley, wheat, potatoes, corn, tea, olive, grape vines, coffee, and rice.
 A terrace is typically about 2-3 meters wide and 50-80 meters long. Some terraces flood with rain water, such as those used to farm rice. 
A terrace usually has one outlet for water to drain into the terrace below. This lower terrace stops the water and prevents it from gaining enough speed to cause erosion. This way, the water deposits any soil in the downhill terraces as it slows down.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1874099 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IMG_0007.jpg.jpg" alt="terraces, terrace farming" width="1280" height="648" />
 
<h2>Advantages of Terrace Farming</h2>
Science has validated the millennia-old tradition of terrace farming. When growing potatoes in Canada, researchers found that terracing on a steep <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5355443/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">slope reduced erosion by 20-1</a>. In Japan, terracing even reduced erosion compared to the same landscape planted with trees!
In China, terracing on a shallow slope <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095633915300642" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">decreased soil nutrient loss by 90%</a>. It also decreased the amount of soil lost by 60-90%, and increased general soil moisture by 21%. In arid regions of Ethiopia, terraced farms produced up to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5985715/#!po=50.0000" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">33% more food during drought years</a> compared to conventionally farmed slopes. 
Terracing increases soil moisture because rain to soaks into flat areas rather than running downslope. Many dry regions will become more arid with climate change. This means terracing is a climate resilient solution. 
 
[caption id="attachment_1874098" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1874098 size-full" style="font-size: 16px;" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IMG_0006.jpg.jpg" alt="machu picchu, inca" width="1280" height="960" /> Terracing was used to supply in the Incan empire with much of its' food. It is believed the Incans farmed the area of Yellowstone using terraces. Machu Picchu is a stellar example of well-built terraces.[/caption]
 
<h2>Preserving Cultures</h2>
Culturally, terrace farming preserves indigenous techniques from around the world. An area in the Philippines received the first “Living Cultural Landscape” designation by UNESCO. There, cultures wove the farming technique into their land and traditions for centuries. 
Machines such as tractors and chemical appliers aren't used on terraces because of the structures’ highly irregular shapes. This lack of mechanized labor promotes traditional ways of living, such as farming small pieces of land with hand tools. Without machines and chemicals, terrace farming has a much lower carbon footprint than conventional farming.
 
<h2>Challenges</h2>
Terrace farming certainly has difficulties, as well. Terracing requires massive inputs of labor. Creating a terrace requires moving tons of soil and building hundreds of meters of stone walls, typically by hand. Once established, terraces need routine maintenance to continue functioning. 
Historically, labor was readily available in rural, mountainous areas of the world. Currently, however, young, able-bodied people move to cities to become educated and work higher paying jobs. Older women and men maintain the terraces, instead. 
This lack of labor results in less upkeep. <a href="https://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/article/terracing-double-edged-solution-farming-difficult-landscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Once a terrace is abandoned</a>, the retaining walls crumble and nearly all of the productive topsoil is lost to wind and water erosion. 
From a natural point of view, steep slopes are some of the only areas spared from human manipulation. In places where all flat areas and small hills have been deforested, steep slopes are important for the remaining wildlife and plants. If terrace farming increases, these remnant ecosystems will inevitably be lost.
 
[caption id="attachment_1874095" align="alignnone" width="640"]<img class="wp-image-1874095 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/42352857652_fc340ae92a_z.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="416" /> Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/131880272@N06/42352857652" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cultivar413</a>[/caption]
 
<h2>Terracing At Home</h2>
Terracing is not only applicable to farmers. Many homeowners build terraces if their yard is on a slope! Homeowners can then grow gardens and fruit trees, or create pleasant sitting areas where previously they had an unusable slope. Garden terraces also make for beautiful landscapes. And as an added plus, if you grow berries on terraces you can pick them from the terrace below without having to bend over!
 


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What Is Terrace Farming?

People around the world have discovered clever ways to farm...

Houseplant Identification 101

It can be soothing to care for houseplants and help...

Archibald Menzies, one of the great British naturalists, brought this other-worldly tree to the U.K. in 1795. Shortly after its arrival in the U.K., British lawyer, Charles Austin, remarked that "It would be a puzzle for a monkey to climb that tree."

Because the British hadn't given the tree a name yet, apparently Mr. Austin's remark took hold. Thus the namesake of this prehistoric conifer was born.

[caption id="attachment_1878631" align="alignnone" width="1281"]<img class="wp-image-1878631 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/monkey-puzzle-tree-4392008_1920-e1573149790441.jpg" alt="Monkey Puzzle Tree spikes" width="1281" height="1440" /> Imagine a monkey trying to walk on those spikes![/caption]

During the 1800s, this unique tree had become a garden novelty signifying wealth and status across Great Britain. Currently, it is a common garden tree in New Zealand, Western North America, and Europe. Since it's such a strange being to us, it's sometimes hard to imagine what this tree's native habitat looks like. Where does this mysterious monkey puzzle tree come from?
<h2>The History of the Monkey Puzzle Tree</h2>
The other common name for this tree – the Chilean pine – reveals its origins. This tree grows in the central part of Chile and is also the Chilean national tree. However, some of these trees also grow on the Argentinian side of the Andes. One puzzling thing about the monkey puzzle tree is its evolution.

Botanists believe that this tree evolved over 200 million years ago when dinosaurs still walked the Earth. They think the tough, spiny leaves worked to deter hungry dinosaurs from munching on branches.

Whatever their purpose, the pokey leaves seem to have greatly helped with the survival of the tree. The tree has endured mass extinction, multiple ice ages, and centuries of human use.

The Chilean pine grows in two distinct populations. The majority of the trees thrive in the Andes between 2,000 and 6,000 feet in elevation. An attestation to their resilience, these trees can live for up to 2,000 years. During these years, they can reach upwards of 150 feet tall and 8 feet wide, putting them comfortably within the realm of giants.

Even the leaves of these ancients are old; a study found that the average age of a leaf on a monkey puzzle tree is 24 years old. For comparison, most pine needles only last two or three years!

[caption id="attachment_1878630" align="alignnone" width="1023"]<img class="wp-image-1878630 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Monkey-Tree-Distribution-e1573149466970.jpg" alt="Monkey Puzzle Tree Distribution in Chile" width="1023" height="1253" /> The range of the monkey puzzle tree. Note the small, coastal populations. Photo courtesy of <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Araucana_ubicacion.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Stephen Hayden</a>[/caption]
<h2>Humans Love the Chilean Pine</h2>
In fact, we're kind of loving it to death. One look at an old monkey puzzle tree highlights its supremely straight trunk. The tree's knot-free, straight-grained wood is excellent for construction.

Because of this, the tree was critical to the large logging industry in central Chile until 1976 when the government declared the tree a national monument. This slowed commercial logging of the tree until 1990, at which point it was fully banned.

[caption id="attachment_1877822" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1877822 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/monkey-puzzle-tree-1007125_1280.jpg" alt="chilean pinecones" width="1280" height="960" /> The tasty pine nuts live inside those large, funky pinecones[/caption]

Aside from timber, this tree offers an excellent food source. The cones of this tree are massive pods, which contain about 200 seeds. They are said to taste like pine nuts. However, they are much, much larger.

Some people are looking into growing this as a nut tree in Scotland, where other nut crops can't survive. Unfortunately, it takes 30-40 years for the tree to begin making nuts, which deters interest. Just think of 1,000 years of food afterward, though!
<h2>Conservation Status</h2>
Both logging and seed collecting by Chileans have had a negative impact on the Chilean pine.

Logging reduced the range of this tree and fragmented populations into smaller groups. While the seed makes great food, over-collection of it has caused a decrease in pine seedlings.

This species is slow to regenerate, and seed collection makes it more difficult for young trees to get established.

In 2013 the IUCN declared the plant endangered. This followed the 2001-2002 wildfires that burnt large swaths of old-growth monkey puzzle tree. Scientists project that climate change will continue to make fires more intense in central Chile, posing a threat to the remaining trees.

Over-grazing by cattle in monkey puzzle tree habitats has degraded the landscape, making it more difficult for trees to survive.

The logging industry in Chile and Argentina has turned towards creating plantations of exotic tree species, often to the detriment of monkey puzzle trees. The practice stresses out the trees and reduces their ability to increase their population.

The Chilean pine seems to respond well to planting. The Global Trees Campaign planted 2,000 trees in the early 2,000s and had a 90% survival rate ten years later.

This high survival rate is uncommon for endangered plant species, which provides some hope for the future of the monkey puzzle tree in its native habitat.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chile-volcano-overdue-eruption/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Volcanoes</a> add an additional explosive challenge for these trees. Even though they have lived with volcanoes for millions of years, they are more prone to volcano impacts now. Lava flows can destroy an entire, isolated population, whereas historically, interconnected populations were more resilient.

[caption id="attachment_1877824" align="alignnone" width="799"]<img class="wp-image-1877824 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/799px-Araucaria_in_Conguillio.jpeg" alt="Monkey puzzle trees in a winter storm" width="799" height="599" /> These monkey puzzle trees would argue that they do just fine in snowstorms. Photo courtesy of <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Araucaria_in_Conguillio.JPG" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Grm.gustavo</a>[/caption]
<h2>What About Outside of Chile?</h2>
While the monkey puzzle tree faces some major threats in its native habitat, it is having great success seducing gardeners around the world. The tree has weaseled its way into almost every neighborhood along the west coast of the U.S.

The tree does great in any well-draining soil. It prefers slightly acidic soil but should grow well in just about anything with the right climate.

In gardens, the tree will max out at about 80 feet tall, rather than 150 feet in its native habitat. It will, however, continue to produce tasty seeds, as long as another tree of the opposite sex is around to pollinate the cones. Be sure to get a female tree! Males won't ever produce those tasty nuts.

People argue over the minimum temperature at which these trees can grow. While they grow reliably at temperatures as cold as 20°F, some people have succeeded in growing them in much colder places, such as Logan, Utah.

While the tree does well in cool weather, it does very poorly in heat. For this reason, it grows much better in places like the West Coast rather than the East Coast or the American South. The tree will get very stressed out in prolonged temperatures above 80°F.

Many nurseries stock these funky relicts. If you decide to plant one, be sure to baby it for a good three or four years. After that, the tree will be well established and need little care.

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What is a Monkey Puzzle Tree?

Archibald Menzies, one of the great British naturalists, brought this...

Lemon balm has been used as an herbal remedy for a variety of ailments for hundreds of years. It was first utilized around central Europe and the Middle East several millennia ago. 

Since then, its utilities have expanded to its inclusion in food, beverage, and more. Let’s take a moment to discuss some of the top lemon balm uses.
<h2>Melissa officinalis</h2>
Unlike many common names for plants and animals, lemon balm refers to only one plant: M. officinalis. It’s just one species! It is a member of the family Lamiaceae, which contains many other commons herbs, including mint, basil, rosemary, and sage. 

There are four species in the genus Melissa, but M. officinalis is the most widespread and commonly cultivated. Melissa comes from the Greek word μέλισσα (mélissa), which means "honeybee." This is largely owed to the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/melissa-officinalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">abundance of nectar in the flowers</a>. 

Documented cultivation of lemon balm stretches back at least 2,000 years to the Romans and Greeks. The native habitat of the herb centers around Europe and Central Asia, but it is now naturalized around the world. The mature plant grows to be roughly 1 meter tall and will produce small, white flowers during the summer. M. officinalis is especially aromatic and stands of it often smell fresh and minty. 
<h2>Lemon Balm Uses</h2>
Since its first recorded cultivation millennia ago, the uses of lemon balm have been expanding. Let’s take a look at some of the most common reasons that people utilize this age-old plant.
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1881593" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/water-1487304_1280-1024x652.jpg" alt="lemon balm tea" width="1024" height="652" />
<h3>Food and Tea</h3>
Lemon balm has a very fresh, bright flavor. Its flavor profile pairs very well with ice creams, fruit salads, and candies. Arguably the most common edible usage of the balm is in herbal tea. When used in this application, the leaves can be steeped by themselves, or combined <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/growing-an-herb-garden/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">with other herbs</a>. Commonly, it is combined with spearmint or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-tea-prevent-heart-attack/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">green tea</a> leaves. 
<h3>Medicinal Uses</h3>
More widespread than the food uses of M. officinalis are its medicinal applications. One common form of lemon balm that many people may recognize is the essential oil, “melissa oil.” It owes that name to the genus to which it belongs, Melissa. This essential oil is relatively expensive, and it can be difficult to find. Like many essential oils, it can take tons (literally) of the raw plant to produce a single kilogram of oil. Lemon balm, when used medicinally, can also be found in capsule form. The dosage amount often ranges from 200-600 mg. 
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1881594" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/leaf-3070153_1280-1024x684.jpg" alt="lemon balm herb" width="1024" height="684" />
<h3>Stress and Anxiety</h3>
Several studies point to the effectiveness of lemon balm as a stress and anxiety reducer. Researchers from the <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Northumbria</a> induced stress in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15272110/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">study participants</a>. After, they treated that stress with either a 300 mg, 600mg, or placebo dose of melissa oil. 

The results of this double-blind, placebo-controlled study showed that the “600-mg dose of Melissa ameliorated the negative mood effects” from the laboratory-induced stress. 

The study only included 18 participants, though, and the researchers’ final claim is very conservative: “These results suggest that the potential for M. officinalis to mitigate the effects of stress deserves further investigation.”

<a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/6/11/4805/htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The research</a> on the effects of lemon balm in regards to anxiety is similarly marginal. Researchers in this double-blind, placebo-controlled study administered varying dosages of the herb in the form of sugared drinks or yogurt to participants. 

These participants then self-reported their mood according to several different criteria. The study concludes that “Both active lemon balm treatments were generally associated with improvements in mood and/or cognitive performance.” 

The <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/generalized-anxiety-disorder/expert-answers/herbal-treatment-for-anxiety/faq-20057945" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mayo Clinic</a> likewise suggests lemon balm may be a viable treatment, “Preliminary research shows lemon balm can reduce some symptoms of anxiety, such as nervousness and excitability.”
<h3>Restlessness and Insomnia</h3>
Like many other herbs, lemon balm is invoked as a possible sleep-aid. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0944711306000250?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">A 2006 study</a> looked at the efficacy of a lemon balm/valerian (another herb) combination to alleviate the symptoms of restfulness in young children. 

The researchers found that “80.9% of the patients who suffered from dyssomnia experienced an improvement for this symptom and 70.4% of the patients with restlessness improved clearly.” Additionally, the study examined 918 children. Due to this, these results indicate that the combination may very well be effective.
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1881592" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/lemon-5240181_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="lemon balm plant" width="1024" height="682" />
<h3>Nausea</h3>
Evidence suggests that lemon balm tea acts as an antiemetic. A <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16635970/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2005 review article</a> supports this conclusion. Researchers looked at dozens of primary research articles concerning gastrointestinal problems. 

Next, they attempted understand the efficacy of lemon balm as a means of alleviation. Generally, the results were positive. The herb was often administered with other plants, though. This makes it difficult to understand the effects of M. officinalis by itself. 
<h2>At-home Lemon Balm</h2>
There are many more purported uses of M. officinalis, we’ve only covered a few important ones today. If any of these applications sound enticing, lemon balm isn’t hard to grow at home! It takes up relatively little space and be grown in conjunction with other herbs or spices. Do you use lemon balm in your culinary or medicinal routine? Let us know in the comments below.

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Top Lemon Balm Uses

Lemon balm has been used as an herbal remedy for...

Subsistence farming, or subsistence agriculture, is when a farmer grows food for themselves and their family on a small plot of land. 
Unlike other types of farming, subsistence farming is focused more on survival. There is very little or no emphasis on trading and selling goods or operating as a business. 
A simple example of subsistence farming is a family growing grain and using that grain to make enough bread for themselves, but not to sell. 
For many people living in wealthy countries, this is a romantic idea - having land and using it to sustain you and your family. It calls back to what people might assume was a simpler time. 
As charming as the idea is in developed countries, the reality is that at this point in time, industrial farming is necessary to feed our expanding human population. 
As you might have guessed, the methods used for subsistence farming and industrial farming vary greatly. So how is subsistence farming different from the industrial practices? 
 
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1876120" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/buffalo-1807517_1280-1024x643.jpg" alt="farmers and livestock " width="1024" height="643" />
 
<h2>Subsistence Farming Is Ancient </h2>
The methods of subsistence farming are an integral part of the development of human society. Stretching back up to 12,000 years ago, it is a primary aspect of most cultures’ earliest means of survival. 
Following the ice age, as Homo sapiens began to domesticate plants, they began to settle in one place instead of only hunting and gathering. 
Because of this change, groups of people then began to develop complex civilizations - all because of what we now call “subsistence farming.” Anthropologists refer to this transition as the <a href="https://study.com/academy/lesson/subsistence-farming-definition-examples.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">“neolithic revolution.”</a>
In the Americas, subsistence farmers were prolific - domesticating a vast array of delicious foods that we consume enthusiastically today, including corn, beans, tomatoes, squash, and potatoes. Pretty cool, eh?
 
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1876121" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/gardening-2518377_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="gardener gloves" width="1024" height="682" />
 
<h2>Subsistence Farming Often Relies on More Natural Techniques </h2>
Farmers, from thousands of years ago and all the way up to today, use natural techniques when farming. Industrial farms today use chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Subsistence farmers often use manure and compost, products of their own land and animals. Whatever food or crops are not consumed circle back into the process to feed livestock. This creates an efficient system, a closed circuit where little to nothing goes to waste. 
 
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1876122" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/corn-1841271_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="corn plants" width="1024" height="682" />
 
<h2>Diversified Methods </h2>
If you’ve taken a road trip across North America recently, you’ve seen the rolling hills of corn and soy stretching out for miles in every direction. There are endless neat rows and identical plants. These monocultures are driven by a removed society of endless consumption and insatiable demand. 
However, if you have a small plot of land to support you and your family through the seasons, diversity of crops and livestock is absolutely essential. You won’t last long on corn and soy alone. This type of diversified technique is called polyculture and subsistence farmers rely on it. 
To start with, polycultures are a more environmentally-friendly approach. Certain plants add nutrients to the soil, while others use it up. "Companion planting" techniques benefit the whole farm. Using a variety of plants can ensure that the soil stays rich and healthy throughout the years. Often, when using polyculture techniques, crop yields increase too. 
 
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1876119" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/hahn-3741129_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="rooster" width="1024" height="682" />
 
<h2>Where do People Practice Subsistence Farming Today? </h2>
Subsistence farming is the <a href="http://africadevelopmentpromise.org/what-is-subsistence-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">most widely used agricultural method in Sub-Saharan Africa</a>, where the majority of the rural poor depend on their land for survival. With the land as their livelihood, people are able to fray the costs of transportation, rent, and food, as well as the cost of urban living. 
In Tanzania, for example, agriculture cumulates to <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5251e.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">28% of the country’s GDP</a>. 73% of the population lives in rural areas - 19 million people live on small land holdings and practice subsistence farming. 
Subsistence farming can look as diverse as the planet we live on though, since it happens almost everywhere. Central and Western Asia, India, South-west Africa, Eurasia, the Philippines, Latin America - the list goes on and on. 
The techniques are as variable and fluid as the environments where people call home. A study from 2015 found that 25% of the world’s population survive on these techniques. 
Living conditions can vary greatly too. People may or may not have access to clean water, electricity, and adequate health care. Sanitary conditions are often a huge factor and this leads to one of the leading causes of death for children in low-income countries.
 
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1876123" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/teddy-bear-1807560_1280-1024x622.jpg" alt="mother and child" width="1024" height="622" />
 
<h2>Climate Challenges </h2>
Subsistence farming is an earth-friendly, ancient approach to feeding a family out of choice and/or necessity. Here’s the catch: subsistence farming is <a href="http://africadevelopmentpromise.org/what-is-subsistence-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">extremely susceptible to climate change</a>. 
As temperatures warm, droughts increase, and floods occur with more regularity. A farm can lose an entire season’s crop and leave a family in dire straits. 
Subsistence farming means families have very little, if any, room for failure. On a planet that is warming at alarming rates, subsistence farms are precarious. 


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What Is Subsistence Farming?

Subsistence farming, or subsistence agriculture, is when a farmer grows...

Ripe,Raspberries,In,A,Garden,On,A,Green,Background

If you came to this page to learn an easy method of raspberry identification in your neighborhood, you may want to turn around. Raspberries present botanists with some of the most challenging identification problems in the world. 

As a layperson, using the simple term ‘raspberry’ is probably enough. But some of us want to dig deeper and discover whether it’s a roadside raspberry or a dwarf raspberry or an arctic raspberry. If you’re looking for a more introductory berry guide, perhaps <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/wild-berry-identification/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">start here</a>.

The stunning complexity of life on Earth challenges biologists with putting plants and animals into certain groups. In school, we’re taught about species as if they are concrete and certain things. Fortunately or unfortunately, depending on how you look at it, this just isn’t the case. 

It turns out species can hybridize species and bacteria can steal genes from animals. This transfer from one kingdom or species to another creates a web of life rather than a tree of life, with different branches intersecting each other over time. No group represents this beautiful complexity more than, you guessed it, raspberries. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1882541" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/21099669448_1e0a16fe81_c.jpg" alt="botanical illustration" width="800" height="763" />

[Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/internetarchivebookimages/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Internet Archive Book Images</a>]
<h2>Let’s Do the Basic Taxonomy</h2>
Botanists typically only use the family, genus, and species to describe plants. 'Species' is the most descriptive whereas 'family' is more broad and includes many species. All raspberry species are in the genus Rubus, along with some other tasty plants like blackberries and tayberries.

Rubus is in the rose family, which is a very commercially important group of plants. The rose family contains beautiful roses, apples, apricots, peaches, and even almonds! Rubus contains many hundreds of species, which is a bit too big for scientists to work with. 

These scientists broke down Rubus into about a dozen subgenera. Raspberries are the Ideobatus subgenus, whereas the closely related blackberries are in the Rubus subgenus (yes, of the Rubus genus). Confused yet? This is just the start of the complex life of a raspberry.
<h2>What Characterizes Rubus</h2>
The common name for anything in the Rubus genus is bramble. The picture you have in your head is probably about right. These plants usually (you will never catch a botanist saying always) have prickles or thorns, grow on canes, and have berries that are a bunch of tiny berries put together. 

They have flowers with five petals that range from white to pink. Rubus leaves look like 3-7 smaller leaves, or leaflets, on a single stalk. 

Raspberries grow non-fruit bearing canes in the first year. These canes fruit during their second year of growth. After this, that cane dies. 

While each raspberry cane lives only two years, the rootmass can live for decades. Sometimes you need this first year cane to identify species of raspberries because the edible fruits from the second year can look so similar. 

If you see anything in the wild that looks like it belongs to Rubus, it is probably edible. This is a delicious genus with all sorts of wild berries, such as the cloud berry in the arctic which tastes like apple pie!  

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1882540" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/cloudberry-bush-produces-2130046_1920.jpg" alt="cloudberry" width="1920" height="1277" />

The delicious cloudberry, or bakeapple as some call it. You might be thinking ‘those don’t look like canes with thorns!’ Well, welcome to botany. [Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/ik3-4764468/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ilkka Koivula</a>]
<h2>Gene Overflow - Polyploidy</h2>
We humans have genes from our two parents. We inherit parts of our father’s and parts of our mother’s to make each of us unique and individual. 

Half of our genes come from one side and the other half from the other side. Scientists call humans a diploid species. ‘Di’ means two and ‘ploid’ means chromosomes or genes. Pretty easy, right? We, humans, are pretty simple when it comes to our genes. 

When we adventure beyond humans, we find a much more intimidating world of reproduction. Imagine having the genes from four or six or ten parents within you? That’s a little bit like polyploidy. Instead of two sets of genes combining during reproduction, it’s many. 

Polyploidy is <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/polyploidy-1552814/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">common</a> in the natural world. In fact, plants in the Rubus genus are almost entirely polyploids. In a study of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00497-012-0200-9" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">750 species of European Rubus</a>, only 3 were diploids like us humans. 

Many of the raspberries had four sets of chromosomes. If humans had this complexity, it would mean that every trait, such as hair color, height, and foot size would have four sets of genes rather than two. 

The differences in these genes account for the variation we see between people. Therefore, if there are twice as many genes themselves, the outcomes are exponentially more variable. 

In short, polyploidy makes it easier for plants to express different forms of themselves. The same species of raspberry could be short and run along the ground or grow tall and cane-like, depending on the sets of genes mixed together. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1882539" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/raspberries-796484_1920.jpg" alt="rubus berries" width="1920" height="1275" />

Variation in color within raspberries. [Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/bubblejuice-1072959/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Filip Kruchlik</a>]
<h2>Raspberries Can Mate With Themselves and Other Species</h2>
As if polyploidy didn’t make the raspberries difficult enough, they can also mate with themselves and with other species of raspberries, blackberries, and other groups in the Rubus genus. 
<h3>Hybridization</h3>
Plants hybridize with each other all the time. The cultivars of raspberries commonly grown as crops are often hybrids between different species of raspberries. Horticulturalists give them fun names, like Kiwi Gold, Honey Queen, Octavia, and Cascade Dawn. 

The Olallieberry is a great example of hybridization. It is a hybrid between the youngberry and a loganberry. The loganberry is a hybrid of a European raspberry and a North American raspberry. The youngberry is a multi-generation hybrid of a species of blackberry, raspberry, and tayberry. 

Essentially, the olallieberry is a mix of everything Rubus has to offer! Unlike many types of food cultivar hybrids, which are variations within the same species, the Olallieberry contains genes from at least five different species. 

This hybridization also happens in nature, sometimes between <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3477884/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">native and non-native</a> Rubus species. Sometimes, these semi-native hybrids are more fit for their environment than either plant was before. This makes the plants more likely to reproduce and colonize more land. This constant mixing of genes and species creates a confusing landscape for taxonomists. 
<h3>Apomixis - Self Mating</h3>
The final complicating factor in raspberry ID is apomixis. That’s really just a fancy word for sexual reproduction with oneself. This means that a raspberry plant can use pollen and the eggs from the same plant to create seeds, which will turn into fertile plants in the future. 

This ‘selfing,’ combined with the polyploidy we touched on earlier, leads to all sorts of strange combinations. This is different than clonal reproduction, which is more common in the plant world. Apomixis happens in less than 1% of plants but happens in most Rubus. 

In Madagascar, scientists documented a non-native raspberry hybridizing with a native raspberry. This plant then spread rapidly through self-mating, because it was able to maintain the beneficial traits from the hybridization. 

This somewhat alien raspberry then invaded many islands in the Indian Ocean. Is it a native plant, an exotic plant, or a new species? These are the tough questions botanists must deal with when faced with complicated plants, such as Rubus.

 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1882538" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/raspberries-5273424_1280.jpg" alt="raspberries" width="1280" height="720" />

[Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/matthiasboeckel-3930681/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mattias Boeckel</a>]
<h2>To Worry About the Species of Raspberry or Not?</h2>
Sometimes it’s best to just eat the berries rather than worry about the correct species of Rubus. It takes a lot of time and effort to figure it out. If you’re going to eat the berries anyway, does it really matter?

If you want to impress your friends or search for a species berry with a particular flavor, maybe it does matter. Perhaps you’re concerned with the conservation of a certain species of Rubus. In that case, proper identification is crucial. However, for most of us, the tasty fruit is enough on its own!

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A Slightly Obsessive Guide to Raspberry Identification

If you came to this page to learn an easy...

When thinking of the savanna, lions, elephants, and zebras might first come to mind. These are the animals that end up on nature documentaries and become the stars of an African safari expedition. But what about the plants, shrubs, trees, and flowers that each of these animals depends on for survival? Let’s take a look at 7 of the coolest savanna plants. 
<h2>What is the Savanna?</h2>
Savannas are marked by large grasslands with scattered individual trees. These giant grasslands are found in several places on earth. The most familiar of the savannas is likely the African savanna. Almost half of the continent is covered with grasslands! Other places on earth with savannas include Brazil, India, and Australia. 

The savanna can be viewed as a kind of ‘in-between’ biome. It receives about 50-120 centimeters (20-50 inches) of rain each year. This places it between deserts (1-25 cm/year) and temperate forests (75-150cm/year). One of the major distinctions between savannas and forests is the duration of the rainy season. 

While many forests receive a relatively consistent amount of rain throughout the year, savannas are more inconsistent. Savannas are marked by a rainy season, usually 6-8 months, followed by a dry season. This on/off rain pattern allows for the grassland vegetation to be partly controlled by wildfires. 

Savannas are also always warm. They typically experience temperatures ranging from <a href="http://kids.nceas.ucsb.edu/biomes/savanna.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">20-30 degrees</a> Celcius (68-86 degrees Fahrenheit). Savannas experience the lower end of this range during the dry months and the upper end during the rainy months. Now that we know what a savanna is, let's look at some of the coolest savanna plants. 
<h2><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1877228" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/madagascar-4086876_1920-1024x682.jpg" alt="cool savanna baobab tree" width="1024" height="682" /></h2>
<h2>1. Baobab Tree</h2>
The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-origin-of-baobab-trees-has-finally-been-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">baobab tree</a> (genus Adansonia) looks like something out of a Doctor Seuss story. While they look like they belong in a children’s novel, these trees are amongst the oldest and largest on earth. 

Radiocarbon dating estimates some of the oldest individuals to be <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-018-0170-5.epdf?referrer_access_token=HYk_WHVC0gT-RFHTf5UEItRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0PfCb0fwHOSvF60fdB_TECZFartUn3hwa9iRPi5T4HR_Z7SjQWQ4lKaB64vZhh1qC5N2TFnF2czFdo1NNown7crKjT5FAvL4XT_8RfVTrcAxG3dXd9aNXmC65UFK0oqYeC6En43TZpyOa_bwzWd9uTFSJk-kVIdkofLTH2T26rOgitQRLhQOgJebK7ZylvjdBVRrTsg-PpaIWUOVN_RA8hIvvUvP5gAueuYNNQG-1Chi3OW8DK6qgkY5vx8Mr14yvLyGPGa0Doh4tTW3f0QOzpn&amp;tracking_referrer=www.npr.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">over 2,000 years</a> old! Additionally, some specimens of A. digitata can grow to almost 30 meters (100 ft) tall.

Humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-baboons-different-immune-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">baboons</a> alike enjoy the nutritious fruits produced by some Adansonia trees. The fruit itself is encased in a hard, woody shell. Once the shell is removed, the pulp of the tree is highly nutritious. They have been shown to have high levels of vitamin C, calcium, iron, and magnesium.
<h2><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1877229" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/serengeti-14781_640.jpg" alt="cool savanna Candelabra Tree" width="640" height="500" /></h2>
<h2>2. Candelabra Tree</h2>
The candelabra tree (E. ingens) is another extremely unique looking savanna plant. It can be found mostly in southern and eastern Africa. It is native to countries such as South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Tanzania. 

While this plant may look inviting, it is covered with a milky wax that is extremely toxic and can cause <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2712704/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">keratouveitis</a>. The flowers of E. ingens are a source of nutrition for butterflies, bees, and other insects. The seeds also serve as a food source for some species of birds.
<h2>3. Elephant Grass</h2>
P. purpureum, also known as Napier grass or <a href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=PEPU2" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">elephant grass</a>, is a massive monocot that has a variety of uses in Eastern Africa. It mainly serves as one of the most important fodder plants for dairy farmers. In the wild ecosystem, elephants utilize it as a source of food, hence its name. 

Recently, elephant grass has been investigated for its use in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27392788" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">push/pull pest management</a> strategies. This system works by planting crops that are deterrents to pests near the main crop being farmed in order to ‘push’ those pests away. This is then paired with a plant that will attract those pests, planted around the perimeter of the crops in order to ‘pull’ those pests away. 

P. purpureum has been shown to be attractive to stemborer moths, thus it is useful as a ‘pull’ crop. This method of pest management is easier, less expensive, and less environmentally damaging than commercially available <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-probe-pesticides-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">chemical pesticides</a>. 
<h2><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1877230" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/babul-2872022_1280-1024x712.jpg" alt="cool savanna gum arabic tree" width="1024" height="712" /></h2>
<h2>4. Gum Arabic Tree</h2>
The gum Arabic tree (S. senegal) is one of the most important plants to the African country of Sudan. As the name implies, the gum Arabic tree is responsible for the production of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/gum-arabic" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">gum Arabic</a>. 

This compound is used extensively in pharmaceuticals, food production, and traditional medicine. This tree grows so well in Sudan that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24511757" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">80% of the world’s gum Arabic</a> is exported from Sudan.
<h2>5. Whistling Thorn</h2>
The whistling thorn (V. drepanolobium) is one of the coolest savanna plants. It has adapted to living in the harsh conditions of the savanna and serves as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">symbiotic home</a> for ants. 

For the most part, V. drepanolobium is protected by the massive pairs of thorns found all over the plant. Some animals are still capable of grazing on the whistling thorns, which is where the ants help out. 

Each of the thorns is hollow and contains nectar. This provides both a home and a source of food for the ants. In return, the ants help protect the plant from herbivory by swarming foragers. 
<h2><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1877227" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/acacia-1510898_1280-1024x685.jpg" alt="cool savanna acacia tree" width="1024" height="685" /></h2>
<h2>6. Acacia Tree</h2>
The acacia tree (V. tortilis) is an iconic species in the African savanna. These trees are huge, sometimes growing to be <a href="http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_umbrella_thorn.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">over 20 meters</a> (66 ft) tall! The tree is central to all kinds of life in the savanna. Humans use the branches as materials for fences and furniture, and the bark is often <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/162/3856/890" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">made into string</a> by people of Tanganyika. 

Animals rely on the acacia tree (umbrella thorn) as an important source of food. The tree drops seed pods which are eaten by rhinos, monkeys, and impala. 
<h2>7. Jackalberry Tree</h2>
Another tree that has a symbiosis with insects is the jackalberry tree (D. mespiliformis). These trees can grow to be quite large - up to 25 meters (80 feet). These large trees thus have a rather large and complex root system. 

These roots provide a home for certain species of termites, which in turn help to <a href="https://europepmc.org/abstract/med/10457794" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">aerate the soil</a> for the trees. Jackalberry trees are typically very easy to spot on the savanna because they can grow to have circumferences of 5 meters (16 feet)!
<h2>Coolest Savanna Plants</h2>
Today we’ve only touched on 7 of the coolest savanna plants - there are thousands more that live in Africa, India, and Australia. 

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7 of the Coolest Savanna Plants

When thinking of the savanna, lions, elephants, and zebras might...

We've all sunken our teeth into a tiny crabapple, hoping it would be tasty. Then, almost always, it is a nasty, sour experience that we don't want to repeat. Can something that intensely puckering be healthy for humans to eat? In fact, the Old English word 'crabbe' means bitter, or sharp tasting. What is the relationship between these sour crabapples and tasty, commercial apples?
<h2>How Did Apples Come to Be?</h2>
All of our farmed foods originally came from a totally wild, undomesticated species. Apples are no different. Believe it or not, all of the apples in our grocery stores originally came from crabapple trees. Technically, apples are a type of crabapple, rather than the other way around.
Apples and crabapples reside in the genus Malus. In Latin, this word means evil or wrongdoing, referring to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. There are at least 45 species of trees in the Malus genus. These trees are native to many cooler places in the northern hemisphere, from the U.S. to Pakistan to China.
All of these tree species are crabapples, except for Malus domestica. M. domestica is the big, juicy, sweet cultivated apple. Granny Smith, Red Delicious, Honeycrisp, and Fuji are all varieties of M. domestica. Researchers constantly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-kiss-apple/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">create new varieties of apples</a> from this one species.
People in central Asia began to breed the Malus sieversii species of crabapples 4,000 to 10,000 years ago. Through time, they were able to coax sweetness into the fruit and sourness out of the fruit. They also chose trees with bigger fruits, resulting in much larger apples over time.
Eventually, this tree differentiated from M. sieversii enough to be considered a different species. M. sieversii still grows in the wild in central Asia. However, humans didn't stop with selectively breeding M. sieversii.
 
[caption id="attachment_1877830" align="alignnone" width="640"]<img class="wp-image-1877830 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/9780483692_bae11e9d98_z.jpg" alt="crabapple blossoms" width="640" height="237" /> A few varieties of crabapple trees during their peak bloom. Photo courtesy of <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/stella12/9780670356" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Deb Nystrom</a>[/caption]
<h2>What Is the Purpose of Crabapple Trees?</h2>
Instead of being grown for food, crabapple trees are generally grown for their beauty. Historically, humans took a liking to a handful of these species, selecting for their bright, abundant flowers.
Compared to their tastier counterpart, domesticated crabapple trees have impressive spring blooms and a wide variety of shapes and colors.
The larger gene pool in crabapples allows for more genetic variation, so these trees vary in shape, blossom color, hardiness, and fruit color. Check out <a href="https://www.jfschmidt.com/pdfs/JFS_CRAB_CHART.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">how many varieties</a> there are! They can be bushy, weeping, spreading, straight, or anything in between.
The blossoms can be anywhere from white to bright pink, and the fruit anywhere between green, orange, yellow, red, and pink. This stunning and aesthetically appealing variation has earned crabapples the title 'Jewels of the Landscape.'
<h3>Crabapples Can Aid in Apple Production</h3>
Many commercial farmers plant crabapple trees, even though their apples aren't sellable. Why would they plant trees that don't produce a crop?
Well, they likely wouldn't have a sellable crop if it weren't for crabapples. When humans bred the domestic apple tree, they made it self-incompatible. This means that the pollen from the same variety of apple can't pollinate itself. Therefore, a pure monoculture of Honeycrisp apple trees wouldn't be able to produce any apples.
 
[caption id="attachment_1877827" align="alignnone" width="640"]<img class="wp-image-1877827 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/crabapple-4053614_640.jpg" alt="crabapple blossoms" width="640" height="640" /> Lots of crabapple blossoms loaded with pollen waiting to pollinate domesticated apple trees![/caption]
 
Now, think of crabapple trees and their thousands upon thousands of flowers. These flowers contain viable pollen, which, when chosen correctly, will fertilize M. domestica trees. Some orchards plant crabapples as often as every 1 in 5 trees.
Bees and other pollinators carry the fertile pollen from the crabapple trees onto the blossoms of the domestic apple trees to create fruit.
Some farmers also experiment with using crabapple rootstock for their apple trees. They take the limbs from an apple tree and literally smush them onto the roots of a crabapple tree.
If the crabapple tree was super cold-tolerant, the resulting domesticated apple tree limbs will be as well. Grafting is pretty crazy, huh?
So crabapples are extremely valuable from a commercial farming perspective, even though they can't sell their apples. It's likely that you can thank crabapple trees for the apples in your fruit basket!
<h2>Let's Get to the Bottom of This, Are These Sour Apples Edible?</h2>
Yes. They are absolutely edible, but they aren't very tasty. They contain all the healthy nutrients also found in domesticated apples.
However, they are sour because they contain more malic acid (coming from same Latin root as the apple genus, Malus). This acid is responsible for the sour taste in crabapples, and the same sour taste in unripe domesticated apples.
Many other fruits contain malic acid, such as berries, peaches, pears, and plums. Much of the taste of rhubarb can be accredited to its high concentration of malic acid. If you eat tons of crabapples, the amount of malic acid could upset your stomach. But don't worry, it's harmless and nothing to worry about.
 
[caption id="attachment_1877829" align="alignnone" width="811"]<img class="wp-image-1877829 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/crabapple-fruit.jpg" alt="crabapples" width="811" height="720" /> Crabapples are generally less than 2 inches across, while domesticated apples are larger.[/caption]
 
<h2>What Can I Do With These Tiny, Hard, Bitter Apples?</h2>
While they can't easily be eaten raw, these fruits work well in a few foods. Their fruit contains high amounts of pectin, which is the crucial ingredient that gives jelly its texture. With enough sugar, crabapple jelly can be just as good as any other jelly.
Some people use crabapples to make apple cider. They can also be added to traditional apple cider to give it a more interesting taste profile.
These sour apples also make great sweet pickles. Combined with sugar, cinnamon, cloves and vinegar, crabapples can make a zesty palate cleanser for hearty meals.
Also, remember that crabapple trees are mainly grown for aesthetic value. Appreciate them for the beauty they possess, rather than being bitter about their fruit's taste!
<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1877831" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/flowers-1485144_1280.jpg" alt="apple blossoms" width="1280" height="960" />






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What Are Crabapples and are they Edible?

We've all sunken our teeth into a tiny crabapple, hoping...

Flowering,Day-lily,Flowers,(hemerocallis,Flower),,Closeup,In,The,Sunny,Day.

What do you know about the lily flower? You may have seen it in a vase, a front yard, or perhaps a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/botanic-gardens-plant-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">botanic garden</a>. If it was in the summertime, you may have noticed the enormous, colorful six-petaled blooms that makes this flower famous. Maybe you even have a friend named Lily!

The beautiful bloom of the lily flower makes it one of the most popular flowering plants in the horticultural business. But, this showy flower is so much more than meets the eye. It has significant symbolism in a number of cultures, partly due to its beauty and radiance. If you’ve ever wondered what’s so special about the lily flower, this article is for you.

What makes a lily a lily? To start, we need to understand some general botanic info about the lily flower. There nearly 100 species of “true” lilies. These flowers fall in the genus Lilium in the family Liliaceae.

Lilies have six petals and come in nearly every color of the rainbow. There are many other plants with “lily” in their names, such as daylily (genus Hemerocallis), water lily (Nymphaea), lily of the valley (Convallaria), and peace lily (Spathiphyllum).

In this article, we’ll stick to the true lilies, and ignore the imposters. Here’s a handful of reasons why the lily flower is so special!

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1516550 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/TurkS-Cap-Lily-Lilium-Superbum-1024x768.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="768" />
<h2>Horticultural History of Lilies</h2>
Lilies are one of the most popular flowers in the horticulture trade. Although there are almost 100 species of lily, there are even more varieties. Humans have cultivated the plant for centuries, creating more and more hybrids and types along the way.

One of the most famous types is the Easter lily, Lilium longiflorum. This particular species traces its roots back to the Ryukyu islands of Japan. In the 1800s, it was introduced to Europe and the United States and its popularity flourished.

Since World War 2, the center of production of this particular lily has relocated to a small region in Oregon and California. Throughout the world, horticulturists constantly hybridize and cultivate other types of lilies.

Another thing that makes the lily flower special is its ability to survive after being cut. That’s why you often see them in flower arrangements like bouquets, vases, and garlands.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1516478 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/trumpetlilyliliumlongiflorum146.jpg" alt="" width="513" height="300" />
<h2>Cuisine</h2>
It’s not only the attractive flower that makes a lily special. Aside from enjoying the charismatic bloom, people occasionally eat lilies! The edible part of a lily is belowground, in the form of a bulb. Botanically speaking, a bulb is a stout, round stem which stores energy for a plant during dormancy.

A plant uses this energy to grow. Onions and garlic are edible versions of bulbs, as are lily bulbs! Although not as popular as those tear-inducing vegetables, lily bulbs are a traditional food in East Asian countries, such as China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.

Generally, lily bulbs are chock full of vitamins and many people in China consider them a superfood. Usually, the Easter lily is the type that's enjoyed at the dinner table (the white lily pictured above). Sometimes, even the unopened flower bud of a lily becomes food, although it’s not nearly as common as the starchy bulb.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876808 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/pot-316096_1280.jpg" alt="lily bulb pot plant" width="1280" height="850" />
<h2>Religion and Culture</h2>
Many cultures around the world have held the lily flower in high regard. It makes appearances in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-forests-destroyed/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mediterranean</a> mythology, as well as East Asian religion. According to the Ancient Greek, the lily was the symbol of Hera, the wife of Zeus.

Apparently, the flower was created directly from the breast milk of the Goddess. It’s no wonder the lily was always a symbol of sexuality in the ancient Greek civilization.

The lily also makes a special appearance in the Bible. Christianity considers the lily to be a symbol of purity and chastity. For this reason, people associate white lily flowers with the Virgin Mary.

These days, husbands and wives give the lily to each other as a traditional 30th-anniversary gift. This is because lilies represent humility and devotion.

The lily flower has significance from Biblical times to the present day. The multicolored bloom is an excellent addition to a garden, as well as an appropriate gift for a wedding anniversary! Why else is the lily flower special? Let us know in the comments below!

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What's So Special About the Lily Flower?

What do you know about the lily flower? You may...

Yucca is a common succulent closely related to agaves. There are over 40 species of the spiky plant that grow throughout North America including the US, Mexico, and even <a href="https://open.alberta.ca/publications/0778514927" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">one species in Canada</a>! Additionally, they are common in parts of Central America and the Caribbean. 



Yucca species vary from small, low-lying shrub-like plants to huge, hundreds year old Joshua trees. Being succulents, they thrive in arid regions like deserts, where they flower regularly.



Not only is yucca an important, charismatic member of many ecosystems, but many species of yucca are also common ornamental plants. They can make a great, low-maintenance addition to gardens. Plus, their flowers are gorgeous bell-shaped blooms that help support local wildlife. 



If you’ve ever tried to grow yucca, you may have noticed that the plant rarely flowers, if ever. This is because yucca requires ideal conditions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-bumblebees-bite-plants-to-make-them-bloom-early/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">in order to bloom</a>. 



A flowering yucca plant is a sign of a happy plant. But, how do you get your yucca plant to flower? The most important things to keep in mind when trying to get yucca to flower are where to plant it, and how to care for it before and after it blooms.





<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-to-grow-yucca">Where to Grow Yucca</h2>



Yucca leaves are sharp, so it’s probably best to keep them away from sidewalks, paths, or other areas with high foot traffic. Being desert plants, they thrive in full to partial sun. In fact, to have the best chance to flower, yucca should be in full sunlight even if you live in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hot-dry-conditions-common/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hot and dry environments</a>. Yucca doesn’t like shade, and will most likely have an incredibly hard time flowering in low-light environments. 



Indoor yuccas will rarely flower unless they have ample light and grow to be a large enough size. Finally, yucca should be planted somewhere with good drainage. The sandier the soil, the better. Soil that doesn’t drain well could end up causing your yucca plant to drown, or lead to root rot.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1779857639.jpg" alt="yucca pruning" class="wp-image-1885517"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/nazarovsergey">nazarovsergey</a></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pruning">Pruning</h2>



Pruning is one key act of care to get yucca to flower and should be done on old leaves at the bottom of the plant when they begin to wither and die. For best results, pruning should be done right before spring when the plant is getting ready to grow. 



To prune yucca leaves, simply cut off dead leaves at the bottom of the “<a href="https://homeguides.sfgate.com/rosette-plant-64359.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">rosette</a>” as close to the stalk as you can, without damaging the inner stem. By removing dying leaves, your yucca plant can focus its energy on new growth and the production of flowers instead of trying to maintain a dead leaf.



If you get your yucca plant to flower, it’s important to manage the flowering stalk afterward. Once all the flowers are gone, you can cut the entire stalk right down to its base. Just like removing dead leaves, this will allow the plant to focus energy on new growth. In turn, your plant will likely flower sooner than if you left the old flowering stalk on the plant. 



Of course, if you want to harvest seeds from your yucca plant, you won’t want to cut the flowering stalk off until after it produces fruit. Not all yuccas will produce fruit, though, and it depends entirely on if the flowers have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollination-insects-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">pollinated</a>. 





<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-and-nutrients">Water and Nutrients</h2>



Yucca is one of those plants that tend to thrive with neglect. Although they will do just fine while being ignored, periodic watering and fertilizing will rarely harm yuccas. 



During spring and summer, try watering them thoroughly every couple of weeks. Also, try using a balanced liquid-based fertilizer at the same frequency. A yucca with water and nutrient supplements will have a much greater chance of flowering than one without!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time">Time</h2>



One of the most important things to have when getting yucca to flower is patience. Young yuccas will never flower, no matter how much love and care you provide. It can take at least three years for many species to bloom. 



In addition, don’t be alarmed if an old yucca plant shows no sign of flowering in the spring when so many other plants are in bloom. Many yucca plants wait until later in the year when temperatures are warm enough in order to bloom, and it’s possible to have two blooms in the same year even if the first doesn’t come until mid-summer.



Yucca is a wonderful plant for any garden. Its low-maintenance and toughness mean you won’t have to do much to keep it alive. But, when cared for and allowed to grow under optimal conditions, you will be rewarded with huge, beautiful yucca flowers!



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How to Get Your Yucca Plant to Flower

Yucca is a common succulent closely related to agaves. There...

Penjing is an ancient Chinese art form of creating landscape scenes on a miniature scale.  This art form is also known by the name penzai. The scenes feature living plants that artists and care-takers meticulously prune and cultivate to express emotion. 

Penjing pieces can be whimsical, surreal scenes. Artists will include miniature figurines, such as a horse or person, communicating a dream-like narrative of natural elements. 

Above all, the aim of this art form is to embody the principles that govern nature. Today we'll explore the basics of this ancient art form and the various elements that define it as it exists in modernity. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887966" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1743823430.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>History of Penjing</h2>
Dating all the way back to the 1st Century AD (and perhaps even earlier), practitioners of Daoist mysticism have endeavored to create landscape scenes in miniature. People see it as a means to focus on and increase the properties we might experience at full-size sights. 

In the art form’s earliest versions, it was said to be a legendary power to <a href="http://www.magiminiland.org/Paintings/Chinato960.html#Courtiers" target="_blank" rel="noopener">shrink entire landscapes</a> down to the size of a wide pot. Buddhist monks from China brought the art form to Japan. Members of the aristocracy and even <a href="https://mbgna.umich.edu/matthaei-botanical-gardens/gardens/bonsai-and-penjing-collection/history/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">samurai practiced it</a>. Today, students often study for ten or more years to gain sufficient skills in the craft.

In Chinese, <a href="https://mbgna.umich.edu/matthaei-botanical-gardens/gardens/bonsai-and-penjing-collection/understanding/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">“pen” means pot</a>, and “jing” is translated to landscape or scenery. When done well, these art pieces are living odes to nature that convey a reverence and appreciation of the natural world that is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-blue-tears-blooms-china/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">deeply embedded</a> in Chinese traditional culture. 

Penjing is an artistic style that emulates a wild, natural aesthetic. Plantlife is on display in a controlled landscape form. 

Contrarily, bonsai is a more refined, controlled style of depicting nature initially inspired by the Chinese practice of Penjing. Miniature landscapes are a popular art form around the world today, delighting and enthralling children, botanists, and art collectors alike. 
<h2>Styles of Penjing</h2>
China <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/china-co2-emissions-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">is big.</a> With that scale comes regional personality and difference. The art of penjing reflects these distinctions, with particular styles of penjing differentiated between geographical and cultural locations.

This includes Lingnan style, Taiwan style, Shanghai style, and Yangzhou style, for instance. Experts in the art form consider there to be three main categories within these geographical categories. 
<h3>Shumu - 樹木盆景</h3>
The Shumu style is a landscape of trees, which artists plant within a container. Penjing experts define this style through the use of trimming, pruning, and wiring the landscape into a cultivated vision. This style is very similar to the bonsai traditions of Japan. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887967" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1743823424.jpg" alt="Penjing shumu" width="1000" height="684" />
<h3>Shanshui - 山水盆景</h3>
Shanshui penjing style is a landscape that features a rock inside a tray of water. Artists carefully select and place stones in the water. Often, artists incorporate small living plants into the composition as well. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887968" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1742832908.jpg" alt="Shanshui penjing" width="1000" height="828" />
<h3>Shuihan - 水旱盆景</h3>
Shuihan style landscapes are miniature creations that might contain trees, rocks, water, and additional tiny figurines of houses, animals, and people. Artists combine the previous two styles to create Shuihan landscapes. As a result, these detailed landscapes communicate an abstract narrative. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887969" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1742832878.jpg" alt="Shuihan style penjing" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>An Evolving Artform</h2>
Part of the beauty of penjing as an art form is that it is a fluid and evolving form of expression due to the ways particular artists will experiment. 

The style and the content of the artform are increasingly varied according to penjing artist <a href="https://www.bonsai-nbf.org/blog-archive/tag/shumu+penjing" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Zhao Quingquan</a>. Regardless of how the art form changes in technical definition, the art aims at “seeing the big from the tiny” and conveying universal emotions. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887970" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1802172988.jpg" alt="penjing" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>How To Practice Penjing At Home</h2>
Ten years of intensive study at a <a href="http://cpro.hkbu.edu.hk/enews2005/20050224a.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">botanical garden</a> in Shanghai might not be a realistic endeavor for most of us. Luckily, that doesn’t mean that the gorgeous, peaceful aesthetics of this art form can’t be appreciated in your own home or garden. 

Finding a shallow pot with drainage is a critical place to start. For almost all miniature landscapes, you are going to need access to bright light and consistent, temperate temperatures. These are the easy steps. 

Next up? Research - lots and lots of research, but this can be a highlight of the process. For example, you can dream up the scene you want to emulate or pay homage to, and then work to collaborate with the plants you grow to make it real. 

There’s a booming bonsai industry in the western world with best-selling books and Pinterest boards to get ideas. Often, local garden shops will sell miniature-friendly varieties of plants, rocks, and moss to buy and use. The endless information of the internet is at your fingertips. 

Most importantly, a stubborn combination of curiosity and patient experimentation will be your most important guides in cultivating these miniature scenes of striking beauty into your own life. 

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What is the Chinese Art of Penjing? (It's Not the Same as Bonsai)

Penjing is an ancient Chinese art form of creating landscape...

Purslane,Or,Common,Purslane,,Medicinal,Properties.

Purslane is a common herb that’s renowned for its medicinal benefits. Its scientific name, Portulaca oleracea, literally means “herbal purslane” and describes the plant’s edible and medicinal properties.

In fact, humans have been using purslane for millennia, and now the plant has thousands of names in many different languages. Purslane has an incredibly wide distribution and can be found on three continents.

It grows naturally in Northern Africa, Europe, the Middle East, Southern Asia, Indonesia, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-inhabitants-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Australia</a>. Its massive range is likely due to anthropogenic means, as humans likely spread this plant across the globe for its edible and medicinal properties.

Today, purslane is still eaten for its medicinal benefits. It’s one of the healthiest plants out there and is chock full of vitamins and minerals. It can be used as a garnish or in salads and adds a fresh, sour taste to many dishes. So what exactly are the pros of eating purslane? Keep reading to learn about 10 surprising purslane benefits!
<h2>Purslane Is Low in Calories</h2>
Purslane is mostly made of water. In fact, about 93% of the plant is just good old <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-splashes-science/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">H2O</a>. The remaining 7% is full of all sorts of important nutrients. 100 grams of purslane contains only 16 calories! So, purslane is an excellent choice for people watching their calorie content, while still providing loads of nutrients.
<h2>Purslane Is Packed With Vitamins</h2>
100 grams of purslane contains more than a quarter of your daily allotment of two essential vitamins:
<ul>
 	<li>Vitamin A: 44% of the recommended daily intake.</li>
 	<li>Vitamin C: 35%</li>
</ul>
Purslane also contains small amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-e-plays-a-critical-role-in-nervous-system-development/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">vitamin E</a> and vitamins B1, B2, and B3. In short, purslane is one of the most vitamin-rich plants in the world for its calorie content.
<h2>Minerals</h2>
Minerals are also essential for humans to function and all of the minerals in our body are from the food we eat. Purslane contains many important minerals:
<ul>
 	<li>Magnesium: 17% of the recommended daily intake.</li>
 	<li>Manganese: 15%</li>
 	<li>Potassium: 14%</li>
 	<li>Iron: 11%.</li>
 	<li>Calcium: 7%</li>
</ul>
Purslane also has trace amounts of copper and <a href="https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/soil-fertilizers/phosphorus-plant-growth.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">phosphorus</a>. The diverse array of minerals in purslane make it a balanced source of these essential nutrients.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1886162 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1482275084.jpg" alt="purslane herb" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>Purslane Benefits Bones</h2>
Who says milk is the only food that can strengthen bones? Two of the minerals found in purslane - calcium and magnesium - are super important for building and maintaining strong bones. A lack of calcium is a common cause of <a href="https://www.nof.org/patients/what-is-osteoporosis/#:~:text=Osteoporosis%20is%20a%20bone%20disease,bone%20looks%20like%20a%20honeycomb." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">osteoporosis</a>, so eating purslane can reduce your risk of developing this condition.
<h2>Omega-3 Fatty Acids</h2>
Although purslane is generally low in fat, most of that fat is comprised of fatty acids. Fatty acids are essential for humans, but we can’t produce them ourselves. So, we must get them from our diet. Purslane is rich in Omega-3 fatty acids, which can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/celery-heart-disease-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">help prevent heart disease</a> and strokes. Purslane has more fatty acids than any other leafy green vegetable, making them a great choice to get that essential Omega-3!
<h2>Antioxidants</h2>
Purslane also has loads of antioxidants. Many of the nutrients we listed above are important antioxidants, including Vitamins C, E, and A. Aside from the vitamins, purslane also contains Glutathione, which protects cells from damage. It also has some <a href="https://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/what-is-melatonin" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">melatonin</a>, which helps you keep a normal sleep cycle. Try eating purslane with your dinner to help yourself get a good night’s sleep!

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1886163 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1792584202.jpg" alt="purslane benefits" width="1000" height="662" />
<h2>It Could Lower Your Risk of Cancer</h2>
Purslane contains a good amount of beta-carotene, the compound that gives its stems a reddish hue. Beta-carotene is another type of antioxidant found in purslane. Beta-carotene is good at reducing the number of free radicals in your body. Free radicals can increase the risk of cell damage, thereby increasing your risk of cancer. So, boosting the amount of beta-carotene you get can help lower your risk of cancer.
<h2>Purslane Might Help with Asthma</h2>
<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222050723_Bronchodilatory_effect_of_Portulaca_oleracea_in_airways_of_asthmatic_patients" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">One study</a> found purslane to help with asthma. Compared to normal treatments, purslane led to improved pulmonary function in asthmatic patients. Although this is just one study, the results are promising!

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1886164 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1271776354.jpg" alt="branch of purslane" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>Purslane May Benefit Diabetics</h2>
A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4354065/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">small clinical study</a> found that people who ate purslane seeds ended up with a lower body mass index, lower serum triglyceride levels, and lower blood pressure than a control group. Although the study concludes that further research should be done, it is still very promising!
<h2>In Conclusion</h2>
The benefits of purslane do come with one caveat. Purslane is high in oxalates, which can increase the risk of getting kidney stones. However, unless you’re prone to getting kidney stones, the high oxalate content of purslane is no cause for concern. The average person would need to eat a lot of purslane to risk developing a kidney stone.

In all, purslane is an awesome leafy green plant that can make an excellent addition to your kitchen repertoire. There are many great recipes out there, so maybe it’s time to start experimenting in the kitchen and experience the great benefits of purslane!

Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

10 Surprising Purslane Benefits

Purslane is a common herb that’s renowned for its medicinal...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...