First of all, what is hibernation?

Some animals give a whole new meaning to “sleeping in.” Hibernation is a behavior in many animals that allows them to enter an extended sleep-like state during the winter.

Though hibernation seems a lot like sleep, it is actually a unique state. During sleep, our bodies still function normally. Our heart rate drops and metabolism slows, these changes are minor.

Hibernation, on the other hand, is when animals enter a state called torpor for an extended period of time. Torpor is far more extreme than sleep. In torpor, <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/10/animals-hibernation-science-nature-biology-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">metabolism drops below 5% of the normal level</a>. Most physiological functions grind to a halt or slow to a fraction of normal. Heart rates go below 10% of their normal level. Some animals take only one breath a minute. This state is so extreme, they may appear to be dead.

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Hibernate?</h2>
Hibernation occurs during the winter when resources are scarce and conditions extreme. Animals hibernate in order to conserve limited resources. By dropping their metabolism, many animals go for months at a time without needing food. Instead, they rely on the energy stored in their body fat.

This might sound pretty nice. You pack on calories, eating your fill and getting fat in the fall. Then you go to take a long nap through the winter, during which all that fat magically disappears. You wake up to springs flowers, plenty of food, and the prospect of a huge feast when it starts getting cold again.

However, hibernation requires careful preparation. In order to survive for extended periods with no food, animals need to focus on eating in the months before hibernation. It is also essential that they find a safe and warm place to hibernate.

I addition to saving on calories, hibernation can provide protection from predators. Though it might seem odd that sleeping provides protection, it actually makes sense. Hibernating animals are hidden, perfectly still and don’t sweat. Animals are <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/278/1723/3355.short" target="_blank" rel="noopener">five times less likely to die</a> while hibernating.

&nbsp;
<h2>Which Animals Hibernate?</h2>
There are many different species throughout the animal kingdom that hibernate. Below are some of the most well-known or impressive hibernators.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872066 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/black-bear-1611349_1920-1024x729.jpg" alt="Black bear behind ferns looking at the camera" width="1024" height="729" />
<h3>Black Bears (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/american-black-bear-ursus-americanus/">Ursus americanus</a>)</h3>
Bears are certainly the most well-known hibernators. However, out of 9 species of bears, only 4 of them hibernate. These are the American Black Bear, Asiatic Black Bear, Brown Bear, and Polar Bear. Though hibernation is associated with them, Bears hibernation is not complete. Their body temperature does not drop to the temperature outside. They can also <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/10/animals-hibernation-science-nature-biology-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">wake up during hibernation</a>. Females wake up to have their cubs during hibernation.

Human activity can influence bear hibernation. A recent study showed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-food-bears-hibernate-age-faster/">eating human food makes bears hibernate for less time</a>. This can decrease the bear's lifespan and survival rate.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872067" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1872067 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2048px-Common_Poorwill-1024x683.jpg" alt="Common poorwill on a hand with a black background" width="1024" height="683" /> Photo credit to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Connorlong90" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Connor Long</a>[/caption]
<h3>Common Poorwill (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii)</h3>
The common poorwill is quite unique. It is the <a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/11-animals-hibernate-arent-bears" target="_blank" rel="noopener">only bird that is known to hibernate</a>! Most birds deal with the extremes of winter by migrating south. The poorwill has evolved hibernation to avoid this arduous journey. The Hopi people have known about the poorwill’s hibernation for a long time, naming it “the sleeping one.” Poorwills generally hibernate from October to March.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872068 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/painted-turtle-565974_1920-1024x685.jpg" alt="Close up of a painted turtles head" width="1024" height="685" />
<h3>Painted Turtles (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/painted-turtle-chrysemys-picta/">Chrysemys picta</a>)</h3>
Turtles are reptiles and therefore are cold-blooded. This means they need external sources of heat in order to keep their body temperature and metabolism high enough to move. When temperatures get low, they are no longer able to forage. There are hundreds of species of turtles ranging across most of the earth, both on land and in the water. Each species deals with this problem differently.

The painted turtle survives the winter by hibernating. They remain below the ice of their ponds for months. They will often burrow into the mud at the bottom of lakes, using it to insulate themselves from the cold. Though these turtles need oxygen to survive, they are able to absorb dissolved oxygen through their skin. Even in the absence of oxygen, these turtles can live for over 100 days in water that is only 3°C. They do this by reducing their metabolism by as much as 99%. The cold water makes these feats possible. The low temperatures act like a fridge to slow down damage and growth in this state.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872069" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1872069 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1024px-Fat-tailed_Dwarf_Lemur_Kirindy_Madagascar-1024x768.jpg" alt="A fat-tailed dwarf lemur on a branch at night" width="1024" height="768" /> Photo credit to <a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/42244964@N03" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Frank Vassen</a>[/caption]
<h3>Fat-Tailed Dwarf Lemurs (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/western-fat-tailed-dwarf-lemur-cheirogaleus-medius/">Cheirogaleus medius)</a></h3>
The fat-tailed dwarf lemur is <a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/11-animals-hibernate-arent-bears" target="_blank" rel="noopener">another lonely hibernator</a>. They are one of only three primates that are known to hibernate. All of these species are lemurs, which live only on Madagascar.

The fat-tail lemur is tiny, weighing an average of 160 grams (less than half a pound!) Their fat-tail is more than just cute. It is an essential part of hibernation. They store much of the energy they need for hibernation as fat in their tail!

They can hibernate for as long as 7 months! These lemurs do take breaks from this extended hibernation. They will become active for periods of six to 12 days during these extended hibernations.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872070 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/garter-snake-3546237_1920-1024x686.jpg" alt="A garter snake on a rock with lichen" width="1024" height="686" />
<h3>Garter Snakes (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/common-garter-snake-thamnophis-sirtalis/">Thamnophis sirtalis</a>)</h3>
Snakes hibernation is called brumation, or wintering. As cold-blooded animals, they need to find a way to avoid the frost. The garter snake (and other species) form groups that hibernate together to protect each other from the cold. These groups are called “hibernacles” and <a href="https://animalsake.com/animals-that-hibernate" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sometimes have hundreds of snakes</a> twisted together. A mountain of slithering snakes is quite a sight! Stumbling upon a hibernacle could be quite the shock if you aren’t a fan of snakes.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872071 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/bee-535247_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="A bumble bee on a white flower" width="1024" height="680" />
<h3>Bumblebees (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/small-garden-bumblebee-bombus-hortorum/">Bombus spp.</a>)</h3>
Bumblebees hibernate in a way consistent with their eusocial nature. The majority of the colony dies off in the winter. The queen survives, eating the nectar collected by her workers. When the spring comes, she starts a new colony.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872072 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1024px-Lithobates_sylvaticus_wood_frog-1024x768.jpg" alt="A close up photo of a wood frog" width="1024" height="768" />
<h3>Wood Frogs (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/wood-frog-lithobates-sylvaticus/">Lithobates sylvaticus</a>)</h3>
These tiny amphibians give a new meaning to the phrase “chilled to the bone.” They are literally <a href="https://www.kidactivities.net/animals-that-hibernate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">frozen and thawed every winter</a>! Unlike other hibernators, they don’t spend too much time trying to find a warm hole. Instead, they bury themselves in some leaves and let the cold make them into cute little ice cubes. When they thaw out in the spring they happily hop back out of their hiding places, good as new!

&nbsp;

Hibernation is a common adaptation to deal with the difficulties of winter. There animals from nearly every part of the animal kingdom that hibernate. It can even be argued that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-hibernate-underground/">plants hibernate</a>! Hibernation is also a fascinating phenomenon that may help us learn more about human metabolism.

&nbsp;

Which Are the Animals That Hibernate?

First of all, what is hibernation? Some animals give a...

What are digestive plant enzymes? To answer this, we have to first ask: what are digestive enzymes to begin with? You may have learned about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-eating-enzyme-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">enzymes</a> in a biology class at some point, but we’ll give you a refresher.

Organisms need energy to function. But, where does this energy come from? From food, of course! After you scarf down a slice of pizza or drink a glass of orange juice, the body isn’t able to magically absorb a piece of pepperoni or orange pulp. It needs something to make that energy usable - like enzymes!

&nbsp;
<h2>Digestive Enzymes</h2>
Every organism that needs to convert food into energy needs some sort of enzyme to carry out the job. They help organisms break down a meal into smaller components that are easier for the body to absorb. Digestive enzymes dissolve proteins, fats, and carbohydrates into tiny molecules that are absorbed by your small intestine as they pass through. <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/natural-digestive-enzymes" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Some foods</a> even contain enzymes to aid in digestion.

There are several main types of digestive enzymes:
<ul>
 	<li>Proteases and peptidases divide proteins into small peptides and amino acids.</li>
 	<li>Lipases split fat into three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule.</li>
 	<li>Amylases convert carbohydrates such as starch and sugars into simple sugars like glucose.</li>
 	<li>Nucleases change nucleic acids to nucleotides.</li>
</ul>
Now that we have a better idea of what digestive enzymes are, let’s ask our question again.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872038 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/pitcherplant.jpg" alt="pitcher plant" width="1000" height="715" />

&nbsp;
<h2>What Are Digestive Plant Enzymes?</h2>
Although most plants create their energy through a process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photosynthesis-efficient-enough/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">photosynthesis</a>, some actually retrieve their nutrients from elsewhere.

Carnivorous plants make up an incredibly small percentage of all plant species, and they have an extremely unique way of getting nutrients. Because they often grow in poor soil conditions, these plants need to supplement their nutrient intake using another method: carnivory. These plants are able to convert organic matter into energy, just like animals do with their digestive track. In order to break down their food into smaller components, guess what they use? Enzymes! Although plants don’t have the same kind of digestive enzymes as animals, the processes that they undergo are very similar.

The most important nutrients a plant needs are nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Digestive plant enzymes make it possible for a carnivorous plant to get these nutrients in a place where they would otherwise be nearly impossible to retrieve. One of the most interesting things about digestive enzymes in plants and animals is that they evolved independently of one another. This is an awesome example of <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/convergent_evolution.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">convergent evolution</a>!

Plants secrete their digestive enzymes from modified leaves. In the case of a pitcher plant, they create a pool of digestive fluid that contains these enzymes. For a venus fly trap, the “mouth” of the plant is coated with these enzymes and clamp down on its prey not only to trap it, but also to cover as much of its prey as possible with the enzymes.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872039" align="alignnone" width="454"]<img class="wp-image-1872039 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/chitinase.png" alt="" width="454" height="255" /> Diagram of chitinase[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>Common Plant Enzymes</h2>
<ul>
 	<li>Esterase</li>
 	<li>Phosphatase</li>
 	<li>Glucanase</li>
 	<li>Peroxidase</li>
 	<li>Ureas</li>
 	<li>Chitinase</li>
</ul>
All of these enzymes have a specific function. That is, break down only one or a few unique structures. As its name implies, chitinase is used to dissolve the exoskeleton (made of chitin) of insects and other arthropods. Without it, plants wouldn’t be able to digest the hard outer shell of a beetle.

Digestive plant enzymes are a marvel of biology. To think plants have evolved a similar way to digest foods that humans and other animals use is astounding!

&nbsp;

What Are Digestive Plant Enzymes?

What are digestive plant enzymes? To answer this, we have...

Humans have been genetically modifying organisms (GMO) for close to 10,000 years - starting with the domestication of wheat in southwest Asia around 7800 BCE. Since their explosion in the mid-1970s in the United States, GMO crops now account for practically all of the corn and soybeans planted each year in the country.

Plants are not the only organisms that scientists have their sights set on. A Belgian team <a href="http://www.ruthmueller.info/medical-entomology" target="_blank" rel="noopener">led by Dr. Ruth Müeller</a> aims to use cutting-edge genetic technologies to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-mosquitoes-malaria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">eradicate malaria-carrying mosquitos</a>.

&nbsp;
<h2>What Is Malaria?</h2>
To understand why scientists want to eradicate malaria-carrying mosquitos, let’s first take a look at the disease. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/faqs.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Malaria</a> is “vector-borne,” meaning that living organisms can transmit the disease between humans.

While mosquitos are all members of the family Culicidae (which contains over 3,500 species), only one genus, <a href="https://www.who.int/features/qa/10/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anopheles</a>, can pass the parasite along. Only females of this genus are able to bite humans. When they do, they draw a minuscule amount of blood. During each bite, the mosquito ‘backwashes’ some of the blood from its previous bite into the new bite. If at any point the mosquito came in contact with malaria-containing blood, that mosquito can pass the disease onto its next victim.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871890" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_2-1024x512.jpg" alt="red blood cells malaria" width="1024" height="512" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Genetics Vocab</h2>
How does Dr. Müeller’s team plan to eradicate these dangerous mosquitos? Before we get there, we need to understand some vocabulary:
<ul>
 	<li>Gene: a piece of DNA that codes for a specific trait, like hair color, eye color, or whether you have <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-017-07792-7" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dangly earlobes</a></li>
 	<li>Allele: a specific variant of a gene, like red hair or blue eyes</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/gene-editing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gene editing</a>: part of a new wave of technologies that aims to change small parts of an organism’s DNA, sometimes as small as a single gene</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harmful-effects-crispr-gene-editing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">CRISPR</a>: short for “clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats” - a technology in development since 1993 that makes editing single genes possible by utilizing a pair of ‘genetic scissors’ to add or remove genetic information within an organism’s DNA</li>
 	<li>Gene drive: a technology that ensures a specific allele is passed onto almost all of an organism's offspring. Usually, half of an organism’s offspring will receive any given allele, but gene drives raise this percentage of offspring close to 100%</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871891" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_3-1024x512.jpg" alt="dna genetic engineering CRISPR" width="1024" height="512" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Müeller’s Plan</h2>
The Belgian team aims to stop the spread of malaria by stopping the spread of the mosquito that carries it.

Their first challenge was to use CRISPR to modify a gene. This gene, known as doublesex, is involved with the sexual development of mosquitos. “The females become a bit more male,” Müeller told NPR in an interview in February, likening them to “a kind of hermaphrodite.”

This modification of doublesex causes two deformations: one of the females’ mouths, making it impossible for them to bite humans, and another of their reproductive organs, rendering them unable to lay eggs.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Keeping the Mutation Going</h2>
Mutating a single mosquito isn’t enough, though. Müeller’s team wants to enable the mutation to spread throughout entire populations of mosquitos. By utilizing a gene drive, the group hopes to ensure that the mutation will be passed onto each successive generation.

As Müeller puts it, “All the children — the mosquito children — have this modification.” Eventually, the team intends for the mutation to spread to the entirety of a wild population - eradicating every mosquito. This ecosystem-wide impact has raised significant concern.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>The Controversy</h2>
While the possible, eventual results of Müeller’s research could benefit <a href="https://www.who.int/features/factfiles/malaria/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">roughly half of the world’s population</a> by reducing the threat of malaria, the issue is not so simple

Dana Perls, of <a href="https://foe.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Friends of the Earth</a>, worries about the unknown consequences, “This is an experimental technology which could have devastating impacts.” Friends of the Earth is just one of many international organizations that are concerned with the pace that GMO mosquito research is progressing. “We need to slow down. We need to hit the pause button on gene drives,” she adds.

Furthermore, what effect will eliminating a species of mosquito have on the environment? “It's difficult to see what the downside would be to removal, except for collateral damage,” says insect ecologist Steven Juliano in a <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2010/100721/full/466432a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2010 Nature article</a>. Scientists believe that the ecological harm caused by eliminating Anopheles would be far outweighed by the benefit of reducing the deadly human diseases they carry.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871892" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_4-1024x575.jpg" alt="swarm of GMO mosquitos" width="1024" height="575" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Next Steps for Müeller’s Team</h2>
Now that Müeller’s team has developed GMO mosquitos, they have already put their ideas to the test. Deep within a specially designed lab in Terni, Italy, their GMO mosquitos were released into populations of normal, healthy mosquitos.

Over the course of the next year, the team will track the spread of the doublesex mutation within this experimental lab population. She is excited, to say the least. “This will really be a breakthrough experiment,” says Müeller.

The group’s research is just one arm of the international organization <a href="https://targetmalaria.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Target Malaria's</a> global malaria reduction strategy. Other teams at the University of Cambridge, University of Notre Dame, and the University of Oxford - amongst others - are working towards similar goals to those of Müeller’s team.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>GMO Mosquitos in the Future</h2>
What does this mean for the future of malaria on planet earth?

Although Müeller’s experiment is set to conclude in February of 2020, there is still much to be done. They plan to spend four to five additional years studying the possible long-term consequences of the mosquitos’ release into the wild, as well as understanding the necessary ecological and political hurdles they must clear in order to implement their vision.

The team does not expect their mosquitos to be released into the wild anytime soon. But their research is already happening, and it’s not too early for all of us to start asking questions about how it will affect our shared future.

&nbsp;

Why Are There GMO Mosquitos?

Humans have been genetically modifying organisms (GMO) for close to...

One of the unique creatures Charles Darwin encountered on the Galápagos Islands was the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/galapagos-marine-iguana-amblyrhynchus-cristatus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">marine iguana</a>. He was shocked by their appearance, describing them as the “most disgusting, clumsy lizards” and “hideous-looking.” Yikes...

The marine iguana has a scaly loose skin with a squished looking face and long claws. Marine iguanas are primarily black. The average adult male is 1.3 meters (4.25 ft) while the female is 0.6 meters (2 ft). Different subspecies vary in color and size.

Despite their less-than-beautiful appearance, the marine iguana is a unique species. It is the only species of reptile that forages in the sea. This makes it the only known marine reptile. Scientists believe that this species evolved from land iguanas <a href="https://oceana.org/marine-life/sea-turtles-reptiles/marine-iguana" target="_blank" rel="noopener">around 4.5 million years ago</a>.

This species occurs only on the Galápagos Islands. Like many Galápagos species, distinct subspecies live on different islands. These subspecies each have unique coloration. Their small geographic range puts them <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/1086/3222951" target="_blank" rel="noopener">at risk of extinction</a>.

The marine iguana has never had any natural predators. Because of this, they are extremely docile. This makes them very popular with tourists.

The iguanas generally live in large colonies. They will pile onto each other on cold nights to conserve body heat. They generally stay near the coast, though they are great climbers and are often seen on top of cliffs.

&nbsp;
<h2>Marine Iguana Foraging</h2>
The marine iguana gets its name because it forages for food at sea! This is unique in the reptile kingdom.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871288" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871288 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-883488_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="This marine iguana is swimming underwater headed up." width="1024" height="768" /> The marine iguana can dive as deep as 30 meters![/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>Diving Deep is Delicious</h2>
The male iguanas can <a href="https://theplanetd.com/marine-iguanas-feeding-underwater-amazing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dive up to 30 meters</a> (100 ft) deep to forage. Stronger iguanas swim out into the tides, anchoring themselves on rocks. The younger iguanas and smaller females stay closer to shore.

Only about 5% of the iguanas dive for food. These are large, strong males. They dive in order to avoid competition in shallow water. Adult iguanas can dive for up to an hour. This is an impressive feat for a land animal, especially a reptile.

Diving deep in the cold ocean water is difficult for a cold-blooded reptile. The marine iguana must lower its heart rate and metabolism when diving. This allows their body temperature to <a href="https://marinebio.org/species/marine-iguanas/amblyrhynchus-cristatus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">drop by 10 degrees Celsius</a> while underwater. Even with these changes, the conditions are extreme. In order to prepare for these extreme conditions, the iguanas must bask in the sun, preparing for their dive. Though it may look like these lizards just relax in the sun all day, basking is essential for the lizards to live. This absorbed heat keeps them from being immobilized in the cold water.

&nbsp;
<h2>Eating Algae</h2>
&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871286" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871286 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-883486_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="A marine iguana underwater near the ocean floor eating algae off of a rock." width="1024" height="768" /> This marine iguana has found some delicious algae.[/caption]

&nbsp;

The marine iguanas feed on algae. These marine algae grow on rocks near the shore. There have been <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">nine species of algae</a> identified as iguana food. The iguanas prefer inter and subtidal algae. There are <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-do-marine-iguanas-primarily-feed-on" target="_blank" rel="noopener">4-5 species of red algae</a> that they prefer to eat. Other species are added to the diet when the good stuff isn’t available.

Though they are mostly marine foragers, the marine iguana can eat other food sources. They have been seen eating grasshoppers, crustaceans and <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sea lion afterbirth</a>! When times are really dire, the marine iguana resorts to <a href="https://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/galsite/research/projects/metcalfe/marineiguanas.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">eating feces</a>. They will eat the droppings of other iguanas as well as that of sea lions and red crabs.

&nbsp;
<h2>El Niño</h2>
Though the marine iguana is isolated on the Galápagos, global weather patterns affect them. The El Niño Southern Oscillation Event (or ENSO) decreases algae on the Galápagos islands. The increased rainfall and surface temperature decreases the algal growth. During these events, the iguanas will shrink by up to 20%. It is believed that the <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-do-marine-iguanas-primarily-feed-on" target="_blank" rel="noopener">lizard's bones may actually shrink</a> by up to 10%! These changes are quickly reversed when food becomes available again.

&nbsp;
<h2>Too Much Salt</h2>
The unusual eating habits of the marine iguana require some specialized adaptations. Diving in the sea comes with unique hazards. The amount of salt in seawater causes a risk of dehydration. In order to combat this, they <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">evolved salt glands</a>. These glands take excess salt and force it out of the lizard's nostrils. All this salt sneezing gives them a white crown.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871287" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871287 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-1826683_1920-1024x685.png" alt="Two marine iguanas with their eyes closed" width="1024" height="685" /> These marine iguanas are enjoying the sun.[/caption]

&nbsp;

The marine iguana is a uniquely interesting reptile. Its diet of algae is entirely unique for a reptile. This species is threatened with extinction due to its tiny range and specialized diet. Though they have survived ENSO events in the past, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/el-nino-is-strengthening/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">these are becoming more frequent</a> and intense. Climate change is causing extreme weather years to become more common. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galapagos-iguanas-struggling-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">threatens the marine iguana's </a>food source. Consecutive low-food years could be disastrous.

In addition, their small range poses a threat. Localized events could wipe out the entire species. Though they are protected, as are the Galápagos Islands, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-galapagos-islands/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">pollution in the ocean can’t be controlled</a>. A nearby oil spill could greatly harm this species.

&nbsp;

What do Marine Iguanas Eat?

One of the unique creatures Charles Darwin encountered on the...

Grasslands are one of the most important habitat types on our planet. They cover almost 25% of Earth’s surface on land and are found on every continent except <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-antarctica-green/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Antarctica</a>. The animals that live in grasslands need to be extremely resourceful. How does an animal eat when their food is under a meter of snow? Without trees and shrubs to hide in, how would an animal escape or avoid its predators? Before we look into 5 of the most resourceful grassland animals, let’s define what a grassland is first.

&nbsp;
<h2>What’s a Grassland?</h2>
As its name implies, a grassland is an ecosystem comprised of - you guessed it - grass! Plants called rushes and sedges often accompany the grass to create the characteristic plains and savannahs we see today. Grasslands go by many names, depending on the locale. In North America, they are referred to as prairies. Pampas are the grasslands of South America. In Central Asia, they’re called <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/steppe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">steppes</a>. Savannas usually refer to the expansive grasslands of Africa.

So, which grassland animals are the most resourceful?

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871144 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Giraffe.jpg" alt="giraffe pair savanna" width="1000" height="667" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Giraffe (Giraffa spp.)</h3>
Giraffes have adapted to take advantage of a food resource almost no other animals has. They are one of the only animals in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-african-savanna-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">African savanna</a> that can reach the highest leaves on trees, thanks to their extremely long neck. For a giraffe, eating the highest leaves from the tallest savanna trees is a walk in the park. Giraffes eat about 34 kilograms (75 pounds) of leaves a day. For their size, they actually require much less food than the average herbivore because the leaves they eat are extremely nutritious - a luxury other herbivores don’t have.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1871145 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/prairie-dog-1024x682.jpg" alt="prairie dog" width="1024" height="682" /></h3>
&nbsp;
<h3>Prairie Dog (Cynomys spp.)</h3>
A characteristic animal of North American prairies is the aptly named prairie dog. Unlike dogs, these rodents are not carnivores. They’re some of the most abundant animals in the grasslands of North America. Although they are the prey of various other animals, they still manage to thrive.

Prairie dogs succeed in highly competitive grasslands by using resources above and below ground. They create burrows that can be dozens of meters long, and even make different chambers for varying purposes. Because they live above the soil as well as within it, they eat every single part of a plant. Leaves, seeds, stems, and roots are all fair game for the prairie dog. Other animals, like moles and gophers, eat only the below-ground parts, while other herbivores eat only the above-ground portions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1871146 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Vicuna.jpg" alt="vicuna" width="800" height="600" /></h3>
&nbsp;
<h3>Vicuña (Vicugna vicugna)</h3>
The vicuña is a relative to the domesticated llama and alpaca of South America. They live in the highest alpine plains of the Andes at 3,200 to 4,800 meters (10,500 to 15,700 feet), which are some of the harshest grasslands in the world. At night, temperatures drop well below freezing. Luckily for the vicuña, it has some of the warmest wool in the animal kingdom. Their fur is extremely fine, with each hair measuring only 12 micrometers in diameter. For this reason, it’s highly prized by people and is some of the <a href="https://www.businessoffashion.com/articles/intelligence/inside-the-business-of-vicuna-the-wool-worth-more-than-gold" target="_blank" rel="noopener">most expensive wool in the world</a>. Vicuñas trap their own body heat very close to their skin thanks to their wool, which is how they survive in the cold, harsh environment of the Andes.

Vicuñas need to use another odd resource to supplement their low nutrient diet. In order to get the minerals they need, vicuñas simply lick rocks to obtain salt and other small amounts of nutrients. Ingenious!

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871143 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/caribou-1024x691.jpg" alt="caribou" width="1024" height="691" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Caribou (Rangifer tarandus)</h3>
Caribou are also known by the name of reindeer. They’re found in northern regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. Why do Santa’s trusty companions make the list of most resourceful grassland animals? It has to do with the lengths they go to obtain their food and care for their young. Every year, caribou embark on one of Earth’s greatest animal migrations. As summer approaches, herds of caribou migrant northward to reach the abundant plants beginning to grow. A full round trip sees caribou traveling up to 2500 kilometers (1600 miles) in a single year!

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871142 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/bison.jpg" alt="bison herd grassland" width="1000" height="561" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Bison (Bison spp.)</h3>
Bison are another one of the dominant animals in the grasslands of North America. They have been incredibly important for humans for millennia because their meat is highly nutritious and their pelts are valuable. Sadly, in the 1800’s humans were responsible for the near-extinction of the animal. Fortunately, bison are extremely resilient and resourceful, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bison-american-survival-story/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">their numbers have been steadily growing</a> for the past 100 years.

Bison, like many grassland animals, eat plants. One problem they face is finding food during the cold winter months when they have to wade through waist-deep snow. Amazingly, bison use their enormous head to dig through and push the snow aside to access the scant amount of grass below. The grass, which is frozen and nearly dead, is hardly nutritious. Bison eat enough to survive through the winter, thanks to using a resource no other animal would even consider.

&nbsp;

Top 5 Resourceful Grassland Animals

Grasslands are one of the most important habitat types on...

Sea creatures are big mysteries to most of us. What do they do under the waves? What do they eat? How do they navigate and communicate? And… what are they? 

Dolphins, whales, seals, sea lions, and otters are all mammals. They give birth to live young and nurse their young with milk. In contrast, even though some sharks give birth to live young, sharks are fish.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>What is a Mammal, Again?</h2>
It’s a bit confusing whether dolphins, whales, and sharks are mammals unless you remember the basics of what a mammal is.

Mammals are warm-blooded animals that give birth to live young (except for a few exceptions <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-there-mammals-that-lay-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">that lay eggs</a>) and feed those young with milk. Most mammals are hairy - but not all! Humans and naked mole rats are both mammals but they aren’t exactly fluffy.

Mammals do not have gills. That means that any aquatic or marine mammals need to be able to come to the surface often enough to breathe. In contrast, fish and amphibians with gills can stay underwater indefinitely.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870873 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/dolphin-203875_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="682" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Are Dolphins and Whales Mammals?</h2>
Dolphins are actually a subset of the order Artiolydacta, which includes all whales and porpoises as well as pigs, giraffes, llamas, and hippos. Whales, dolphins, and porpoises are all part of the infraorder Cetacea. The closest related land mammal to whales and dolphins is the hippo.

All whales and dolphins are warm-blooded, give birth to live young, and feed their young with milk. In other words, whales and dolphins are mammals.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>What About Seals, Sea Lions, and Sea Otters?</h2>
Seals and sea lions are also mammals, but they’re not very closely related to whales and dolphins. In fact, seals, sea lions, and sea otters are all part of the order Carnivora. Carnivora also includes dogs, cats, bears, and skunks. The closest living relatives of sea lions and seals are probably bears. The closest living relatives of sea otters are other otter species.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870874 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/shark-3197585_1280-1024x576.jpg" alt="are sharks mammals" width="1024" height="576" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Are Sharks Mammals?</h2>
On the other hand, sharks are a subgroup of fish. Some sharks do give birth to live young, but they do not nurse and they’re not warm-blooded. In fact, sharks don’t even have true bones. Their skeleton is made up entirely of cartilage. Sharks don’t have ribcages, so they’re easily crushed under their own weight on land.

Unlike most other fish, sharks don’t have a swim bladder. They “float” within the water column thanks to their cartilaginous skeleton, which is far less dense than bone. Sand sharks can also store air in their stomachs to help them keep afloat. Most sharks also rely on dynamic lift to avoid sinking in water. This means they need to keep moving and rely on their pectoral fins like wings to stay still, and they can't swim backward.

&nbsp;

Are Dolphins, Sharks, and Whales Mammals?

Sea creatures are big mysteries to most of us. What...

Nature vs. nurture is the central question in human development. How much of who we are is predetermined by our genes? How much is created by our environment? The answer may not be as two-sided as we once thought.

The real story is far more complex. Changes outside the sequence of genes change the way life develops. The implications of the “epigenetic” changes are vast. Research in this area is active. The impacts of epigenetics are not yet fully understood.

Epigenetics is an exciting new area of research within genetics. It reveals how factors other than your genetic code change who you are. Some of these factors are even passed between generations. This means the lifestyle of your parents may influence your development. This research is being applied to topics from cancer to addiction.

Epigenetic changes have three key components. Epigenetics...
<ol>
 	<li>Change the expression of genes.</li>
 	<li>Do not change the “code” of your DNA.</li>
 	<li>Are passed to new cells or even offspring.</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>A Brief Overview of Genetics</h2>
We all know that DNA is the blueprint for life. But how do genes create a living, breathing person?

DNA is made up of four repeating units, called bases. A letter represents each base. These letters spell out a recipe. By following the steps, cells create protein. These proteins have many jobs. Some organize the cell, others communicate. There are at least 20,000 of these proteins, each contributing to who you are.

Every cell in your body contains the same DNA. This is your genome and it is unique to each person, animal, or plant. Your DNA contains two versions of each gene, one from each parent.

Our cells replicate all the time. They do this by dividing in half through a process called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/mitosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">mitosis</a>. During mitosis, the cell duplicates its DNA. This ensures that both cells have the information they need. Epigenetic information is also copied in this step.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1870792" align="alignnone" width="391"]<img class="wp-image-1870792 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Sperm-egg.jpg" alt="A microscopic photo of a sperm fertilizing an egg" width="391" height="265" /> Sperm fertilizing an egg[/caption]

A separate sort of division creates sperm and eggs (gametes). This process (called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/meiosis-cytology" target="_blank" rel="noopener">meiosis</a>) results in the genome spliting in two. Each cell has only one version. When a sperm fertilizes an egg these two halves are combined. During this process, most epigenetic information is lost.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>The History of Epigenetics</h2>
The study of epigenetics comes out of a simple question. If every cell has the same DNA, why are they so different? Your eyes and your toes have the exact same genetic information. Obviously, there is more at play than just your genes.

The <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3941222/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">first mention of the term epigenetics</a> was in 1942. Dr. Conrad Waddington used it to describe the “whole complex of developmental processes” between “genotype and phenotype.” This research looked at how a fertilized egg becomes a human. The early ideas of epigenetics were quite broad.

The term “epigenetics” now refers to something more specific. Modern epigenetics research explores non-genetic changes copied during mitosis.

Epigenetic modifications to an embryo's genes help stem cells “differentiate.” Other changes influence this process as well. Epigenetics refers only to the changes that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1392256/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">persist when a cell divides</a>.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance</h2>
It was long believed that the epigenome was completely wiped clean when a new embryo formed. Recent evidence has shown that this is not entirely true.

Most epigenetic changes are reset between generations. However, some of these changes are <a href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/inheritance/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">inherited between generations</a>.

The persistence of experience through generations is an exciting finding. This finding reveals a process that moves far faster than natural selection. Also, this process is non-random. Genetic mutations happen at random and generally provide no benefit. On the other hand, many epigenetic changes are direct responses to the environment.

There have always been parts of inheritance that are not explained by classical genetics. This “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4517414/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">missing heritability</a>” has puzzled geneticists. Epigenetic inheritance helps answer these questions.

These discoveries will help us better understand complex genetic disorders. By looking at inheritance beyond the genetic code, we may be able to predict and prevent disease.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Does Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance Happen in Humans?</h2>
We're not sure yet. Though there have been compelling studies that point to transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, it is difficult to prove. Showing definitive proof in humans is <a href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/inheritance/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">difficult for a number of reasons</a>.
<ol>
 	<li>Long lifespans of humans make multi-generation studies difficult.</li>
 	<li>Humans have complex genomes. Therefore, not all genetic variation is accounted for.</li>
 	<li>Human studies are not done in a lab. There are many factors at play in peoples lives.</li>
 	<li>Effects in the fourth generation must be observed. The mother carries both the fetus and its reproductive cells. Therefore she can directly affect three generations, without inheritance (herself, her child, and her grandchildren).</li>
</ol>
Epigenetic inheritance is well-established in plants. Studies with lab rats have also shown epigenetic inheritance. Diet, chemical exposure and even nurturing have shown lasting effects in rats. This provides a good case that transgenerational <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epigenetic-passed-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">epigenetic inheritance occurs in humans</a>.

This topic is an active area of research. Discoveries have been made that make a good case for epigenetic inheritance in humans. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-life-experiences-offspring/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Research in model organisms</a> will help us understand how these processes could work in humans. However, understanding the full scope of these effects requires more research.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>How Does Epigenetics Work?</h2>
&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1870793" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1870793 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Epigenetic_mechanisms-1024x614.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="614" /> Epigenetic mechanisms. Visual created by the National Institute of Health[/caption]

&nbsp;

Many mechanisms of epigenetic change exist. We have summarized some of the most common epigenetic changes.
<ol>
 	<li>Methylation: This mechanism This modifies the base “cytosine”, or the C in the A-T-C-Gs of our genes. These changes generally cause the gene to turn off. This is common in cancer cells. When genes regulating the cell turn off, the cell can grow uncontrollably. Methylation is the best-studied mechanism. This is because it is easier to study. Methylation was the first type of epigenetic change observed.</li>
 	<li>Histone Modification: Histones are what store your DNA. They are proteins that work sort of like spools to roll up the DNA. They organize DNA and control what genes are visible. Changes to histones can influence the genes they hold. There are many ways histones are modified. Each change has a different effect on the related genes.</li>
 	<li>Regulatory RNA: RNA is DNA’s older brother. It was probably the first form of genetic information. RNA is made up of similar parts to DNA but plays many different roles. It is primarily used to translate from genes to protein. Genes are expressed by these proteins, and RNA also has an epigenetic role. MicroRNAs are a type of RNA molecule that doesn’t create protein. Instead, MicroRNAs silence a gene by removing RNA before it becomes a protein.</li>
</ol>
These three categories cover most of the research into epigenetics. However, other forms of epigenetics do exist. It is possible that more mechanisms will be discovered.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Causes of Epigenetic Changes</h2>
A huge variety of things can cause epigenetic changes - and we probably don’t know about all of them, yet!

What you eat, how stressed you are, your exercise habits, chemical exposure, aging, and radiation can all cause epigenetic changes - to name a few. Some diseases, like Alzheimers, also cause epigenetic changes.

For example:
<ol>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ol>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li><a href="https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/high-fat-diet-in-fruit-flies-links-epigenetics-to-inherited-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">In fruit flies</a>, a high-fat diet leads to an increased risk for heart disease thanks to epigenetic changes.</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/a-fatty-diet-may-affect-behavior-across-generations-through-epigenetic-mechanisms/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">A high-fat diet in mice</a> can lead to increased body fat percentage three generations later, when traced through paternal bloodlines.</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/stress-hormone-causes-epigenetic-changes" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Methylation of the Fkbp5 gene</a> (an epigenetic change) that is brought on by stress may relate to PTSD and other mood disorders.</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/exercise-linked-to-epigenetic-benefits-that-keep-the-brain-healthy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Exercise in mice</a> helps drive epigenetic changes that keep their brains healthy.</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/the-epigenetics-of-sleep-3-reasons-to-catch-more-zzzs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Getting enough sleep</a> can help reduce potentially harmful methylation; more sleep also reduces stress and helps prevent associated negative epigenetic changes.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ol>
In short, there are myriad factors every day that can impact your epigenetics. Most good self-care and health advice, like eating healthy, getting enough sleep, and exercising regularly, will also help you avoid harmful epigenetic changes while benefitting from positive changes.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Epigenetic Therapies</h2>
&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1870794" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1870794 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/pill-1884775_1920-1024x614.jpg" alt="Four pills on a white background." width="1024" height="614" /> Medications can take advantage of epigenetic mechanisms.[/caption]

&nbsp;

Epigenetics has been shown to play a role in many different diseases. This has led to research into controlling the epigenome. We may be able to reverse epigenetic changes that cause disease.

Drugs are being developed that target epigenetic changes. Medications that have epigenetic effects have <a href="http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,1952313-2,00.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">been approved for cancer treatment</a>.

&nbsp;
<h3>Exposure Therapy</h3>
Exposure therapy is the use of triggering or frightening stimuli in a controlled environment. This technique has shown great promise for reducing mental disorders such as anxiety.

<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3961057/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Recent research</a> shows that epigenetics may be at play. Successful exposure therapy is associated with epigenetic changes. The use of drugs that increase epigenetic changes may make these techniques even more effective.

&nbsp;
<h3>A Difficult Target</h3>
Epigenetic drugs are far from perfect. They come with a wide range of side effects. This is because it is hard to target a specific epigenetic change. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1392256/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">These drugs turn on hundreds of genes while turning hundreds of others off.</a>

These drugs come with many risk and uncertainties. Therefore, they are only used in extreme cases, such as cancer. In the future, our aim may improve. Epigenetic therapies have the potential to treat many different conditions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Examples of Epigenetics in Real Life</h2>
The first time I heard about epigenetics in a human’s real life was an overview of <a href="https://search.proquest.com/openview/2add0e702efbfe47689eaaf82ef12f32/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&amp;cbl=28214" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lars Olov Byrgen’s research</a>, summarized in a great <a href="https://www.wnycstudios.org/story/251885-you-are-what-your-grandpa-eats" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Radiolab episode</a>. In the episode, they looked into the case of a northern county of Sweden. This remote area had volatile harvests, leading to some years of plenty and other years of starvation and suffering.

The researchers found that boys who enjoyed the years of gluttony actually had sons and grandsons who lived shorter lives. On average, the grandchildren of boys who had big crop yields as kids lived six years less than the grandchildren of boys who endured near-starvation as kids.

Once Bygren and his team controlled for socioeconomic variability, the gap in lifespan jumped to a jaw-dropping 32 years.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>So… Can Stress Change My DNA?</h2>
&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1870795" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1870795 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/laptop-3087585_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="Woman biting a pencil and looking at a laptop on a wooden desk." width="1024" height="683" /> Though stress can't change your DNA itself, it may cause epigenetic changes.[/caption]

&nbsp;

Well, epigenetics doesn’t change the actual coding of your DNA. Being stressed out doesn’t change your DNA - but it can cause epigenetic changes, influencing gene expression.

<a href="https://acestoohigh.com/2016/09/08/7-ways-childhood-adversity-changes-a-childs-brain/#more-5849" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Adverse childhood experiences can affect the way that a child’s genes are expressed</a>. For example, repeated exposure to high stress as a child leads to methylation of the DNA. This sets the stress response to “high,” leaving the adults unable to cope with stress appropriately later in life. Stress can affect a child’s entire genome, from stress responses to health factors.

Stressed-out father mice are more likely to father offspring that struggle to cope with stress (see the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5130105/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">study from NCBI here</a>). The offspring of stressed-out father mice were more likely to be depressed, underestimate risk, and have metabolic issues. The researchers caused stress in the mice by removing their mother periodically while they were nursing, then subjecting the mother mouse to a cold dip in some water. The pups from these litters displayed depressive symptoms, as expected. But interestingly, the male pups from these litters passed on the negative effects to their own offspring, and even their grand-offspring! The researchers focused on patrilineal relationships and used in vitro fertilization. This reduced the possibility that the depressive behaviors were learned.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Epigenetics in Addiction</h2>
Finally, there’s some fascinating research that suggests that epigenetic changes might be responsible for some aspects of addiction. There’s some question as to whether drug addiction causes epigenetic changes, or if the epigenetics changes led to the addiction. But, according to a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3463407/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2012 article by Nielson et. al.</a>, “Studies on the DNA methylation changes found in drug addiction suggest a possible role for epigenetics in predisposing an individual to an increased vulnerability for addiction.”

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

Epigenetics can seem technical and confusing, but it is an important aspect of how your genes shape you (and an exciting frontier on how you can shape your genetic expression). Epigenetic changes can occur due to a variety of factors, including stress and diet. These changes can pass on to future generations in some cases, and may influence their behavior as well.

&nbsp;

What is Epigenetics?

Nature vs. nurture is the central question in human development....

The lotus flower is one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sacred-plants-mythology-spirituality/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sacred and iconic plants</a> in the world. The striking flower is a symbolic staple for some of the most prolific cultures and religions throughout history. It's safe to say that for thousands of years, the lotus has been a plant celebrity.

Hieroglyphics in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eight-egyptian-mummies-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Ancient Egypt</a> often include lotus flowers portrayed side-by-side with important priests and pharaohs. Statues depicting sacred Buddhist figures feature the person sitting on, or underneath a lotus flower. Some of the gods and goddesses of Hinduism are associated with the flowers. The lotus flower is a recurring symbol across time and space. What makes this flower (and lotus seeds) so encapturing? To understand why the plant is so symbolic and timeless, we have to first understand its life history.
<h2>About the Lotus Flower</h2>
The white lotus (also called sacred lotus), Nelumbo nucifera, has a huge natural range. It grows in northern India up to elevations as high as 1,400 meters (4,600 feet), all the way to East Asia throughout much of China and almost all of southeast Asia.

The blue lotus, Nymphaea caerulea, is native to the Nile river and other parts of East Africa. Botanically speaking, these flowers are actually a type of water lily. But, the reasons why it’s sacred are similar to that of the white lotus. It also happens to grow in a very similar fashion to the white lotus.

N. caerulea itself is an aquatic plant. It thrives in muddy, still water and roots itself into the muck below. The long stems rise through the water and the leaves sit directly on or above the water. The huge, showy flowers bloom above the leaves, sometimes 20 centimeters (8 inches) in diameter! The petals have a special waxy coating on them which shed water and dirt. So even after blooming out of otherwise dirty, turbid water, the flower itself is perfectly pristine. One by one new flowers emerge and only last a single day. This is one of the reasons lotus flowers are so admired. Their ability to remain clean while growing out of the mud evokes persistence and spiritual purity.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870668 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/buddha.jpg" alt="buddha statue lotus flower" width="1000" height="666" />
<h2>Buddhism and the Lotus</h2>
In Buddhism, the sacred lotus is an important symbol of purity, spiritual awakening, and faithfulness. Statues of Buddha often show him sitting atop an open lotus flower, like the one pictured above. In the land of Buddha, there are many different colors of lotus, and <a href="https://buddhists.org/buddhist-symbols/the-meanings-of-the-different-colors-of-the-lotus-flower-in-buddhism/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">each one holds a different meaning.</a>
<ul>
 	<li>Blue symbolizes a victory of the spirit over that of wisdom, intelligence, and knowledge. In Buddhist artwork, blue lotuses are never fully open as to not observe the center of the flower.</li>
 	<li>White symbolizes Bodhi (being enlightened). It also represents mental purity, spiritual perfection, and peace.</li>
 	<li>Purple is thought to be mystic. The eight petals of this lotus represent the Noble Eightfold Path, one of the most important teachings of Buddha.</li>
 	<li>Red represents the heart and symbolizes love and compassion.</li>
 	<li>Pink is considered to be the “true” lotus and is the main color of the flower according to Buddha.</li>
</ul>
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1870669 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/brahma.jpg" alt="Brahma statue lotus flower" width="1000" height="801" /></h3>
<h2>Hindu Gods, Goddesses, and the White Lotus</h2>
The N. caerulea flower is sacred in Hinduism. It symbolizes beauty, fertility, prosperity, spirituality, and eternity. These are some pretty significant ideals, and all have the white lotus representing them. Many <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/top-hindu-deities-1770309" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Hindu deities</a> hold or associate themselves with lotus.

The goddess of prosperity, Laxmi, is most often depicted sitting atop an open lotus flower, with more of the blooms held in two of her four hands. The four-faced god of creation, Brahma, apparently emerged from a lotus himself. In Hinduism, the unflawed flower is divine. It emerges from muddy waters and represents enlightenment in a person with little attachments to the world.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1740768 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Blue-egyptian-lotus-Nymphaea-caerulea.jpg" alt="" width="915" height="768" />
<h2>Ancient Egypt and the Blue Lotus</h2>
Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics depict more than one type of N. caerulea, but the blue lotus is definitely the most common and sacred of them all. The blue flower often symbolizes rebirth, due to its nature of submerging underwater and reemerging the next day. When it blooms from the water a second time, it is as clean and pure as it was the day before.

Because of the lotus flower’s ability to enter the water and return the next day, it eventually came to symbolize the sun and the creation of the world. Because the lotus is associated with rebirth, it consequentially also became associated with death. Many ancient Egyptians believed there was a way to turn into a lotus after death, so one could be reborn the next day.

Apart from the symbolic and spiritual nature of these beautiful flowers, they also had a more political significance. Upper and Lower Egypt were long separate. Eventually, the Egyptian lotus flower (abundant in Upper Egypt) and the <a href="https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/foliage/papyrus/papyrus-plants.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">papyrus plant</a> (abundant in Lower Egypt) became united in symbols and hieroglyphics. Combining two of the most important plants in Ancient Egypt led to the unity of the two kingdoms.

Why the Lotus Flower Is a Plant Celebrity

The lotus flower is one of the most sacred and...

You may think your dog is the smartest animal to have graced the earth. However, the competition might surprise you. 

The questions of which animals are smart is far from simple. Measuring the intelligence of animals is difficult. However, many species show obvious signs of complex thought. Crows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-fashion-hooks-wood/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">build simple tools</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planning-skills-animals-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">make plans</a>. Your dog has an uncanny ability <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-understand-humans-better/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">to know when you’re feeling down</a>. Obviously, many animals are smart. 

Intelligence in animals is difficult to define. Any test may favor a species that needs that skill in the wild. If you measure whether a crow or a dolphin is better at building a nest, your results won’t mean much.

Some traits such as memory and problem solving are often used. Solving a maze or learning a behavior indicates that an animal can remember, and apply experience. Learning is a key aspect of intelligence.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870313 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/squid-225423_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="Cephalopod facing the camera on a background of seaweed" width="1024" height="768" />
<h2>Our foot-headed friends (cephalopods)</h2>
Octopuses, squids, and cuttlefish are part of a larger group called the cephalopods. Their name comes from Greek words for head and foot. This describes their odd appearance. 

This taxon is very different from humans in many ways. First of all, cephalopods bleed blue. Cephalopods lack the red, iron-containing hemoglobin of humans. Instead, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cephalopod blood uses blue copper</a> to carry oxygen.

Most (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-argonaut/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">though not all</a>) have soft, boneless bodies, enabling them to squeeze through tiny spaces.

These sea creatures may seem strange, but we have something big in common. Cephalopod brains are large and well developed like mammals.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870314 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/blue-ringed-octopus-2414408_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="A blue ringed octopus with an orange body and blue circles" width="1024" height="683" />
<h2>An entirely new take on the brain</h2>
Cephalopod brains are unique. They have relatively large brains for their body size. This is a common sign of intelligence in animals. However, this is where the similarities end. Cephalopod brains are very different from the brains of mammals.

&nbsp;
<h2>A different path to intelligence</h2>
The invertebrates split from vertebrates' evolutionary line over <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">600 million years ago</a>. This was long before life was as widespread as it is today. 

Most invertebrates do not have complex brains. This means that octopuses developed brains independently from mammals. The result is as close to an alien brain as you will find on earth. 

The structure of an octopus brain is very unusual. Most of the octopuses 500 million neurons are in its arms! This allows them to not only feel, but to taste and smell with their tentacles.

No other invertebrates have brains as complex as cephalopods. Cephalopods are predators that have to hunt for their food. Scientists believe that their <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">need to hunt and hide </a>led them to develop complex brains.

Most intelligent animals have <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/30/science/animal-intelligence-octopus-cephalopods.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">strong social bonds and live long lives</a>. Octopuses, on the other hand, live only months or years. Scientists believed they were solitary animals. However, a recent study showed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-social-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">octopuses are more social than we thought</a>. These differences show just how different octopuses are. Their intelligence is something special.

&nbsp;
<h2>How octopuses teach us about human brains</h2>
Octopuses' big brains are paired with big neurons. The large cells of their nervous system can be seen without magnification. This has made them a popular tool for studying nerves. 

Though they evolved separately from human brains, the basic structure is the same. Studying <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/so-you-think-youre-smarter-cephalopod" target="_blank" rel="noopener">octopus neurons has provided insight </a>into the workings of the human brain.

&nbsp;
<h2>Some of the smartest things octopuses have done</h2>
The way octopuses behave reveals their intellect. Octopuses are often mischevious. Here are a few examples of octopus behavior.

Octopuses...
<ul>
 	<li>... turn out the lights. Octopuses in captivity have learned to use jets of water to short circuit lights they find annoying.</li>
 	<li>...steal fish from neighboring tanks. Octopuses in aquariums have learned to sneak out of their tanks to eat fish in neighboring tanks.</li>
 	<li>...use tools to solve problems. There are many examples of <a href="https://www.upworthy.com/octopus-intelligence-here-are-13-of-the-most-frighteningly-smart-things-they-can-do" target="_blank" rel="noopener">octopuses using tools</a>. Some will steal the tentacles of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/portuguese-man-o-war-physalia-physalis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Portuguese man o war</a> jellyfish and use them as a weapon! There are even examples of them carrying coconut shells with them as a disguise. </li>
 	<li>...display complicated camouflage. Octopuses can copy complicated textures. They also will <a href="https://www.upworthy.com/octopus-intelligence-here-are-13-of-the-most-frighteningly-smart-things-they-can-do" target="_blank" rel="noopener">imitate large predators </a>to scare off anyone hunting them. Their camouflage is so good, it is being <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-skin-camouflage-material/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">used to inspire new technology.</a></li>
 	<li>...recognize individual people.</li>
 	<li>...enjoy playing with toys.</li>
 	<li>...can <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mind-of-an-octopus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">solve mazes and open jars</a>.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

It is impossible to know how an octopus sees the world. The question of animal intelligence is complicated by the different needs and skills of animals. What we do know, is that octopuses are good problem solvers. They are clearly intelligent. What intelligence means for an octopus is unclear.

Cephalopods provide a new take on the brain. This unique part of evolution provides valuable diversity, and it is important that we protect these unique animals. Human behavior such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-farming-overfishing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">overfishing </a>and pollution threaten many octopuses. So next time you see an octopus, remember that they might be wondering about your intelligence too! 

&nbsp;

Are Octopuses Smart?

You may think your dog is the smartest animal to...

If you’ve ever tried to chase frogs, you’ve probably noticed that they can breathe on air and seemingly don’t need to resurface for air if they’re underwater. But is that really true? How do amphibians breathe - and can they breathe underwater?

Let’s start out with the basics of amphibian biology, then dig into how their bodies support their unusual lifestyles.

&nbsp;
<h2>What is an amphibian?</h2>
The term “amphibian” actually describes a class of animals. They’re in the same domain (Animalia) and phylum (Chordata, meaning they have a backbone) as you and me, but that’s about where the taxonomic similarities end.

The Class Amphibia includes three extant orders (which are groups of families, which are in turn groups of genera, which are groups of species):

&nbsp;
<ul>
 	<li>Anura. This order includes all of our modern frogs and toads. Frogs and toads are short-bodied, tailless, carnivorous, four-legged, and “cold-blooded.” Frogs and toads are most numerous in tropical parts of the world.</li>
 	<li>Urodela. This order includes all of the world’s salamanders and newts. Salamanders and newts have long bodies, short noses, and short limbs that project out at right angles from their bodies. They’re most common in the northern hemisphere.</li>
 	<li>Apoda. This class includes the caecilians. Whereas you probably can picture a frog and a newt, you’ve probably never seen a caecilian. These blind, limbless amphibians look a lot like giant earthworms. These bizarre creatures live in the undergrowth and detritus of tropical forests.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

There are probably about 7,000 species of amphibians currently alive. 85-90% of these species are frogs. That number is, sadly, dropping quickly because amphibians are so vulnerable to pollution. Because amphibians breathe partially through their skin (and their eggs don’t have shells), they are very susceptible to pollutants. Amphibians are often considered an “indicator” group, as they often drop in numbers before other species start to struggle to survive.

Amphibians require water to reproduce because, unlike reptiles and birds, their eggs lack an impervious shell. Some species of amphibians have adaptations that allow them to lay their eggs elsewhere, but the vast majority of amphibians require freshwater for their eggs. Amphibians are hatched into a larval stage that is quite different from their adult form. They must go through metamorphosis to reach adulthood.

Adult amphibians need to keep their skin moist even when they’re on land, so they’re limited to moist environments. Likewise, amphibians generally don’t survive in saltwater. A few species can live in brackish water, but otherwise, amphibians are creatures of fresh water.

Because amphibians are cold-blooded (ectothermic), their metabolic rates are low and they don’t need to eat much. Many amphibian species have ears that can detect vibrations in the air or water, helping them find prey and avoid being eaten. 

Many amphibians have mucous glands on their skin - some of which are poisonous. This special skin is our main topic for the day because amphibians can also breathe through their skin. Let’s talk about the lungs and skin of amphibians and how they work together.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870255 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/axolotl-38317_640.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="480" />

&nbsp;
<h2>What type of respiratory system do amphibians have?</h2>
Most adult amphibians can breathe both through cutaneous respiration (through their skin) and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/buccal-pumping" target="_blank" rel="noopener">buccal pumping</a> - though some also retain gills as adults. Amphibians have primitive lungs compared to reptiles, birds, or mammals. This means that they deal with slow diffusion of oxygen through their blood.

Buccal pumping works by having the amphibian draw in air through its nostrils. The animal then closes its nostrils and pushes air through the lungs by contracting their throat (not using a diaphragm). 

Amphibians like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/titicaca-water-frog-telmatobius-culeus/#.XJlOLVNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Titicaca water frog</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/hellbender-cryptobranchus-alleganiensis/#.XJlOXlNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hellbender salamander</a> that live in cold, fast-moving streams may be able to breathe through mainly cutaneous respiration. Cutaneous respiration allows the animal to absorb water through their skin directly into their bloodstream. Wrinkles in the skin help some species absorb more oxygen because they simply have more skin to use.

Famously, the lungless salamanders have neither lungs nor gills - they just breathe through their skin!

Some aquatic salamanders (and all tadpoles) have gills and can breathe underwater thanks to them. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/axolotl-ambystoma-mexicanum/#.XJlMQVNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mexican axolotl</a>, for example, never loses its gills.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870256 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/tadpole-2243032_640.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="480" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Can all amphibians breathe underwater?</h2>
As larvae (tadpoles), all species of amphibian can breathe underwater. As they go through metamorphosis, though, some species of amphibian lose their ability to breathe entirely underwater. 

Breathing underwater isn’t easy for many species of amphibians, so they might need to surface for air if they’re working hard (escaping a predator, for example) whereas they can meet their oxygen needs underwater if they’re at rest. Many frogs and toads can even breathe through thick mud during hibernation.

Some species of terrestrial amphibian cannot breathe underwater, though they can hold their breath for hours as needed.

&nbsp;

How Do Amphibians Breathe?

If you’ve ever tried to chase frogs, you’ve probably noticed...

The alpine zone is a region or biome of that world with <a href="http://w3.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/alpine.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">high-altitude conditions</a>. It is an incredible ecozone to explore and learn from. However, anyone who has been caught in an unexpected wind gust or summer storm in the region knows that these environments can be super harsh places to live. While it might not be ideal for most Homo sapiens to call home, there are plenty of plants that survive and thrive under these conditions. Here are some alpine plants to look for when hiking through the region:

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870195 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/primula-catchfly-117427_960_720.jpg" alt="moss campion" width="960" height="720" />
<h2>Moss Campion</h2>
While hiking along your chosen high-country trail, you might come across what looks to be a soft, green cushion. Peppered with small, pink flowers, Moss Campion is an alpine plant found in the sandy, rocky mountains of the Rocky Mountains as well as the Alps of Switzerland. Moss cushion’s round shape protects the plant from harsh, drying winds. It only grows from about 5 - 15 cm tall. With the plant’s small stature, it is able to hug the ground for warmth and survive the freezings temps found in the alpine biome.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870197 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/wildflower-2578730_960_720.jpg" alt="columbine" width="960" height="640" />
<h2>Rocky Mountain Columbine</h2>
Find yourself hiking in Colorado? Well, the state’s official state flower (and an alpine plant) won’t be far away. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/rocky-mountain-columbine/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rocky Mountain Columbine’s</a> white and lavender flower’s petals pop out along the trails of Alpine country. Inside the flower’s white cup, you’ll see a splash of yellow color. This flower is especially attractive to hummingbirds, bees, and butterflies because of its strong aroma. 

However, as you pass this enchanting flower, you’ll have to leave it behind. Uprooting the plant while on public land <a href="https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol/colorado/state-flower/rocky-mountain-columbine" target="_blank" rel="noopener">is illegal</a>. And leaving the beautiful landscape (that you’re lucky enough to hike through) just as it is is pretty as you found it is hiking tip #1. Do the right thing, you know?  

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1870199 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/bristlecone-pine-1044189_960_720.jpg" alt="bristlecone pine" width="960" height="642" /></h3>
<h2>Bristlecone Pine</h2>
The Bristlecone Pine, or Pinus longaeva is the oldest known tree species in the world. Found in the arid mountainous regions of the American West, the oldest trees can be found in the White Mountains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/southern-california-mountain-lions-extinction/#.XJfHJGRKgy4" target="_blank" rel="noopener">California</a>. Their age? <a href="http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/alpine_plant_page.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Almost 5,000 years.</a> This ancient alpine tree can survive up to elevations of 11,000 - 12,000 feet. Living in such an extreme, harsh climate, it is free from competition from other plants, insects and disease. 

These pine trees are multi-trunked. Their appearance is twisted and rugged. The tree’s needles are a deep-yellow green with a blunt end and purple-red flowers.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1870203" align="alignnone" width="683"]<img class="wp-image-1870203 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Phacelia_sericea_4793-683x1024.jpg" alt="silky phacelia" width="683" height="1024" /> Photo by: Walter Siegmund[/caption]
<h2>Silky Phacelia</h2>
Silky Phacelia, or Phacelia sericae, is an easy-to-spot perennial species in Western North America. An upright stem of purple flowers grows out of a woody base. They look similar to a paintbrush. Its leaves are silvery green. You’ll see this alpine plant’s blooms from early May to the end of August.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870200 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/bluebells-669490_960_720.png" alt="Bluebells" width="560" height="720" />
<h2>Mountain Bluebells</h2>
Mountain Bluebells, also known as Mertensia ciliata, are a mountainous perennial alpine plant that prefers almost <a href="https://extension.usu.edu/rangeplants/forbsherbaceous/mountain-bluebells" target="_blank" rel="noopener">constant moisture</a> and elevations of 5,000-12,000 feet. You’ll be able to identify the plant by its bell-like blossoms that bounce in the wind. These bell flowers are blue and often tinged with pink. The flowers grow in clusters and the plant itself can get up to 3 feet tall. Because of this plant’s love of water, you’re most likely to see it along streambanks, meadows and wet cliffs. 

The bluebell flowers are also edible. The plant is a favorite snack of sheep and goats - but it works for humans, too. you can delight in a taste whether cooked or raw. Cheyanne Indians used the plant to make a tea that <a href="https://extension.usu.edu/rangeplants/forbsherbaceous/mountain-bluebells" target="_blank" rel="noopener">increases milk flow</a> of nursing mothers. They also used the powdered root to relieve the itching symptoms of diseases like measles and smallpox, just one aspect of the many horrors that Europeans brought to the Americas. 

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1870204" align="alignnone" width="442"]<img class="wp-image-1870204 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/CO_Plants_alpine_willow.jpg" alt="alpine willow " width="442" height="333" /> Photo by: <a href="http://shelledy.mesa.k12.co.us/">shelledy.mesa.k12.co.us</a>[/caption]
<h2>Alpine Willow</h2>
Alpine Willow, or Salix petrophilia, is a tiny, creeping willow found throughout the world. It has been identified on the northern coast of greenland, the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevadas <a href="https://calscape.org/Salix-petrophila-(Alpine-Willow)" target="_blank" rel="noopener">and parts of China</a>. This shrub thrives in rocky moorlands with tundra conditions and you can spot its shiny green leaves.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1870201" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1870201 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/1024px-Polylepis_rugulosa_A._Yates.jpg" alt="Polylepsis " width="1024" height="768" /> photo by Alexander Yates[/caption]
<h2>Polylepsis Forest</h2>
Located in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/winter-paints-andes-mountains-snow-ice/#.XJfHTWRKgy4" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andes Mountains</a>, polylepsis forests can be found in sheltered areas at elevations of up to 4,500 meters. They are evergreen trees with knarled-looking roots and actually belong to the rose family. The original forest can be found in the cold corners of Bolivia’s Western Cordillera, though less than <a href="http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/alpine_plant_page.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">10% of the original forest survives today</a>. This is particularly bad news since the loss of high-mountain forests such as these is considered the main cause of water scarcity. These forests are also home to three of South America's beloved, and endangered birds: Parrots, Toucans, and Royal Cinclodes. 

Communities native to the Andean mountains use the trees for medicine, food, rituals, and building materials. While the forests began disappearing as early as the time of Incan civilization, even more forest was lost when the conquistadores arrived with sheep and cattle. There are on-going efforts to purchase swaths of land back and restore these ancient forests. Doing so would <a href="http://armoniabolivia.org/programs/polylepis-forest-program/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">preserve this unique habitat</a> and help to alleviate water erosion.  

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870202 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Wild_Potato-vine-1024x683.jpg" alt="wild potato " width="1024" height="683" />
<h2>Wild Potato</h2>
Long before the Yukon Gold took over the world via McDonald’s french fry, wild potatoes stubbornly flourished in the Andean mountains. It was first cultivated by indigenous peoples near Lake Titicaca in Peru <a href="http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/alpine_plant_page.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">over 8,000 years ago</a>.  

If you spot one while hiking now - count yourself lucky. These delicious tubers are <a href="https://www.bioversityinternational.org/news/detail/conservation-concerns-for-endemic-potato-species-in-bolivia/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">endangered</a> and can be tricky to find, preferring thickets and waste areas. A member of the nightshade family, there are over 199 species of wild potato. Scientists and activists work to register as many varieties as they can before these ancient strains are cross-cultivated and lost to time.

Alpine Plants To Look For When Hiking

The alpine zone is a region or biome of that...

Fungi are a fascinating, abundant, and necessary part of our planet. Although they may seem like a basic form of life on our planet, the characteristics of fungi are actually incredibly complex and there is still a ton we’re learning about them. 



Many people know fungi just as the mushrooms we see above ground. But, there’s actually an entire underground world to these organisms far more complex and massive than what we see. 



Many types of fungi live very different lives, and each has its own life strategy. Here, we’ll go over some different characteristics of fungi and what their functions are.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/mushrooms-116973_1280.jpg" alt="mushroom fruiting body caps" class="wp-image-1884743"/></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-types-of-fungi">Different Types of Fungi</h2>



First, let’s quickly go over different types of fungi, which can be split up into broad categories. Some examples include mushrooms, yeast, mold, mildew, and rust fungi. 



Mushrooms are definitely the most conspicuous fungus around, with many being edible and/or downright beautiful. They are what you see in the fall growing out of dead logs when you hike through the woods. 



Yeast is an incredibly important fungus in the food world, as it’s a necessary component for bread and beer, among other things. Mold, mildew, and rust are commercially important types of fungi, as these often attack food plants like corn and wheat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-characteristics-what-we-can-see">Fungi Characteristics: What We Can See</h2>



Now we can start talking about some characteristics and functions of different fungal features. We’ll start with the above-ground parts of fungi before digging a little bit deeper. After all, the visible parts of fungi are what we’re most familiar with and are easiest to find and understand. 



The above-ground parts of fungi almost always function for reproduction. They are called “fruiting bodies,” even though fungi don’t technically produce fruits as plants do. Instead, the fruiting bodies of fungi produce spores that are dispersed by various methods, revealing all sorts of different characteristics and functions.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/agaric-2638701_1280.jpg" alt="mushroom gills spore dispersal" class="wp-image-1884739"/></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-release-the-spores">Release the Spores!</h2>



Perhaps the most common method of spore dispersal is by air. Most mushrooms we’re familiar with (like the ones we eat) release spores from “gills.” If you’ve ever picked a mushroom and noticed frilly lines on the underside of the cap, these are the gills! 



Spores are almost lighter than air, so when a mushroom is ready, it just releases its spores and the wind will take care of the rest. Fungus spores can travel incredible distances, and regularly float around <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-discover-fungal-shrapnel-floating-through-the-atmosphere#:~:text=Nanoparticles%20of%20Fungal%20Spores%20Have%20Been%20Detected%20Floating%20in%20Our%20Atmosphere,-DAVID%20NIELD&amp;text=%22The%20appearance%20of%20large%20numbers,breaking%20down%20from%20larger%20particles.%22" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">high in the atmosphere</a>!



Water is another mechanism for spore dispersal. Water -dispersed spores are often characteristically shaped as to keep them afloat. Some even have flagella on them, which can actively move a spore allowing it to “swim” through water! 



One type of fungus, called bird’s nest fungi, has one of the most interesting types of water dispersal in the fungus kingdom. Its fruiting body is shaped like a cup and contains little spore packets that resemble eggs in a nest. When a raindrop hits the cup just right, the spore packet is launched into the air!



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/977px-Birds_Nest_Fungus_Cyathus_olla_-_Flickr_-_Andrea_Westmoreland.jpg" alt="Bird's nest fungus Cyathus olla" class="wp-image-1884740"/></figure>



 Finally, some fungi rely on animals to disperse their spores, much like how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollination-insects-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">flowering plants rely on pollinators</a>. Mushrooms can smell like anything from fruit to rotting meat, which attracts insects such as beetles or carrion flies to the fruiting body. 



The insect then gets covered in spores and releases them on their walk through the forest. One study found that <a href="https://microbiologysociety.org/publication/past-issues/light/article/circadian-rhythm-in-fungal-bioluminescence-nature-s-bright-idea.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">bioluminescent fungi attract insects</a> to disperse their spores!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-characteristics-the-underground">Fungi Characteristics: The Underground</h2>



Once a spore is successfully dispersed, it must turn into a fungus. The spore begins to grow underground and develop into mycelium, which is the non-reproductive vegetative part of a fungus. The mycelium is a network of cells that can be microscopically small or easily visible to the human eye.



If you’ve ever removed the top layer of soil in the forest, especially in the fall after dead leaves accumulate, you may have noticed some fluffy white stuff mixed in with the soil. What you’re seeing is the mycelium of a fungus! Mycelium is a common fungi characteristic and its function is the same.



Mycelium can spread for literal miles underground, like this honey fungus in Oregon which is thought to be the largest organism in the world!



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/640px-Oyster_mushroom_Pleurotus_ostreatus_mycelium_in_petri_dish_on_coffee_grounds.jpeg" alt="Mycelium oyster mushroom hyphae" class="wp-image-1884741"/></figure>



 The function of mycelium is essentially the same function of plant roots: to absorb nutrients. Unlike plants, fungi can’t produce their own energy through photosynthesis, so they need to get 100% of their nutrients and energy through their mycelium.



Tiny hair-like structures called hyphae make up the mycelium, and these thin strands of cells are responsible for digesting organic compounds into energy for the fungus. To do so, the hyphae secrete <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-digestive-plant-enzymes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">digestive enzymes</a>.



These enzymes break down nutrients that are often large and complex, like proteins and carbohydrates, into smaller more usable forms. Then, the hyphae absorb the simpler compounds directly into the mycelium.



Some fungi are very picky as to where they get their nutrients. For example, certain plant pathogens only attack specific plant species and can’t get their nutrients from any others. Other fungi are generalists and can break down nutrients from all kinds of dead organic material.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1884742 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/1024px-Cordyceps.jpg" alt="cordyceps fungus entomopathogenic" class="wp-image-1884742"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cordyceps fungus. Image by <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cordyceps.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Erich G. Vallery</a> via Wikimedia commons.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-characteristics-and-function-in-action">Fungi Characteristics and Function in Action</h2>



Some types of fungi provide incredible examples of the variety of life strategies out there. Perhaps the most fascinating fungi in this regard are the entomopathogenic fungi. “Entomo” means related to insects, and “pathogenic” means causing disease. So, these are fungi that cause a very peculiar ailment in insects.



First, a spore becomes airborne. An insect eventually breathes in the free-floating spore and becomes infected. The spore will develop into a fungus inside the body of the insect and eventually hijack the insect’s nervous system, creating a literal zombie!



The fungus forces the insect to climb to a high place and hold on for dear life. Then, the fungus begins to create the fruiting body which erupts out of the insect’s body and releases its spores. Then, the process can start all over again!



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1884767 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/IMG_3291.jpeg" alt="characteristics of fungi" class="wp-image-1884767"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Moss and fungi growing on a log. Image by the editor.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-ecological-functions">Fungi Ecological Functions</h2>



The characteristics of fungi not only function to keep the organism alive and reproduce, they also function on a broad ecological scale. For example, the fruiting bodies of fungus are important food and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-chaga-intro-to-the-alaskan-medicinal-mushroom/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">medicine</a> for many animals, including humans! The mycelium is incredibly important for the forest as a whole. 



In fact, without mycelium, the soil wouldn’t have enough “glue” to keep it together and would wash away entirely. Many fungi have extremely important symbiotic relationships with plants and animals. Perhaps the most notable of these relationships are fungi called mycorrhizae. 



Mycorrhizae associate with plant roots, and are essential for plants to acquire important nutrients like phosphorus that are otherwise inaccessible to the fungus’ above-ground counterpart.&nbsp;



Hopefully, you now have a better understanding of fungi characteristics and what their function is!



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



-----



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.



-----

Understanding Fungi: Characteristics and Function

Fungi are a fascinating, abundant, and necessary part of our...

It may come as a surprise to learn that most of the cells in your body are not your own. Scientists estimate bacteria may outnumber human cells by as much as 10 to 1! Admittedly, this estimate is on the higher side. However, it is generally agreed that there are at least as many non-human cells as human cells in the average person.

This may sound like a terrifying invasion, but don’t fear. These “foreign” cells are your microbiome. They are an essential part of the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3450280/pdf/12088_2010_Article_34.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">human “superorganism.”</a>

Since the advent of "germ theory," we’ve seen bacteria as evil. They're invaders, hiding out on doorknobs and cellphones. Bacteria is just waiting for you to forget to wash your hands. Then it can infect you and everyone you come in contact with. This view of bacteria isn’t entirely accurate. Though some bacteria can be harmful (and you should definitely keep washing your hands), most are benign and some are helpful!

The microbiome is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humansrelationship-microbes-inside/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the community of organisms living inside you</a> (<a href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">or their collective genes</a>.) These include bacteria, fungi, archaea, and even viruses! The term microbiome can also refer to the communities of microbes in environmental samples. In this article, we will be focusing on the human microbiome.

Scientists are just beginning to research the role of the microbiome in health. The importance of the microbiome to human health has become apparent.

The human microbiome is often associated with gut bacteria. But, the microbiome is not restricted to the digestive tract. Microbes live throughout the human body, and helpful microbes are found in many organs.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>What Makes a Microbe Good?</h2>
Everyone's microbiome has many different types of microbes. This microbial community plays an essential role in digestion and our immune systems. The amount of help provided by bacteria can vary. Some <a href="https://www.gutmicrobiotaforhealth.com/en/glossary/commensal-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">species are mutualistic</a>, providing and receiving benefits to their host. Others are commensal, simply living inside our guts without harming or benefiting us.

Microbes play an essential role in digestion. They assist in digesting foods that humans have trouble processing. Probiotics supplements and foods offer a way to boost your gut microbiota. These good bacteria include many species of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium.

The microbes in the urinary tract and eyelids keep foreign bacteria at bay. By establishing a community, they make it harder for bad microbes to invade.

Bacteria are by far the most common and most discussed microbe in our bodies. However, the microbiome is far more complex. It also includes fungi, viruses, and archaea. These organisms provide a diverse environment that can respond to changing conditions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Where Do These Microbes Come From?</h2>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871718 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/yogurt-1442034_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="Yogurt with oats and strawberries sitting on a table with a plate of strawberries in the corner." width="1024" height="683" />

&nbsp;

We know the microbiome is an essential part of a healthy human. But where do all these microbes from? It turns out that our first exposure to these microbes happens as early as birth. We are exposed to microbes in the birth canal. The microbial community continues to develop through infancy. Breast milk can also deliver microbes. Though our microbiome is not inherited in the traditional sense it is still <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">passed from mother to child</a>.

The microbiome continues to develop and change throughout life. Diet has a huge influence on how the microbiome grows. It can also introduce new bacteria to the microbiome. Many probiotic or cultured foods contain good bacteria and yeast. Yogurt, kombucha, and kimchi are just a few examples of sources of good digestive bacteria.

Environment, location, diet, and health can all influence exposure to good and bad microbes.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Where Is Our Microbiome?</h2>
The microbiome occupies a large number of different organs. The microbes present are different in each. Though they share many functions, each community is unique. Research is ongoing to better understand the microbiome's role. Imbalances in the microbiome can have far-reaching effects. The microbes can influence many parts of the body.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Skin</h3>
</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3535073/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The skin</a> is a diverse habitat for a wide range of organisms. These include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and even small mites. These organisms are primarily harmless, while others provide essential services. They protect against invasion by pathogens, train the immune system, and even assist in killing pathogens.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Eye (conjunctiva)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The ocular microbiome is less well-known but can provide essential services. The <a href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/anatomy/microbiome-of-eye" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the eye</a> occurs on the conjunctiva, the clear tissue covering the whites of your eye. The eye has fewer microbes than the skin, around 1/100th the number. Healthy eyes usually have only 4 genera of bacteria. The ocular microbiome may be important in many conditions. These include chronic dry eyes and blepharitis.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Gut</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The gut is host to the most diverse and active microbiome. Microbes in the gut are essential for digestion. There is evidence that the gut microbiome may play a role in a wide array of different diseases. This article will focus on the gut microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Urinary Tract (UT)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
In the past, scientists believed the urinary tract was sterile. Any microbes in the UT were assumed to be a UTI. New evidence has shown that a healthy urinary tract has certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405456916301596" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbial communities</a>. Changes in this community have been linked to diseases. These include incontinence, cysts, STIs, pain, and even cancers! Research is being done on how to protect and repair this community. Diet, probiotics, and prebiotics may help regulate the urinary microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Vagina</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The <a href="http://vmc.vcu.edu/about" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the vagina</a> is essential to vaginal health. These communities are complex and change over time. Hormonal and environmental changes have a large influence on this community. In general, the beneficial bacteria that exist in the vagina produce lactic acid. This acid lowers the pH, protecting against pathogens and infections. This protection is essential to prevent STIs, yeast infections, UTIs and bacterial vaginosis.

The vaginal microbiome is also involved in birth. Miscarriages and infertility are associated with an imbalanced microbiome. The vaginal microbiome also exposes newborns to microbes. This process provides many of the microbes that will become the child's microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Mouth</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The mouth leads directly to our largest microbiome, the gut. With this in mind, it makes sense that the mouth would also host a <a href="https://askthedentist.com/oral-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">complex microbiome</a>. The oral microbiome has around 700 species of organisms. Many diseases are associated with imbalances in the oral microbiome. These include cavities, gingivitis, and other conditions. Brushing and flossing are key to maintaining a balanced oral microbiome. Avoiding antibacterial mouthwash may also help.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Lungs</h3>
</li>
</ul>
Like the UT, the lungs were historically believed to be sterile. Genetic sequencing has revealed that this is not the case. Though the lungs have fewer total microbes than the gut, they are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3440512/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">extremely diverse</a>. However, lung microbes are still poorly understood. The lung microbiome may play a role in lung diseases. Research into the microbial community associated with pneumonia, cystic fibrosis, HIV, tobacco use, and other diseases may reveal important treatment options.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Does the Microbiome Matter?</h2>
&nbsp;
<h3>Digestion</h3>
The microbiome is most prevalent in the gut. Here, bacteria play essential roles in digestion. They are crucial to digesting foods that humans naturally cannot. Bacteria digest a group of sugars called FODMAPs. This stands for Fermentable Oligo-, Di, Mono-saccharides, And Polyols. FODMAPs include well-known culprits of digestive issues such as lactose. FODMAPs may also play a role in the rise of reported non-celiac gluten intolerance. Many of these sugars are difficult or impossible for people to digest on their own.

An abnormal gut microbiome is associated with various gastrointestinal disease. <a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:mixTdAaa9JcJ:https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news/microbiomics_its_growing_significance_in_the_world_of_medicines_testing+&amp;cd=1&amp;hl=en&amp;ct=clnk&amp;gl=us" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Irritable bowel syndrome </a>is one example. In this condition, disrupted gut bacteria interfere with normal bile acid metabolism. Other medical issues including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-fungi-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">obesity</a> and diabetes are linked to an irregular microbiome. An improved understanding of the role of the microbiome in disease will improve treatment options.

&nbsp;
<h3>Immune function</h3>
The microbiome also plays an <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-03-gut-bacteria-essential-healthy-immune.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">essential role in immune health</a>. The microbiome is a training ground for your immune system. Exposure to these bacteria helps your immune cells build a response to pathogens. It also teaches the body that some microbes are not dangerous. This is important to prevent unnecessary inflammatory responses. Without the microbiome, every new food or environment would cause an unnecessary waste of energy.

Experiments on mice have shown that a lack of microbes creates an immature immune system. Adding bacterial flora quickly causes the immune system to improve.

A diverse microbiome provides the best benefits to health and immune function. It is essential that your microbiome remains balanced. Measuring and understanding the variation in gut microbes may help treat immune diseases like Crohn’s. Techniques to characterize the gut microbiome will continue to improve. This will enable individually targeted treatments to rebalance the gut microbiome.

&nbsp;
<h3>Relationship to the Brain</h3>
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871719 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/brain-512758_1280-1024x736.png" alt="A drawing on a human brain." width="1024" height="736" />

&nbsp;

The phrase “trust your gut” may have more truth to it than you ever knew. <a href="https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/the-simplified-guide-to-the-gut-brain-axis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The gut-brain axis</a> is the connection between the central nervous system (CNS) and the enteric nervous system (ENS). The role of the gut microbiome in influencing these systems is being investigated.

The CNS and ENS are independent but connected by the vagus nerve. This connects the gut directly to the hypothalamus and limbic system. These parts of the brain regulate emotion. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trust-your-instincts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The limbic system and the gut</a> send signals back and forth. This relationship may be important in psychiatric disorders. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-health-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Depression</a>, anxiety, and even schizophrenia are linked to the microbiome.

Microbes can create neurotransmitters. These compounds are what our neurons use to communicate. These end up circulating in the blood. As a result, they affect day to day experience. In addition, bacteria play a role in modifying metabolism. As a result, levels of important precursors to neurotransmitters such as serotonin are changed.

The relationship between the gut and the brain is not well understood. However, it is clear that your microbiome has the potential to influence your emotions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>How Do We Study the Microbiome?</h2>
&nbsp;
<h3>Culturing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871716 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Agar_plate_with_colonies.jpg" alt="Petri dish with microbes growing on it. Microbes are yellow on a black background. The dish is labeled &quot;Falcon&quot;" width="600" height="450" />

&nbsp;

The simplest way to look at a microbiome is to try and grow it in the lab. They place samples from the gut or another organ on nutrient-rich media. After that, the samples sit at body temperature until the microbes begin to grow. Finally, they grow each species on its own. Therefore, culturing microbes allows them to isolate individual species. Finally, they characterize species by appearance and chemistry.

However, culturing faces major hurdles. It is not possible to culture all the organisms present in the gut. Some need specific conditions only found in the gut. Reproducing these in the lab can be extremely difficult. Others need oxygen and will die immediately when removed from the body. Some species may be completely impossible to grow in the lab.

In addition, identifying microbes is difficult. For example, many species have similar appearances.

Even when culturing techniques succeed, they can be misleading. The species that grow may not represent the actual expression of genes and proteins. This is because they may behave differently outside of the body. Therefore, understanding the functional microbiome requires genetic techniques.

&nbsp;
<h3>Sequencing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871717 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/dna-163466_1280-1024x576.jpg" alt="An artistic rendering of the double helix of DNA. 3 Blue strands of DNA on a black background." width="1024" height="576" />

&nbsp;

To get an accurate impression of the microbiome, you need genetic techniques. Sequencing helps determine the species present as well as the microbiomes gene expression. Both of these are important in understanding how the microbiome relates to health. Sequencing all the RNA and DNA in a sample gives a better picture of the function of the microbiome.

There are many techniques to sequence the genome. As technology improves detailed sequencing is more available. In the future, it may even be practical to use sequencing to diagnose patients.

&nbsp;
<h3>rRNA Sequencing</h3>
rRNA is a special type of RNA that helps create protein. This RNA sequence changes very little because it is so important. It also occurs in all cells. This makes it a great way to identify species.

rRNA sequencing lets researchers determine the diversity of species in the microbiome. It can also help determine which species are most common. This information is essential to help characterize the gut microbe community.

It is not always easy to identify the sequenced species. The meaning of “species” becomes a lot less clear with bacteria. These organisms readily share genes. They also reproduce so quickly that they evolve in real-time.

This makes it difficult to classify species. Instead, researchers group genomes by their similarity. Preset cutoffs define the groups. They call these cutoffs operational taxonomic units (or OTUs).

&nbsp;
<h3>Shotgun Sequencing</h3>
The alternative to rRNA sequencing is metagenomic, or “shotgun” sequencing. This technique involves sequencing tons of small pieces of DNA. Computers can reconstruct the genome. First, they find overlapping sequences. With enough overlapping sequences, you can reconstruct the whole genome.

This strategy has the potential to reveal the full genomes of microbes. Knowing this could provide better detail of the diversity of the microbiome.

&nbsp;

Genetic techniques and technologies continue to improve. These improvements will help researchers understand the microbiome. This research could pave the way towards microbiome diagnosis, which might provide early warning signs of diseases like IBS, diabetes, and obesity.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>The Microbiome Provides New Insight</h2>
The role of the microbiome in health is complex. These communities are ecosystems with complex relationships. Each microbe interacts with their hosts (you and me) and each other. This complex network of interactions can have important impacts on health and disease. An improved understanding of these systems will help us to diagnose, prevent, and treat human disease. As advances in genetic sequencing continue to open the door to a better understanding of the microbiome, ongoing research into the human microbiome holds great potential.

&nbsp;

What Is Microbiomics?

It may come as a surprise to learn that most...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...