Satellite,In,Orbit,Among,Space,Debris-3d,Illustration

Just as humans have polluted planet Earth's oceans, lands, and air, we have begun to also pollute the Earth's orbit with space junk. Every time humans have launched a rocket up into space, part of it remains there. Over the course of thousands of launches, this trash adds up and has catastrophic potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-space-junk-a-problem">Why Is Space Junk a Problem?</h2>



Any human-made, non-functional object in the Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is considered space junk. LEO is anywhere from 100 miles to 600 miles above Earth's surface. This is <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2020/03/Low_Earth_orbit" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the zone</a> where the International Space Station, satellites, and other space projects exist. Due to the gravity of Earth, objects in the LEO orbit around our planet.



While space in its entirety is unimaginably vast, the LEO isn't all that huge. Consider that humans have launched thousands of rockets into space to date. Each of those rockets has a <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-a-rocket-most-famous-launches/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">payload, </a>which is the stuff humans are trying to get into space (often satellites). 



These rockets also typically have upper stages, which are the last part of the rocket that propels the payload into the LEO. These upper stages, unlike the lower stages which drop away in Earth's atmosphere, remain in space.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1887854 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1182292486.jpg" alt="space junk" class="wp-image-1887854"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A hypothetical space trash ring around Earth. </figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-consequences-of-a-collision-in-space">The Consequences of a Collision in Space</h3>



All of these upper stages and satellites from space missions remain in LEO. They don't disappear once sent into space. In fact, there are over <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">20,000 pieces</a> of human-made material in LEO that are larger than a softball. Altogether, this space trash weighs over 6000 tons. This space junk orbits Earth all over the place. Since these objects travel over <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">17500 miles per hour</a> (about five miles per second), any collision would be enormously powerful.



For example, a paint chip collided with a window on a space shuttle mission. NASA decided they needed to replace the window because of the damage the fleck of paint caused. We think there are over half a million pieces of space junk as big as this fleck of paint. Windows of the International Space Station (ISS) have also been damaged by paint flecks.



If one of the larger pieces of space trash hit the ISS, the results would be catastrophic. NASA keeps a database of all the known pieces of space junk larger than 4cm across and had to alter the course of the ISS three times in 2020 to avoid potential collisions with space junk. The ISS always has humans on board, so any potential collision with space trash is harrowing.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kessler-syndrome-the-doomsday-of-space-exploration">Kessler Syndrome - The Doomsday of Space Exploration</h3>



While paint flecks may seem harmless enough, space junk could become really bad really quickly. Imagine one of the softball-sized pieces of junk hits a large, old upper stage of a rocket floating in LEO. 



The softball-sized debris would shatter the upper rocket stage into thousands of pieces of smaller space trash. This increased number of space junk objects would exponentially increase the odds of more collisions. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-the-kessler-syndrome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kessler Syndrome</a> is the point at which these collisions happen as a chain reaction, with each collision making the next one increasingly likely. At some point during the Kessler Syndrome, it would be too dangerous for us to send humans to space.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-send-more-junk-to-space-every-year">Humans Send More Junk to Space Every Year</h3>



As space flight and satellite technology become <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-many-satellites-in-space-do-we-know-about/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">increasingly affordable</a>, more private companies are sending satellites into orbit. <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cubesats/overview" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cubesats</a>, which are small, 1-liter sized satellites are easy for private companies to create and get into orbit. 



Companies that focus on communications, mapping, and remote sensing are all sending cubesats into LEO. In 2020, humans sent 400 cubesats into LEO. Compared to the 9,000 satellites launched in the entirety of space exploration, this is a marked increase. 



If humans continue to send this amount of stuff into space, the space trash problem will get worse and worse. If billionaires like Elon Musk, Richard Branson, and Jeff Bezos get their way with daily <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-3-biggest-private-space-companies/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">private space flights</a>, the problem may become unsolvable.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1887856 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1339563719.jpg" alt="cubesat trash" class="wp-image-1887856"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A graphic of a cubesat. Before unfolding, this satellite was about the size of a Nalgene water bottle.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methods-to-mitigate-space-junk">Methods to Mitigate Space Junk</h2>



So what can we do about space junk? We've got a few options. Much like the trash problem we have on Earth, the best route is to reduce the amount of trash we send into space. But we all use cellphones and GPS, so we need to continue sending some things into space. This means we need a plan to deal with the space debris.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-junk-retrieval">Space Junk Retrieval</h3>



Retrieving space junk has never been done before. The idea of space debris retrieval is to send a spacecraft into LEO with the intention of grabbing a large piece of space junk. Once the spacecraft has a hold of the junk, it would plunge into Earth's orbit, where it would burn up as it falls towards Earth. This method could be useful for grabbing the larger pieces of junk, such as old rocket upper stages. 



However, it is unlikely to make economic sense to perform retrieval for smaller pieces of space trash. One idea is to create a spacecraft that can retrieve multiple items of space junk at a time before diving into Earth's atmosphere.



One challenge with space junk retrieval is that old satellites and pieces of rockets weren't created with the intention of being caught. They don't have easy parts to grab onto, so each retrieval mission may need to be custom-built for the particular piece of space trash.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1887859 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_628124060.jpg" alt="International space station" class="wp-image-1887859"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A 3-D rendition of the ISS.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-satellites-with-docking-ports">Creating Satellites With Docking Ports</h3>



Some astrophysicists think that all satellites sent into LEO should have a universal docking port for later retrieval. This could be a magnetic surface that a different spacecraft could easily latch onto for retrieval. These ports would make the collection of dysfunctional satellites much easier.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-powered-lasers">High Powered Lasers</h3>



China is investigating sending up a space station with a high powered laser onboard. This laser would shoot space debris with high-energy beams. 



This energy would alter the orbit of the debris, either moving it into Earth's atmosphere, where it would burn up, or further away from LEO where it isn't as much of a problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-efforts-to-clean-up-space-junk">Efforts to Clean Up Space Junk</h2>



While very few people are working on solving the problem of space junk, a few start-up companies aim to do just that. Unfortunately, there isn't a huge market for retrieving trash from space. Just as it is tough to get rid of trash on Earth, it is even harder to get rid of it in space.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1718232061.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1887860"/></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clearspace">ClearSpace</h3>



<a href="https://clearspace.today/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ClearSpace</a> is going to launch the first-ever mission to retrieve space trash in 2025. This European-based mission aims to retrieve a large upper stage of a European Space Agency Vega rocket. They plan to use a net to capture the rocket stage. 



Once captured, the spacecraft will drag it into Earth's orbit. This project is slated to cost over 120 million Euros, all to capture one piece of junk. You know what's even wilder? The entire Vega rocket launched cost just 40 million dollars! That's 1/3 the price of retrieving the piece of trash from the rocket!



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astroscale">Astroscale</h3>



<a href="https://astroscale.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Astroscale,</a> a Japanese company, is the oldest and largest group working to solve the space debris problem. They have all sorts of fun ideas on their website. One of their ideas is to provide a service to private satellite owners. 



Their service would be a <a href="https://astroscale.com/services/end-of-life-eol/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">small spacecraft that flys near the satellite</a>. During the satellite's lifetime, the buddy spacecraft could dock onto the satellite to adjust its flight path. 



Once the satellite dies, the buddy would dock onto it and pull it into Earth's atmosphere. If all satellites had such a system, any satellite launched would have a plan to get out of LEO, reducing the space debris problem.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1493390582.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1887861"/></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-let-s-be-proactive-on-space-debris-or-maybe-not">Let's Be Proactive on Space Debris! Or Maybe Not?</h2>



As with most problems, it seems that being proactive on the issue of space junk would be a smart idea. As humans launch more and more rockets into space, the problem will only get worse if we do nothing about it. If we are serious about space exploration, we must tackle the space debris problem sooner rather than later.



On the other hand, maybe cleaning up the space debris isn't worth the cost. If we don't plan to have humans in space, perhaps accepting the chances of a satellite collision is more economic than actively removing junk from space.



Either way, this issue will be intriguing to follow in the decades to come.



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What Happens to All the Junk and Debris in Space?

Just as humans have polluted planet Earth's oceans, lands, and...

Pile,Of,Colorful,Blankets,Made,From,Fleece,,All,Rolled,Up.

Since outdoor clothing brand Patagonia introduced fleece in the early 1980s, it’s become a wardrobe staple for nature lovers across the globe. But the light, breathable fleece microfibers aren't as environmentally friendly as its fan-base might suggest. 

It’s made from synthetic textiles -- specifically polyester, acrylic, and nylon -- and in a single washing machine cycle, fleece can shed hundreds of thousands of tiny plastic particles known as microfibers. 

These microfibers contribute to global plastic pollution and can harm both marine organisms and the humans who eat them. 

Before we go any further, let’s cover what exactly microfibers are and how they travel from our fleece sweaters into the bellies of fish.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872025 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/fleece-233768_960_720.jpg" alt="fleece microfiber plastic pollution" width="960" height="639" />
<h2>What Are Microfibers? </h2>
Microfibers are a subgroup of microplastics -- pieces of plastic typically defined as smaller than five millimeters (even thinner than a strand of hair) and composed of various synthetic polymers.

The water from washing machines takes microfibers down the drain, through wastewater treatment plants (which are unable to filter out 40 percent of all microfibers), and eventually into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
<h2>How Are Microfibers Harmful to the Environment?</h2>
It’s clear the accumulation of plastic in surface waters is detrimental to the environment. But since they’re not visible to the naked eye, it’s easy to underestimate the power of microfiber accumulation. According to a 2011 study, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clothes-dryers-release-millions-of-microfibers-into-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microfibers</a> make up the majority of human-made debris on shorelines around the world.

Because they’re so small and pervasive in our oceans, microfibers can easily be consumed by fish and other marine wildlife. 

Though the effects of this consumption are still being determined, research shows that ingesting microfibers decreases the appetites of <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.5b04026?journalCode=esthag" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Carcinus maenas (crabs)</a> and increases the mortality of Daphnia magna (water fleas).

In <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/breaking/chi-great-lakes-plastic-fibers-scientists-20150109-story.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a 2015 interview with the Chicago Tribune</a>, chemist Sherri Mason said that in her research studying microscopic litter in the Great Lakes, she found that while other kinds of microplastic were able to be excreted by fish, she’d seen microfibers laced through their gastrointestinal tracts. 

"The longer the plastic remains inside an organism,” Mason explained, “the greater the likelihood that it will impact the organism in some way."
<h2>How Are Fleece Microfibers Harmful to Humans? </h2>
Although some doubt that humans ingest or are affected by these smaller organisms’ ingestion of microfibers, toxic chemicals in microfibers could bioaccumulate in the sea creatures we eat and ultimately negatively impact human health. 

However, the problem extends beyond our seafood: microplastics have been <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.5b03163" target="_blank" rel="noopener">found in table salt in China</a>, and in tap water all over the world. 

The US has the highest tap water contamination rate -- <a href="https://orbmedia.org/stories/Invisibles_plastics/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microfibers </a>existed in 94 percent of the samples tested.
<h2>Patagonia Studies</h2>
In acknowledgment of their role in the early popularization of synthetic fleece, over the past several years Patagonia commissioned two scientific research studies to assess how many microfibers a single washing machine cycle releases, and compared their own products to off-brand fleece. 

<a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.6b03045" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The results</a> found that one fleece garment can shed up to 250,000 microfibers; that both older and lower-quality clothing sheds more microfibers than newer and higher-quality clothing; and that top-load machines shed more than front-load machines.
<h2>Can the Spread of Fleece Microfibers Be Stopped?</h2>
Patagonia responded to their studies’ findings with plans to inform customers about microfibers and proper care for synthetic items, as well as the benefits of using washing machine filters. 

Patagonia is also helping fund a company called Tersus Solutions, which invented a waterless washing machine that cleans clothing with pressurized carbon dioxide. 

However, it’s unlikely that consumers would purchase these machines for the sole purpose of preventing fiber loss from their fleeces. 

Other recent studies suggest that apparel companies like Patagonia could mitigate the proliferation of microfibers with knitting techniques designed to reduce fiber loss, tighter yarns, and pre-washing and vacuuming textiles at manufacturing facilities. 

Additionally, beyond the apparel industry, wastewater treatment plants could install filtration systems.

There’s also precedent for legislation limiting the production of microplastics. The US banned microbeads, a type of microplastic used in toothpaste and cosmetics, with the passing of the Microbead-Free Waters Act in 2015. 

In 2018, California lawmakers struck down a bill that would require clothing with more than 50 percent microfiber-containing synthetic materials to have a label informing consumers to hand-wash the product.

Less than half a century since the advent of fleece, microfibers are everywhere—in oceans, marine life, and even our drinking water. 

Though it's probably impossible to reverse the damage that’s already been done, changes in the manufacturing of synthetic apparel, the way consumers wash synthetic apparel, and new laws could help prevent the problem from getting any worse.

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The Dirty Secret of Fleece: Microfibers and Plastic Pollution

Since outdoor clothing brand Patagonia introduced fleece in the early...

Amphibians are a unique group of animals that live on every continent except for Antarctica. Loads of amphibian species are threatened by extinction, and many are listed as endangered by the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN).

Many amphibians are incredibly fragile, partly due to their <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-do-amphibians-breathe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">unique way of breathing</a>. Minute changes in their environment can lead to a species becoming endangered, or worse.

The rate of extinction of amphibians is higher than almost every other group of organisms. So, why are some endangered amphibians going extinct?

There are a few main reasons why some amphibian species are disappearing. Before we get into them, we need to first understand global amphibian diversity, and why the decline of these animals is alarming.

[caption id="attachment_1874007" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<img class="wp-image-1874007 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/amphibian_diversity.jpg" alt="Amphibian diversity" width="1000" height="773" /> Photo from AmphibiaWeb, by Christina Lew[/caption]
<h2>Diversity and Decline Causing Amphibian Extinction</h2>
Worldwide, there are over 7,000 species of amphibians. These include frogs, salamanders, and snake-like creatures called caecilians. The place with the highest amphibian diversity is the Amazon rainforest. Nearly a third of all amphibian species are at least threatened, and hundreds are listed as critically endangered.

Amphibians are often good indicator species. When frog or salamander populations start to decline, it can be a sign that there are small changes in the environment. This can range from a change in temperature to the introduction of a pollutant in a stream or pond.

In any case, a changing amphibian community often tips us off that something is beginning to change in the environment. Sometimes, we can then identify an environmental problem before it gets too bad. The fact that amphibian populations decline in part due to climate change could be a bad omen for many other organisms.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1874008 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Chytridiomycosis.jpg" alt="Dead frog" width="1000" height="752" />
<h2>Why Are Amphibians Going Extinct?</h2>
The decline of amphibians worldwide is alarming. What exactly is causing frogs, salamanders, and caecilians to struggle to survive? Like with many endangered species, there’s more than just one reason.
<h3>Habitat Destruction</h3>
One of the main threats to many plants and animals is habitat destruction. Amphibians are no exception. In the US alone, less than 0.01% of native <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-5-resourceful-grassland-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">grasslands</a> remain. Wetlands, ponds, and forests are more habitat types important for amphibians that humans are disturbing more and more.

Unfortunately, many amphibians have very small home ranges and are unable to move from habitat to habitat, which makes <a href="https://treesforlife.org.uk/forest/human-impacts/habitat-fragmentation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">habitat fragmentation</a> also very impactful to amphibians.
<h3>Climate Change</h3>
Amphibians are incredibly sensitive to small changes in their environment. This is partly what makes them such great indicator species. However, it’s also what makes them extremely susceptible to climate change and changing temperatures.

One major impact climate change has on frogs is that it changes when they breed. Many species are breeding earlier in the year due to warmer temperatures.

When this happens, it’s possible there is not enough food for their young once the tadpoles hatch, and many are unable to make it to adulthood. A more indirect impact may include climate change affecting amphibian immune systems, which makes them more prone to disease.
<h3>Chytrid Fungus</h3>
Perhaps the most terrifying reason some amphibians are going extinct is a fungal disease called <a href="https://amphibiaweb.org/chytrid/chytridiomycosis.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">chytridiomycosis</a>. The disease is caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, commonly called the chytrid fungus.

The origin of the fungus is likely Asia, but it's now spread throughout much of the world. Unfortunately, the disease is spreading fast and affecting amphibians all over the world. It’s said to be the single greatest disease-caused <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decreases-biodiversity-habitat-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">loss of biodiversity</a> in recorded history.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1874009 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/golden-toad-1024x683.jpg" alt="golden toad" width="1024" height="683" />
<h2>The Golden Toad</h2>
One of the poster children for animal extinctions and amphibian conservation is the golden toad. A small, brilliantly colored toad once lived in a tiny area in Monteverde, Costa Rica. In fact, it’s native range was only 4 square kilometers (1.5 square miles).

Despite its small home range, the golden toad was abundant. There were estimated to be around 1500 individuals from their discovery in 1964 until 1987. Then, in 1988, researchers only saw 10 individuals.

The next year, none. Since 1989, not a single golden toad has been spotted. In just three years, an entire species went from being happy and healthy to extinct entirely.

How did this happen? There are different schools of thought. Some think a dryer than normal year in 1987 led to the disappearance of the golden toad. Others believe it was airborne pollution. Another supported theory blames chytrid fungus.

Although there’s no possibility of ever knowing the answer, the most likely cause was all three together. A combination of climate change, pollution, and chytrid fungus was a perfect storm to cause the golden toad to go extinct.

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Why Are So Many Amphibian Species Threatened By Extinction?

Amphibians are a unique group of animals that live on...

Supercontinents 101: Pannotia, Gondwana, and Pangea

Our Earth has looked radically different in the past compared...

The,Diverse,Amazon,Forest,Seen,From,Above,,A,Tropical,Forest

Trees are a valuable part of all of our lives. Trees create the oxygen we breathe, grow the food we eat, provide us with shade on hot days, and beautify our homes and neighborhoods. Learning tree identification is the first step in appreciating this incredible group of woody plants that impact our lives so profoundly. Once you learn to call a tree by name, you will begin to notice more and more features and facts about that type of tree.


[caption id="attachment_1893647" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893647" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1374784175.jpg" alt="eucalyptus trees" width="500" height="334" /> Eucalyptus trees have interesting branching patterns and bark.[/caption]
<h2>What Is A Tree?</h2>
The technical definition of a tree is a woody plant that has a single trunk that grows to a considerable height.
Let's rule out some broad categories of plants that aren't trees.
Any plants that die back to the ground in winter are never trees. This group includes herbaceous and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/a-gardeners-guide-to-perennial-identification/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">perennial wildflowers</a>. Vines also aren't trees (although some tree branches have vine-like habits).
The line between bush and tree can be blurry. Bushes, like trees, are also woody plants. However, if the plant has many trunks coming from the ground and is less than 15 feet tall, it is a bush rather than a tree. Rarely, some 'bushes' can reach <a href="http://www.madrono.org/san-francisco-landscape/journalism/journey-to-the-worlds-tallest-manzanita.html#.YO48mxNKhhE" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">up to 40 feet high</a>. Nature never fits perfectly in the boxes we prescribe to it.
Botanically speaking, only dichotomous plants can produce wood. This means that monocots are never trees. Palm 'trees' and bamboo fall under the monocot category and therefore aren't trees (you can still think of them as trees though, only snobby botanists will call you out on this).

<h3>How Many Tree Species Are There?</h3>
There are about 60,000 species of trees on Earth. This accounts for about 20% of all plant species on the planet. If you're in mainland Alaska then your task as a tree identifier is pretty easy. There are about a <a href="https://www.alaska.org/expert-advice/trees" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">half dozen species</a> of trees in that massive area! If you're in Florida you'd better get to work because there are hundreds of species in that state. Generally, U.S. tree diversity is much higher east of the Mississippi river compared to the West.


[caption id="attachment_1893648" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893648" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1245559723.jpg" alt="giant sequoias" width="500" height="334" /> Giant sequoias are the largest trees on Earth. Their shaggy bark and gigantic size are great identifying factors.[/caption]
<h2>Conifer Versus Broadleaf Tree Identification</h2>
A major distinction between trees groups is coniferous trees and broadleaf trees. Don't get these terms mixed up with evergreen and deciduous. These terms mean different things!
A <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/gymnosperms-and-angiosperms/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">conifer tree</a> has needles instead of leaves. These needles are thin and long. Christmas trees, for example, are always a type of conifer. Famous examples of conifers are redwoods, giant sequoias, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-a-monkey-puzzle-tree/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">monkey puzzle trees</a>. Cedars, junipers, and cypresses are conifers that have scales instead of needles. There are only about 600 species of conifers in the world, meaning they represent only about 1% of all tree species.
Broadleaved trees make up the vast majority of tree species. These trees have true leaves, like a sycamore or a red oak.


[caption id="attachment_1893641" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893641" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1568653840.jpg" alt="deciduous conifer" width="500" height="334" /> A larch loses its needles in the fall. Larches are deciduous conifers.[/caption]
<h3>Evergreen and Deciduous Tree Identification</h3>
An evergreen tree is a tree that never drops its leaves or needles. Think spruce, fir, or juniper. Deciduous trees drop all of their leaves for winter. Think dogwood, hickory, or horse chestnut.
People often think of the terms conifer and evergreen as meaning the same thing. This is incorrect. Likewise, broad-leafed is not interchangeable with deciduous.
Almost all conifers are indeed evergreen. However, tons of broad-leafed trees are also evergreen. Magnolias in the American south and live oaks in the American southwest and eucalyptus are common examples of evergreen broad-leafed trees.
In fact, there are tons of broad-leafed evergreen tree species since most species of trees live in the tropics where trees don't need to drop leaves because of a cold winter.
Larches, dawn redwoods, and bald cypresses are all kinds of conifers that drop their needles in the fall. These types of trees are deciduous conifers.

<h2>Next Level Tools for Tree Identification</h2>
There are three main methods for learning tree species; direct, in-person teaching, tree identification guides, and plant identification apps.
The first, and in my opinion most valuable, is to go out with someone who knows the trees and can teach you firsthand. Schools and other institutions offer classes and workshops on plant identification. Perhaps your friend can teach you a thing or two as well. Going to an arboretum or a botanic garden is also a great way to learn trees since trees in these places are usually identified with their species name.
Field guides are only helpful if you know how to use them. If you're looking for a field guide, try to get the one that is the most specific to your region.
A guide to the 'Trees of Western North Carolina' will be much more useful for someone living in Asheville than a generic 'Trees of the South' guide. Similarly, that 'Trees of the South' guide will be better than a 'Trees of North America' guide.
Some field guides are full of pictures or drawings. These sorts of guides act as visual references for tree ID. However, since there are sometimes hundreds of tree species, these guides usually only list the common tree species. For most people, this is sufficient.
More technical, dichotomous keys are the most accurate guides for identifying trees. The niche botanical vocabulary and lack of pictures in these guides are usually daunting for the layperson. People usually need to take botany classes to learn how to use these dichotomous keys.
Lastly, plant identification apps can be quite effective for quick identification. Apps are frighteningly accurate in many situations. All you do is take a picture of the plant and the app will suggest likely plant species based on the appearance and location of the plant. The future is here!

<h2>Use Different Plant Parts for Tree Identification</h2>
Paying attention to features both large and small helps aid proper tree identification. Details as small as the veins on the leaves or as large as the general branching structure of the tree can give you valuable clues into what species of tree you are looking at.


[caption id="attachment_1893642" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893642" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_98706824.jpg" alt="oak leaf" width="500" height="333" /> Oak leaves are generally lobed. This leaf shape is a good clue for identifying oaks.[/caption]
<h3>Leaves Are Essential for Tree Identification</h3>
There are too many types of tree leaves to cover in this guide, but let's touch on some basics. Leaves can be either simple or compound. A simple leaf has no divisions whereas a compound leaf is made up of several leaflets. Leaves can be palmately compound, like the fingers coming off of your palm. Maple leaves are palmately compound. Leaves can also be pinnately compound, which means they look like a fern. Acacias sometimes have pinnately compound leaves.


[caption id="attachment_1893643" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="size-large wp-image-1893643" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_562460287-1024x614.jpg" alt="leaf shapes" width="1024" height="614" /> This illustration shows a few kinds of leaf shapes.[/caption]
The leaf margins are also important to notice. A leaf margin is the shape of the edge of a leaf. A margin is entire if it has no texture to it. Leaves can have serrate or toothed margins, like a bread-cutting knife, along with a whole host of other margin types. Oak leaves generally have lobed margins. There are a few dozen types of leaf margins to learn.
The general leaf shape can give clues to the tree species as well. Is the leaf shaped like an oval or a heart? Lanceolate, oblong, oval, and cordate are just a few of the possible leaf shapes.
Leaf size, the shape of leaf tips, color of the top side versus underside, venation, and even the shape of hairs on the leaves can also be used to identify trees.


[caption id="attachment_1893644" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893644" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1074642392.jpg" alt="jacaranda" width="500" height="452" /> Jacaranda trees display their stunning purple flowers in the spring. This bounty of purple makes them unmistakable when flowering.[/caption]
<h3>Flowers Only Sometimes Work for Tree Identification</h3>
Don't rely on tree flowers for identification! This is for one simple reason; flowers are only present for a short time every year. However, if you do find yourself lucky enough to be identifying a tree with flowers, they are often quite helpful in distinguishing between different tree species.
Get your hands on one of the flowers (or cones) and dissect it with your fingers. Every possible part of the flower you can see has a technical botanical name. The same types of aspects you noticed on the leaf can help with flowers. For example, the shape of the flowers, the margins of the flowers, the hairs on the flowers, and the colors of the flowers are all clues towards finding the right tree species.
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1893645" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_408718939-1024x681.jpg" alt="tree shapes" width="1024" height="681" />

<h3>It Is Important to Notice Overall Tree Structure</h3>
While the teeny tiny details of flowers and leaves can get you to the right tree, you often need to look at the overall tree structure as well. Is the tree wide or tall? Does it have tons of branches or just a few big ones? Can you see through the canopy or is it fully shaded? Is the base of the tree enlarged by the roots or not?
Botanists often refer to the overall gestalt of a plant. Gestalt is a German word that translates loosely to 'entire pattern'. For plant ID nerds, this means the patterns that the entire plant seem to exude. Since plants from the same species can look very different based on environmental factors, a hunch based on the plant's gestalt is often the quickest and most accurate way to identify the plant!
The more ID repetitions you get, the more accurate your gestalt for a plant species becomes. Once you have seen 1,000 of the same tree species in tons of different places, you will no doubt be able to pick out that same species in any forest.


[caption id="attachment_1893646" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893646" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_252615424.jpg" alt="bristlecone pine" width="500" height="331" /> Bristlecone pines are the oldest trees on Earth, living over 5,000 years. They only live in extremely high, windy locations in the Mountain West on nutrient-poor soils.[/caption]
<h2>Pay Attention to Habitat for Tree ID</h2>
Once you feel like you have a good guess on the group of trees your tree is in, you can use environmental factors to parse it out from similar species. Often times you can whittle down potential tree species by taking the geographic range and habitat of a species into account.
For example, incense cedars look similar to western red cedars, but western red cedars don't grow in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California. Therefore, if you see a cedar in the hills of those mountains, you don't need to pick apart the differences between the two cedars because only the incense cedar lives in that ecosystem.
You can weed out additional similar tree species by taking the elevation, sunlight, soil moisture, geology, and slope direction into account.
Learning your local trees, whether they are gnarled oaks or grand chestnuts, adds meaning to the landscape and combats plant blindness.
Once you learn tree species, you can pay attention to which bird species prefer which kinds of trees. You can notice which species of trees tend to grow next to each other. If you're willing to put in the time, the natural world has infinite fascinating stories to tell.
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A Beginner's Guide to Tree Identification

Trees are a valuable part of all of our lives....

Beautiful,Pink,Waterlily,Or,Lotus,Flower,In,Pond.copy,Space,For

The lotus,&nbsp;Nelumbo nucifera,&nbsp;is an ancient plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/why-the-lotus-flower-is-a-plant-celebrity/">admired for its beauty for centuries</a>. Ponds and murky waters worldwide contain the striking and unique plant. But have you ever wondered how this illustrious plant comes to be? Or&nbsp;how does a lotus flower grow? Let's explore the lotus's life cycle, from seed to bloom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-lotus-flower-plant">What is a Lotus Flower Plant?</h2>



<a href="http://www.misin.msu.edu/facts/detail/?project=misin&amp;id=219&amp;cname=Sacred" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nelumbo nucifera</a>, or lotus, is a plant that belongs to the Nelumbonaceae family. It is a tropical and perennial plant typically found in aquatic environments.&nbsp;



There are two main types of lotuses: the tropical lotus and the perennial lotus. The main difference between these two types is their geographical location. Tropical lotuses are native to warm, humid climates, while perennial lotuses are native to temperate zones. 



As a result, tropical lotuses require more heat and moisture to thrive than their perennial counterparts. In terms of appearance, tropical lotuses tend to be larger and more colorful than perennial lotuses. They also have more pronounced veins on their petals.



Lotus flowers typically have white or pink petals and a large central seedpod but are also known to produce blue, purple, yellow, and red flowers as well. People revere the lotus for its ability to thrive under challenging environments; the flowers grow in muddy water and often emerge unscathed from the murky depths, symbolizing hope, rebirth, strength, and resilience.



People have introduced the plant from <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/smoke-and-fire-in-the-indochina-peninsula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southeast Asia</a> to many other parts of the world. Gardeners often cultivate the plant for its beautiful flowers, but they can also consume the leaves and seeds of the plant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-lotus-flower-seeds">The Lotus Flower Seeds</h2>



The life cycle of the lotus begins with its seeds. Lotus seeds are small and black and come from the lotus plant's flower.



The lotus plant is adapted to grow in many different types of habitats, from murky ponds to sunny riverbanks. As a result, it has developed a method for ensuring that its seeds have the best chance of germination.



The method used by the lotus is to produce many seeds. By releasing large quantities of seeds into the environment, the plant increases its chances that at least a few of them will find the ideal conditions for growth and avoid consumption by aquatic life.



In addition, lotus seeds are very durable and can remain viable for many years. This allows the plant to survive even harsh conditions that would kill most other plants. As a result of these adaptations, the lotus is one of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carnivorous-plants-turned-defense-into-highly-successful-offense/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most successful plants</a> in the world.



Lotus seeds germinate in the mud usually at the bottom of bodies of water. Once the seeds are released, some will begin to germinate in wet soil or water beds. It can take anywhere from two weeks to two months for the seeds to germinate. After germination, they begin to sprout. A tiny seedling will emerge from the seed coat, and roots will start to grow down into the mud.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/seeds-lotus-1024x573.jpg" alt="Lotus flower seeds" class="wp-image-1911735"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The method used by the lotus flower is to produce many seeds. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/niuniu?mediatype=photography">niuniu</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Seedlings</h2>



The seedlings will then start producing leaves, which will rise to the water's surface. The lotus plant will continue to grow, growing more leaves and flowers, until it eventually reaches the surface of the water.



These seedlings will grow into tropical or marsh plants depending on their environment. The leaves of tropical plants tend to be large and floating, while the leaves of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marsh-plant-stems-shrink-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marsh plants</a> are smaller and emergent. Both types of plants produce flowers, which both rise and bloom above the water.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/seedling-1024x683.jpg" alt="Lotus flower seedling" class="wp-image-1911736"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Lotus flower seedling. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/inhoLee?mediatype=photography">inho Lee</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Flower</h2>



The lotus flower typically blooms for only a few days for pollination to occur. Each day the flowers bloom, at nightfall they will close up and sink back into the water or mud only to re-emerge beautifully intact the following day.



Unlike most plants, the lotus produces heat to attract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beetles-have-backpacks-to-protect-their-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a> that feed on nectar, its main pollinator. At the same time, the flowers release a scent that signals to these insects there is food available. When a beetle lands on the flower, it brushes against the stigma, picking up pollen in the process.



The beetle then carries this pollen to another flower, where it brushes against the stigma again, depositing the pollen on the female reproductive organ. As the beetle moves from flower to flower, it pollinates each one. Once all the flowers have been pollinated, the petals begin to fall off, and the seed pods start forming.



Some varieties of the lotus flower are self-pollinating, meaning that they do not need insects to transfer pollen for fertilization to take place. Instead, the flowers rely on wind or water to disperse the pollen. Regardless of the method of pollination, each lotus flower produces many seeds that mature in pods below the water surface.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/nymphaea-1-1024x683.jpg" alt="Lotus flower in full bloom" class="wp-image-1911734"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The lotus flower typically blooms for only a few days for pollination to occur. Photo from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/MariaMarganingsih?mediatype=photography">Maria Marganingsih</a>&nbsp;on&nbsp;<a href="http://istockphoto.com/">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Seed Pods</h2>



While the flowers are important, the seed pods are also essential to the plant's life cycle. Although, one of the most fascinating aspects of the lotus is its method of seed production. Though it may seem like a complicated process, heat production and scent are essential for the species' survival. Without these two elements, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollination-insects-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a> would not be possible, and the lotus would not be able to produce seeds.



Each pod contains hundreds of tiny seeds, which the wind or water will eventually disperse. The pods develop over the course of several weeks, starting as small, green buds. As they mature, the pods will turn brown and begin to split open.



Most lotus plants disperse their seeds using a process known as hydrophily. These seeds are then carried away by the current and eventually take root in a new location. By using hydrophily, the lotus plant ensures that its offspring will have access to the water they need to thrive. Once they find a suitable spot to germinate, the lotus plant will start the cycle anew.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/lotus-seeds-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911733"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Each lotus flower pod contains hundreds of tiny seeds. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/ilbusca?mediatype=photography">ilbusca</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A Life Cycle Completed</h2>



The life cycle of the lotus is genuinely fascinating. The tiny seed grows into a beautiful plant that blooms in the sunlight and then sinks back into the mud at night.



The lotus flower is a fantastic example of the resilience of nature and the determination of life to thrive.



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How Does a Lotus Flower Grow: The Life Cycle of a Lotus

The lotus,&nbsp;Nelumbo nucifera,&nbsp;is an ancient plant admired for its beauty...

Bright,Blue,Poisonous,Frog

The animal kingdom of Planet Earth is a wild and wondrous place - but it is often a dart or sting away from danger. We've all heard stories, and perhaps lived the realities, of encountering poisonous animals, venomous creatures, and monstrous organisms. 



These creatures dominate folklore, pop culture, horror stories, and even experimental medical treatments and spiritual practices. It is a bubbling cauldron of toxic possibilities and necessary caution. 



However, the terms venomous and poisonous are often thrown about quite casually - and interchangeably. This leads to confusion and misunderstanding - and to stay safe, it's important to stay informed, too.&nbsp;



Today we're taking a look at the definitions of venomous and poisonous - where they overlap and how they differ. 



We're going to look at what happens with venom and poison to cause fatal results in the bodies of ill-fated, curious passers-by, and focus on some examples of harrowing venomous, poisonous organisms that enchant, mystify, and frighten most people (and inspire others). 



We'll also look briefly at certain scientific theories and medicinal breakthroughs that have occurred in our societies in conjunction with an ever-deepening understanding of poison, venom, and the animals that wield these strategies of survival. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangerous-definitions">Dangerous Definitions </h2>



To understand these terms, it's important to define them.&nbsp;



According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, venomous animals are "capable of putting poison or venom into another animal's body usually by biting or stinging it · containing venom". 



Comparatively, "poisonous" is defined as "a substance that can cause people or animals to die or to become very sick if it gets into their bodies especially by being swallowed".&nbsp;



So, in summation, biologists (as well as online dictionaries) identify venomous creatures as those that bite or sting to inject their toxins. Poisonous organisms, on the other hand, are those that unload toxins when consumed or absorbed. Here are some examples: a scorpion and a box jelly are venomous. 



Some species of mushrooms,  pufferfish, and poison ivy are poisonous and should not be consumed in most instances (pufferfish being an exception and a regional delicacy). 



Both poison and venom are powerful defense mechanisms that animals utilize to their own benefit of survival - whether they are coming from a perfectly poised stinger or upon arrival at the insides of an unsuspecting digestive system. These categories can be fluid in the sense that what might be deadly toxic to humans might not be the case for another animal and vice-versa.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_560609749.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900772"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/bjcher">Cheryl Thomas</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venomous-vs-poisonous-where-in-nature-to-be-aware">Venomous vs Poisonous: Where In Nature To Be Aware </h2>



Poisonous and venomous organisms are found all over the planet, in various ecosystems and biomes. Some parts of the world are more infamous than others as far as threats to look out for: Australia, equatorial jungles, and the ocean are hot spots that take up a lot of space in our venom-wary imagination in this regard.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venomous-vs-poisonous-snakes">Venomous vs. Poisonous Snakes</h3>



Snakes will send a shiver up most people's spine - especially when encountering one unexpectedly. In certain parts of the world, this can be a really dangerous moment. Venomous snakes and poisonous snakes (there are both) can cause serious injury and even death, depending on the species of snake. Some of these species of epic legend and lore include vipers, Asian tiger snakes, black mambas, and rattlesnakes.&nbsp;



If you happen to encounter a venomous snake (or a species you have yet to identify), safety experts recommend remaining calm and not disturbing the snake - give it a safe distance and an area to take cover in. 



Pay close attention to the colors and markings of the snake in order to later identify it (this could be lifesaving if bitten). Never try to handle or remove a snake yourself if you cannot identify it or know it to be a venomous snake. Contact a professional and keep children and animals well away from the area. Snakebites kill over 100,000 people each year and may have <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/11/11/666" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved independently over 100 times.</a> 



Snake venom inflicts death on humans and other animals - but it also "can also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12974396/#:~:text=Snake%20venom%20contains%20several%20neurotoxic,cancer%20and%20many%20other%20diseases." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">be used for the treatment</a> of thrombosis, arthritis, cancer and many other diseases."<a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/11/11/666"> </a>Snake venom is now considered a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6832721/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">valuable therapeutic tool</a> in the medical field.&nbsp;



There are also snakes that are not venomous, but poisonous -&nbsp; <a href="https://lucec.loyno.edu/natural-history-writings/poisonous-and-venomous-snakes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">such as garter snakes</a>. These snakes, as long as you don't cook them up and eat them, can be an exciting animal-life encounter devoid of concern for venomous bites - and a teachable moment in that some animals that move in unnerving ways are critical elements of a healthy ecosystem.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1998822314.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900773"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Laurence+Suryanata">Lauren Suryanata</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venomous-vs-poisonous-frogs">Venomous vs. Poisonous Frogs </h3>



Certain species of frogs are commonly known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-secret-that-protects-poisonous-animals-from-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">"poisonous" amphibians</a> - especially poison dart frogs whose bright colors have made for some memorable conservation campaigns. Their vibrant appearance also <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-makes-poison-dart-frogs-poisonous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serves as a warning</a> to those who should encounter one - do not touch. They live in the tropical forests of central and South America. Similar to the monarch butterfly, these amphibians have toxic secretions due to their plant diet. 



There are some species of poisonous toads as well. The larger the toad, the bigger the gland that excretes toxins. In North America, these poisonous toad species include the cane or marine toad (Bufo marinus) and the Colorado River toad (Bufo alvarius). This is less of a concern for us (not many people munch on toads) and more something to watch for in domestic pets.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venomous-vs-poisonous-insects">Venomous vs. Poisonous Insects </h3>



There are between <a href="https://www.si.edu/spotlight/buginfo/fun-facts-bugs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">6 and 10 million species</a> of insects on the planet. Bees, ants, and wasps are just a few examples of venomous species - even though they don't have fangs.&nbsp;



There are other, less obvious insect critters with sometimes venomous intent - like stinging caterpillars. A study from Kentucky explains that these venomous crawlers can cause anywhere from "a mild itching to the more severe pain, swelling, blistering, dermatitis, and <a href="https://entomology.ca.uky.edu/ef003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">even intestinal disturbances."</a>&nbsp;



Even the monarch butterfly is a venomous species! This is due to the plant these insects consume - milkweed.  The milkweed plant creates toxic substances called "glycosides" - a defense mechanism that the migrating butterflies have evolved to withstand and depend upon. A bird that decides to take a bite out of those orange and black wings will get sick, though likely not die. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poisonous-organisms-of-the-ocean">Poisonous Organisms Of The Ocean </h3>



Of course, venomous and poisonous are not exclusively land-dwelling. There is plenty to worry about in <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-much-of-the-ocean-have-we-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the salty waves of the ocean</a> that cover about <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth#:~:text=About%2071%20percent%20of%20the,percent%20of%20all%20Earth's%20water." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">71% of the earth's surface</a> area.&nbsp;



Jellyfish are particularly notorious for their venomous stinging tentacles. Some stings are light and irritating, others extremely painful and temporarily debilitating. In the case of the box jellyfish, a sting is lethal. According to NOAA, they are <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/box-jellyfish.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the most venomous marine animal.</a>



Sting Rays - named for their stinging tails - are generally regarded as gentle creatures in the water that blend in very well with the coloring of the seafloor. Generally, they only sting when disturbed or stepped on. They can grow up to 6.5 feet long. In 2006, the beloved "crocodile hunter" Steve Irwin was killed by a stingray - which sent shock waves around the globe and left many heartbroken. This sort of attack is extremely rare, however. Sting Rays are much more likely to flit away than to fight. 



Pufferfish, blowfish, or any other members of the Tetraodontidae family are fish, considered some of the most toxic vertebrates on earth. Many of these species contain tetrodotoxin - a highly toxic poison, though certain species are also considered a delicacy in Japan as well. What's dinner without a little danger? This delicacy is catching on in western countries now, and not without some risks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-poisonous-take-away">A Poisonous Take Away </h2>



Let's conclude with an important note: as human development continues and wild spaces become more contained and constricted, our interactions with wildlife can become more deadly. 



Our societies continue to encroach and decimate the habitats of wildlife - and the call to change course has never been more urgent. 



In reflecting on our relationships within an ecosystem and the important role that all species play within them, we might illuminate a healthy respect and regard for the animals with which we share this planet - even the really scary ones that can kill us.



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Venomous vs. Poisonous, What's the Difference? (Hint: They'll Both Kill You)

The animal kingdom of Planet Earth is a wild and...

Birds are currently classified by scientists as a subgroup of theropod dinosaurs. So yes, birds are dinosaurs! 
There used to be a more rigorous debate among evolutionary biologists about whether or not birds are dinosaurs - but now it’s mostly an accepted consensus.
Birds belong to a group of dinosaurs that emerged during the Mesozoic Era, about 252 to 66 million years ago. 
The Mesozoic includes the Jurassic, Triassic, and Cretaceous periods. Technically, birds are “avian dinosaurs,” whereas a velociraptor or a sauropod is a non-avian dinosaur.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870482 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/archeopteryx-911017_1280-767x1024.jpg" alt="" width="767" height="1024" />
 
<h2>How do we know birds are dinosaurs?</h2>
While larger dinosaurs still roamed the earth, there were little guys like the Microraptor which had long, vaned feathers on their arms and legs to create little wings. Microraptor, Archaeopteryx, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fossil-dinosaur-flight/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">small, feathered, semi-flighted dinosaurs</a> formed the missing link between “traditional” theropod dinosaurs like velociraptors and modern-day birds. 
There’s a bit of a misconception that there basically were only two stages of bird development: a feathery Jurrasic Park lookalike, and a modern bird like a tiny sparrow. For a long time, that’s because there was only one real fossil that pointed to a middle ground: Archaeopteryx, which was pretty darn bird-like. But how did it get so bird-like so fast?
But in recent years, scientists have discovered more and more evidence of gradual changes that led to birdlike dinosaurs, and eventually birds (which, remember are dinosaurs). This means that we don’t have to rely on the idea of a successful genetic freak leading to all birds today. 
In the 1990s, researchers in China started unearthing fossil after fossil of feathered, fuzzy dinosaurs that lacked wings. Avian feathers evolved over time, starting with fuzz and eventually leading to the quilled feathers necessary for flight.
Small, feathered dinosaurs that could glide, climb, and hide from the big dinosaurs exploded in diversity (much like the small burrowing mammals did). Over time, these early bird ancestors probably started gliding from tree to tree, and eventually started flying.
In fact, the modern-day hoatzin bird of the Amazon is still pretty dinosaur-like. The chicks of this species of bird still have claws on their wings! Genetic research in 2015 suggested that the hoatzin is the last member of a group of birds that separated from other dinosaurs and birds 64 million years ago.
 
[caption id="attachment_1870486" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1870486 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/hoatzin-1024x683.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="683" /> Wild hoatzin in Yasuni, Ecuador. Photo credit to Sean Hacker Temper Photography, @hackertepe on Instagram.[/caption]
 
Being small was key for the success of early birds - there’s just more space for diversity if you’re tiny! You can read all about how birds arose from dinosaurs (and an in-depth analysis of all the evidence) in this <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/avians.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">great article from UC Berkley</a> on the subject.
That said, there are some scientists who fall into the “Birds Are Not Dinosaurs” (BAND) camp. Most of the arguments saying that birds can’t be dinosaurs falls based on differences in lung morphology (which doesn’t fossilize, so it’s impossible to prove or disprove), ankle bones, and finger bones. The “controversy” over whether or not birds are dinosaurs is much more popular in the media than in the scientific community.
 
<img class="wp-image-1870484 size-large alignnone" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/chicken-2742352_1280-1024x438.jpg" alt="chickens are dinosaurs" width="1024" height="438" />
 
<h2>What is a Theropod Dinosaur?</h2>
Theropods are two-legged dinosaurs (think T. Rex) - but theropods also include chickens and pigeons and Peregrine falcons! 
Theropods are generally two-legged. They have hollow bones and three-toed limbs. Modern and ancient theropods have wide varieties in diet and behavior. 
Some theropods might have been capable of swimming, based on fossil evidence of just the tips of claws scraping a river floor in China. Those tracks were well-coordinated, suggesting the theropod was a decent swimmer. 
Some theropods, like the T. Rex, had very small forelimbs. Others had well-developed forelimbs (think Blue in Jurassic World). And, of course, birds have well-developed forelimbs!
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870483 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/hatching-chicks-2448541_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="bird dinosaur egg" width="1024" height="682" />
 
<h2>So… does that mean birds are reptiles?</h2>
That depends! In the Linnaean taxonomic system, a reptile is defined as cold-blooded and scaled. That’s not a bird! 
But in modern biology, many biologists classify animals by phylogeny - by their common ancestors. By this system, birds are reptiles. <a href="https://askabiologist.asu.edu/questions/birds-dinosaurs-reptiles" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Their closest relative is actually a crocodile!</a>
 
<h2>Why did birds survive when dinosaurs went extinct?</h2>
Like mammals, birds probably survived the Cretaceous extinction largely thanks to their small size. Smaller birds could take cover from the chaos that ensued when an asteroid strike paired with volcanic eruptions to kill the dinosaurs.
Birds also can eat a wide variety of things - and many of those things also survived the extinction! Even if a big predator did survive the initial stages of the Cretaceous extinction, it became increasingly hard to find large prey animals to eat. Likewise, large vegetarians needed large amounts of foliage to eat.
Finally, small animals have shorter reproductive cycles. This means that they’re able to replenish a bit more quickly. And, with more offspring being born more often, survival of the fittest is able to work more quickly to help some survive. 
Basically, if a bird hatches 6 chicks per year whereas a large sauropod only raises a few offspring per lifetime, there’s a better chance of some of the bird’s offspring surviving and passing along those successful genes. It’s just math!


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Are Birds Dinosaurs?

Birds are currently classified by scientists as a subgroup of...

Botany is the study of plants - everything from plant anatomy, to ecology, to ethnobotany. By its modern definition, botany is a field that originates from the 18th century. Scientists started to create different classifications of plants and rigid systems by which to identify them. Of course, people had been studying plants for thousands of years before that. One of the first people to ever call themselves a botanist was <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/Botany/tercentenary/origins/theophrastus.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Theophrastus of ancient Greece</a>. He wrote many books on plants, and these texts are some of the first recorded botanical works. Hundreds, if not thousands of important players, have advanced the field of botany since its origin. It’s hard to just pick a few of the most influential botanists of all time, but here they are: the 5 most famous botanists in history, in no particular order.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1882041 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Carl-Botanist.jpg" alt="Linnaeus Botanist" width="256" height="309" />
[Portait by <a title="via Wikimedia Commons" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Alexander Roslin</a> / Public domain]
<h2>1. Carl Linnaeus</h2>
Often regarded as the father of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-classify-life-taxonomy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">taxonomy</a>, Carl Linnaeus is certainly one of the most famous botanists in history. He may perhaps be one of the most famous scientists, period. Born in Sweden, Linnaeus went on to study botany at Uppsala University. Linnaeus later began to develop the system of binomial nomenclature, the foundation of taxonomy. While he started with plants, he went on to name a variety of organisms, including humans! Without Carl Linnaeus, plants, animals, and fungi would likely have very different names, and we would not be known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skull-oldest-homo-sapien-ancestor/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Homo sapiens</a>.

[caption id="attachment_1882032" align="alignnone" width="249"]<img class="wp-image-1882032 size-medium" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/GWC-249x300.jpg" alt="George Washington Carver Portrait" width="249" height="300" /> [Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/skeeze-272447/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Skeeze</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>][/caption]
<h2>2. George Washington Carver</h2>
One of the five most famous botanists in history, George Washington Carver, was born, enslaved, in Missouri sometime in the 1860s - the exact date is unknown. Soon after the abolishment of slavery, he pursued an education. Although he didn’t strictly study botany, he became one of the most important agricultural scientists of all time.


Carver is most famous for his various methods of farming and preparing peanuts, but his contributions to the plant sciences were so much more. For one, he developed various methods of crop rotation, which boost soil fertility and increase both production and sustainability of farms. During his time as a student, Carver studied plant pathogens and advanced the fields of botany and mycology at the very same time.

<img class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-1882033" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Humboldt_and_Bonplant_in_the_Jungle-300x209.jpg" alt="Alexander von Humboldt jungle" width="300" height="209" />
[Painting by <a title="via Wikimedia Commons" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Humboldt_and_Bonplant_in_the_Jungle.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Eduard Ender</a> / Public domain]
<h2>3. Alexander von Humboldt</h2>
Alexander von Humboldt was one of the most important plant explorers of all time. He was also a polymath - someone whose knowledge spans various subjects and disciplines. Many of his findings have become part of our collective consciousness of how the planet works. While von Humboldt isn’t directly cited as a botanist, he clearly had an affinity for plants. Botany was a cornerstone of his many fields of study.


The plants he collected from explorations through South America helped lay the foundations of biogeography and natural history. He had such an impact during his studies that many natural things were named after him. Even more, he was a huge influence on other great naturalists including Charles Darwin and the geologist Charles Lyell.
<h2>4. Agnes Arber</h2>
<h3>Early Career</h3>
Unlike the other famous botanists on our list, Agnes Arber combined her botanical studies with philosophy and history. She was the best botanist of her time and initially made her fame by studying the morphology and anatomy of plants. Some of our most fundamental knowledge of plant anatomy is thanks to Arber, specifically about flowering plants (as opposed to gymnosperms and mosses).
<h3>Late Career</h3>
Later in her career, Arber moved towards studying the philosophy and <a href="https://www.bioexplorer.net/history_of_biology/botany/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">history of botany</a>. These more theoretical disciplines were not too common for scientists to migrate towards, but Arber made the move with great success. She published numerous books on history, philosophy, and even religion and spiritualism. Bear in mind, she continued to use botany as a prominent theme in all of her studies.

To make her achievements even more impressive, Arber worked during a time when women were not allowed to be in the same laboratories as men. Men's laboratories were usually larger, better equipped, and better funded. So, Arber overcame an additional challenge.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1882035 size-medium" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Gregor_Mendel-221x300.jpg" alt="gregor mendel portrait" width="221" height="300" />
<h2>5. Gregor Mendel</h2>
Often cited as the father of genetics, Gregor Mendel made his fame by working primarily with plants. His famous <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">pea plant experiments</a> in the 1850s and 60s established many rules of genetics. Many of these rules still stand to this day! He was able to show that certain genes are retained through generations of plants, and genes determine flower colors, seed size, plant height, and more. This was the basis of modern genetics, which is a field that still largely relies on plants to this day. Luckily for geneticists like Mendel, plants are relatively easy to breed, care for, and experiment on. For this reason, genetics is a huge field of study within botany.
<h2>Bonus Botanists – Indigenous Peoples</h2>
Often times, information about the plants in a particular region comes from indigenous cultures. After all, almost nobody knows plants in an area better than the indigenous people who have resided there for generations. For this reason, indigenous people across the globe have been instrumental in advancing the study of plants.


Even modern medicine wouldn’t be the same without the wisdom of indigenous cultures, as many medications come from plant compounds. 

For example, scientists discovered a compound called salicin in the bark of willow trees, after realizing indigenous people chewed the bark as a pain reliever. Later on, salicin led to the development of aspirin!


If it weren’t for indigenous people, it’s possible that the development of aspirin could have been set back decades. Additionally, plant explorers from pre-colonial times would have been completely lost if not for indigenous peoples. 

Historically, indigenous people were able to identify plants easily, which was crucial in determining which plants were edible and which were deadly. Although there is no widely famous indigenous botanist, it's important to recognize the impact indigenous people have had on the field of botany. 

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The 5 Most Famous Botanists in History

Botany is the study of plants - everything from plant...

Heliconia,Psittacorum,Flower,Plant,In,Florida,Summer,Time

Florida is a state teeming with biodiversity. With the nickname “The Sunshine State,” Florida must have loads of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-protect-sunshine-overdose/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sun-loving plant life</a> - and indeed it does! Although there are thousands of plant species native to the state, a handful of them are quite characteristic and important parts of Florida ecosystems.
One could spend a lifetime learning how to identify all the plants in Florida. Luckily, we’ve created this quick guide to Florida plant identification for beginners. Below is how to identify several Florida palms, trees, shrubs, and more, in no particular order.
<h2>Trees</h2>
We’ll start with the most common Florida trees. These are common wild and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/roadside-hedges-urban-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">roadside trees</a> that are characteristically Floridian.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876548 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/geiger-tree.jpg" alt="geiger tree cordia sebestena" width="1000" height="681" />
<h3>Geiger tree (Cordia sebestena)</h3>
This common South Florida tree is one of the most popular roadside trees in the state. It has large orange flowers that grow in clusters at the tips of branches, and effectively attract hummingbirds.
The tree itself grows to be up to 8 meters (30 feet) tall. The leaves are rather large, growing up to 20 centimeters (9 inches) in length and have a rough, sandpapery texture.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876557 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Taxodium_distichum_exposed_knees.jpg" alt="taxodium distichum bald cypress" width="600" height="800" />
<h3>Bald cypress (Taxodium distichum)</h3>
Bald cypress trees are massive, densely crowned conifers. They typically grow next to or near moving water. Cypress trees typically have <a href="https://www.lewisginter.org/trees-with-knees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">large, woody “knees”</a> which are root protrusions that grow above water to help the tree respire. They resemble small stalagmites. Bald cypresses are deciduous, and shed their light green needles in the winter, unlike other conifers, which are evergreen.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876556 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/mangrove.jpg" alt="red mangrove rhizophora mangle" width="800" height="532" />
<h3>Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle)</h3>
Red mangroves are characteristic trees along the coastlines of tropics. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floridas-mangroves-rising-sea-level/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mangrove forests</a> are necessary to protect the land from storms, and they also provide essential habitat for fish and other animals.
The trees themselves can be identified by their tough, dark green leaves that are always clustered together towards the ends of branches. Red mangroves also have numerous prop roots that look like multiple stems.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876555 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/longleaf-pine.jpg" alt="longleaf pine pinus palustris savannah" width="800" height="600" />
<h3>Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)</h3>
Pines are increasingly rare in Florida, but they are incredibly important parts of pine savannah ecosystems throughout the Southeastern United States. The endangered longleaf pine grows up to 35 meters tall, with a trunk diameter of just under a meter.
Long needles up to 45 cm (18 inches) in length give this tall tree its name. The needles are always grouped together in threes, unlike some other pines which have groups of two or five.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876554 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/strangler-fig.jpg" alt="florida strangler fig ficus aurea" width="900" height="675" />
<h3>Florida strangler fig (Ficus aurea)</h3>
Strangler figs are common staples of tropical forests all over the world. Their unique structure allows them to grow around a host tree they use for support.
Because it grows faster than it’s host, it constricts and shades out the tree that once was essential for the fig, giving it a “hug of death.” The leaves are waxy and large, but are often tough to discern from the leaves of the fig’s host tree!
<h2>Palms</h2>
In general, palms are tall, slender plants that often evoke ideas of warm, tropical beaches. Florida is chock full of palms. Not only do they line idyllic coastlines, but they can also be found far inland, as well as in front yards grown ornamentally.
Palms are some of the most quintessential types of Florida plants. Here are two of the most common species found in Florida.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876553 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/everglades-palm.jpg" alt="everglades palm Acoelorrhaphe wrightii" width="1000" height="750" />
<h3>Everglades palm (Acoelorrhaphe wrightii)</h3>
The Everglades palm grows in, you guessed it,<a href="https://www.nps.gov/ever/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> the Everglades</a>! It’s also found throughout other swampy habitats of the Caribbean and Latin America.
The plant has massive palmate, fan-shaped leaves that can be 2 meters (6.6 feet) wide! It doesn’t grow quite as tall as some other palms, capping out at around 7 meters (23 feet) high.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876552 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Sabal_minor.jpg" alt="sabal minor dwarf palmetto palm" width="1000" height="667" />
<h3>Dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor)</h3>
Another swamp loving Florida palm is the dwarf palmetto. The aptly names plant is much smaller than other palms, never growing more than a couple meters (6 feet) in height.
Its leaves are much smaller as well, though similar in shape to the Everglades palm. Horticulturists love this plant due to its ability to withstand cold temperatures.
<h2>Shrubs</h2>
These shrubs all grow wild in The Sunshine State and are also commonly seen in gardens. Admittedly, this list of shrubs contains one plant some people wouldn’t consider a shrub in the technical sense. Nonetheless, it certainly isn’t a tree or palm, so we’ve put it in with the shrubs.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876551 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/beautyberry.jpg" alt="american beautyberry" width="1000" height="664" />
<h3>American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana)</h3>
American beautyberry has some of the most strikingly colored fruits in the plant kingdom. The bright purple clusters of berries that adorn this shrub make it a popular choice for a garden.
The light green leaves are covered in tiny hairs and grow opposite one another. The branches can be extremely long and arching.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876550 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/zamia-pumila.jpg" alt="coontie palm zamia pumila cycad" width="1000" height="666" />
<h3>Coontie palm (Zamia pumila)</h3>
Unlike its name implies, the coontie palm is not actually a true palm. It’s a species of cycad, which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-insect-pollinated-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">one of the most primitive types of plants in the world</a>. To make matters more confusing, the leaves look similar to a fern, to which it’s not even closely related.
Coontie palm doesn’t produce showy flowers but will produce a large cone filled with bright red seeds. It seems this plant is having a bit of an identity crisis.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876549 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Psychotria_nervosa.jpg" alt="psychotria nervosa wild coffee" width="1000" height="667" />
<h3>Wild coffee (Psychotria nervosa)</h3>
This coffee relative is another Florida native that’s commonly planted as an ornamental. Its small, white flowers attract butterflies and other insects.
The shiny, green leaves grow opposite of each other and have slightly indented veins. Birds love the small, red fruit produced by the wild coffee plant.
These Florida plants are just a drop in the bucket. There’s an incredibly diverse array of plants found in the state, but now you have a foot in the door of becoming a Florida plant identification expert!


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Florida Plant Identification for Beginners

Florida is a state teeming with biodiversity. With the nickname...

Botany boasts one of the richest histories of all the natural sciences. From the ancient use of medicinal plants to the study of plant DNA, botany has grown a remarkable amount. Botany is a huge field of science thanks to thousands of important botanists throughout history. 

Today, most people probably understand what botany is all about, and how it relates to horticulture, forestry, or plant ecology. However, few people understand it’s historical context and evolution through time. Where did botany originate? What is the history of botany? 

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1882715 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/1654px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg" alt="ancient agriculture egypt painting" width="1654" height="1080" />
<h2>Where Does Botany Begin?</h2>
Plants have been used by humans even before we came to be Homo sapiens. Because we are omnivores, plants have been an important part of our diet for a long time, as well as the diet of our ancestors. 

Using plants as food eventually evolved into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-practice-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">development of agriculture</a>. To maximize food production, humans figured out ways to care for plants and harvest them for food rather than forage in the environment. 

Although agriculture required an intimate knowledge of plants and how they grew, it doesn’t quite represent the origin of botany as a field of science. How do we determine when botany even started? 

Many experts consider the first written records of plants as the origin of botany. By this definition, botany was developed in different places at different times. However, there are impressive similarities between historical works of plants.
<h2><img class="alignnone wp-image-1882713 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/1280px-Sanzio_01_cropped.png" alt="School of athens ancient greece painting Raphael" width="1280" height="713" /></h2>
<h2>Ancient Botany in India, China, and Greece</h2>
In India, an extensive classification of plant types dates as far back as 3,700 years ago. Some of the plant types included trees, herbs, vines, and more. 

Not only did the records classify plant types, but there were also notes on plant medicine as well. This is perhaps the first time humans have recorded medicinal plants. These Sanskrit and Hindu texts remain some of the oldest botanical records in history. 

A very similar written record of plants comes from China. An ancient Chinese dictionary called Erya describes over 300 plant species, and each one has an illustration and common name. 

This collection of plants is from around 2,300 years ago and still survives to this day. It could be considered the world’s first plant field guide! 

Finally, in Ancient Greece, botany came to be around 2,400 years ago thanks to Theophrastus. Theophrastus is often regarded as the father of modern botany thanks to his extensive studies on plants. The Greek philosopher and student of Aristotle wrote dozens of books about plants, and many of them survive today. 

Theophrastus wrote extensively about plant identification, reproduction, and uses. It’s because of his obsessive documentation that we still have many of his texts. Because of this, we have learned a ton from his studies. 

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1882717 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/1280px-Dioscorides_De_Materia_Medica_Spain_12th_13th_century.jpg" alt="Abu Hanifa Dinawari botany text photo" width="1280" height="869" />
<h2>Botany in the Middle Ages</h2>
An Iranian botanist named Abu Hanifa Dinawari made huge advancements in plant classification around the year 300. He described 637 plant species in detail and wrote extensive notes on the ecology of each species. This was probably the most impressive plant guide in the world at the time!

Around the same time in India, another botanist by the name of Parashara wrote a similar classification of plants. Parashara created a system to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-classify-life-taxonomy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">divide plants into different groups</a>. His classification system is remarkably similar to modern plant taxonomy. He was so accurate that many of his classifications are identical to modern definitions of plant groups. 

Also in the middle ages, Europe saw a resurgence of botanical works after several hundred years of disinterest. Thanks to the <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/printing-press" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">printing press</a>, botany became more mainstream. 

In the 15th and 16th centuries, many European citizens received botanical writings on medicinal plants. This helped ignite more interest in botany among the people and not just the ruling class. Eventually, the plant sciences thrived during the European Renaissance.  

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1882712 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/1517px-Orto_dei_semplici_PD_01.jpg" alt="botany history botanical garden print" width="1517" height="1080" />
<h2>Botany in the Renaissance</h2>
Like many areas of science, botany experienced a golden age during the European Renaissance. Some of the most important botanical works come from this time and are the foundation of modern botany. 

Many European botanical gardens were established and worked in tandem with herbaria to develop the best plant collections. These gardens fueled botanical explorations of other continents, and funded botanists to go study and collect plants. The sustained study of plants over hundreds of years enhanced our botanical knowledge immensely. 

Botany in the Renaissance led to many different disciplines within the plant sciences. Plant anatomy, geography, and ecology became entire fields of their own. People like Carl Linnaeus and Alexander von Humboldt led the charge into the wide-open world of botany during the Renaissance. 
<h2>Botany Today</h2>
After botany flourished in the Renaissance, it kept growing and led to even more niche fields of study. Suddenly, one could make their entire career focused entirely on a single species of plant or an association with mycorrhizal fungi. The field of botany is becoming wider and wider every day. 

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What Is the History of Botany?

Botany boasts one of the richest histories of all the...

Hiker,Silhouette,Stands,On,The,Hill,On,And,Looks,On

Humans have pondered the beginning of the universe since our species evolved. Generations of people have looked towards the sky as a source of amazement, religion, and wonder. 
Thankfully, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/cosmology/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">over the last several centuries</a>, scientists from around the world have begun to piece together empirical data to support a variety of hypotheses about how all of life as we know it began. 
Today, let’s take a closer look at an age-old question: what are the theories of the universe? <img class="alignnone wp-image-1882781 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/solar-system-11188_1280-1024x640.jpg" alt="big bang explosion, one theory of the universe" width="1024" height="640" />
<h2>The Big Bang Theory</h2>
The most robust, well-supported theory as to the origins of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. A Belgian priest, <a href="https://www.luc.edu/catholicstudies/newsevents/featuredintellectual/archive/name,306772,en.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Georges Lemaître</a>, first suggested the idea of big bang theory in the 1920s. 
Since then, Einstein’s theory of relativity and modern science has lent credibility to this developing theory.
<h3>Big Bang Assumptions</h3>
Before we can get into specifics, let’s understand a few basic assumptions concerning the Big Bang Theory.
Each of the following points is assumed to be true in the universe, and this notion is part of the foundation upon which the Big Bang rests. 
<ul>
<li>The universe is constant. This one is first for a reason; it’s important. Our modeling and understanding of the world hinge on the idea that physical properties are the same everywhere. For example, we assume <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/100-years-since-einsteins-theory-of-gravity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">gravity</a>, electricity, magnetism, and light all behave the same way, even in far off places in the galaxy and universe.  </li>
<li>The universe is homogenous. Secondly, we assume that the universe is roughly the same in all directions. You can think of these like shovelfuls of dirt. Some scoops might have big rocks, some might have worms, and some may have more clay than others. But, in the long term, every 100 shovelfuls will be roughly the same in composition. </li>
<li>The universe is not centered around us. Physicists refer to this notion as the “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25171345?seq=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">privileged location</a>.” This means that earth is somewhere in the universe, but we really have no idea where it is in relation to the “edge” (more on that later). </li>
<li>The universe has a beginning. All matter and energy that has ever been and that will ever be were created during the Big Bang. No new material or energy has been created since then.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Basics of the Big Bang</h3>
The Big Bang is the leading theory as to the origins of the universe as we know it. It describes the mechanism by which everything we know started as a small singularity that ballooned into the earth, solar system, galaxy, and universe. 
The easiest way to understand this theory is through a timeline, so let’s dig in.
<ul>
<li>1 second. During the first second, the temperature around the big bang was about <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-powered-the-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">5.5 billion degrees</a> Celsius (10 billion Fahrenheit). There would have been nothing to see at this point, though. According to NASA, “the free electrons would have caused light (photons) to scatter the way sunlight scatters from the water droplets in clouds.” </li>
<li>3 seconds. The initial explosion contained all the necessary subatomic particles for atoms and molecules: neutrons, protons, and electrons. The first basic elements form at this point: hydrogen, helium, and lithium.  </li>
<li>380,000 years. For the first time, light emerges into the universe. This radiation (light) is referred to as the cosmic microwave background. First predicted to exist in 1948 by <a href="https://cosmology.carnegiescience.edu/timeline/1948" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ralph Alpher</a>, it is a signature mark of the Big Bang. This background of microwaves can still be observed today, and it used to estimate the age of the universe.  </li>
<li>300 million years. We’re jumping forward a bit here. As the initial burst of atoms and gas expands, gravity starts to become a relevant factor. Pockets of different densities of gas <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-is-a-star-born/#:~:text=A%20star%20is%20born%20when,until%20the%20fusion%20reactions%20begin." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">give birth to stars</a> and collections of stars start to form galaxies.  </li>
<li>~9 billion years. Our sun forms. The universe is roughly 14 billion years old, and our sun is approximately 4.6 billion years old. </li>
</ul>
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1882782" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/earth-1617121_1920-1024x575.jpg" alt="earth from space" width="1024" height="575" />
<h2>Steady State Universe</h2>
The steady state universe hypothesis breaks one of the key Big Bang Theory assumptions. The <a href="http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/steady_state.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">steady state hypothesis</a> states that matter and energy are being created continuously, steadily. 
First theorized in the 1920s by Sir James Jeans, the theory imagines a universe without a real beginning or end. 
In the steady state view, the universe has always been expanding and creating matter, and it will continue to do so. 
Although the theory has been revised and updated throughout the middle of the 20th century, an overwhelming amount of contradictory evidence supports the notion that the steady state hypothesis is largely false. 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1882783 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/universe-2742113_1280-1024x482.jpg" alt="cosmos" width="1024" height="482" />
<h2>Level II Multiverse</h2>
The multiverse concept <a href="https://space.mit.edu/home/tegmark/PDF/multiverse_sciam.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">is complicated</a>. And, that may still be an understatement. One of the driving factors leading to the development of this theory is the seemingly perfect nature of physics in our universe. 
Light, gravity, physics… they all seem to work together perfectly to allow life to exist in our universe. This can be viewed as a major coincidence or an inevitability given a large number of trials. 
The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-possible-other-universes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">multiverse</a> concept postulates that multiple universes exist, simultaneously, and they each have different physical constants. For example, maybe a universe 2.0 (or 3.0 or 18.0 or 821.0) exists along with ours where light travels at a different speed. 
Changing this speed changes an exceptionally large number of other universal constants, and thus, everything we know about our universe.
<h2>Simulation Theory or Simulation Hypothesis</h2>
Scientists and philosophers are buzzing about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simulation-hypothesis-are-humans-living-in-a-simulated-world/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Simulation Hypothesis</a>. It's not just sci-fi anymore - this idea has real philosophical roots and tech advances backing it up.
The theory goes like this: our whole reality might be a digital simulation. Earth, the universe, everything - all created by super-advanced beings.
It sounds wild, but serious thinkers are on board. They're using math from quantum physics and information theory to back it up.
Their logic? If advanced civilizations can make complex simulations, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simulation-hypothesis-are-we-living-in-a-computer-simulation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">we're probably in one</a>.
Nick Bostrom, a philosopher, lays it out: either humans never reach that level of tech, advanced civilizations don't bother with simulations, or we're almost definitely in one now.
Think about it -- if beings out there can and want to run ancestor simulations, fake realities could outnumber the real deal by a ton.
<h2>Correct Hypothesis?</h2>
So, where does that leave us? What is the “correct” theory for the origin of the universe? By a large margin, the Big Bang is the most well-supported, evidence-based theory. 
That being said, new technology and new instruments allow us to gather different data every decade, so we will have to see what the future holds! 
What other theories of the universe have you heard of? How do you think this all got here?
Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.


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What Are the Current Theories of How the Universe formed?

Humans have pondered the beginning of the universe since our...

Alert,Serval,Cat

Savannah cats are all the rage in the world of cat breeds and pet fads. And perhaps less popularized on Instagram but innumerably more precious to thriving ecosystems are servals. 



Both are incredibly beautiful animals. And the truth of the matter is that while they are distinctly different, they are also related. A serval is a wild animal, native to Africa. On the other hand, a savannah cat is a hybrid of a wild serval and a domestic cat - a cat breed. 



Ever wonder what is the difference between savannah cats and servals?



Both are highly intelligent and have similar colors and patterns, but they are generations removed.&nbsp;



Crosses between a small wild cat and domestic breeds are not novel and are bought and bred as a valuable commodity. In fact, Bengals (a cross between a domestic cat and an Asian leopard cat) rank as The International Cat Association’s (TICA) <a href="https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/cat-breeds/bengal" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">top breed</a>. 



The opportunity of having a pet that looks like a fierce wild cat but has the temperament of a sweet house kitty is quite alluring to many people's socialized conceptions of the 'exotic" and unique. 



But we have to ask ourselves - what are the distinguishing elements between wild and domestic? What do we really want from the animals in our homes? And how do the stories around these wild and domestic animals reflect our own history?



Here, we’ll look at the key differences and similarities between savannah cats and their wild cousins, starting with servals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-servals">What are Servals?</h2>



Slender, small, and lanky, servals (serval&nbsp;Leptailurus serval) stand out as feline beauties even though their coats keep them camouflaged on the African savannah and tall grasses. Servals are the ultimate pouncer, powered by their long legs. After a couple of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">derivations</a>&nbsp;through Portuguese and French, their name means “the wolf that hunts the stag.”



Servals have the&nbsp;<a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biggest ears and longest legs</a>&nbsp;in proportion to their bodies of any species in the cat family (Felidae).



Fun Fact: If our ears were in the same proportions as this African wild cat's ears, they would be as big as a dinner plate!



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-servals-appearance">Servals Appearance</h3>



With a beautiful tawny coat, decorated with black spots and stripes, it comes as no surprise that they became so popular as a tourist attraction and within our collective imaginations. Yellow eyes are emphasized by a dark line streaking from the ears down to the nose, similar to a cheetah. 



Their have long necks and gigantic ears both look charming and help them on the prowl. Long legs and a slender body are another good identifying factor. Finally, they have a beautiful yellow tail with several black rings. This coloration is often compared to "black smoke."



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-nbsp-size">Body&nbsp;Size</h4>



A medium-sized cat, servals weigh between&nbsp;<a href="https://wildkratts.fandom.com/wiki/Serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">18-40 lbs</a>. Their shoulders stand about<a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">&nbsp;two feet high</a>, and they are about<a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">&nbsp;three feet long</a>. Additionally, females tend to be smaller and more slender than males. Within the discipline of biology, we call this occurrence sexual dimorphism.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-servals-habitat">Servals Habitat</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution">Distribution</h4>



Native to the African continent, servals are more commonly found in&nbsp;<a href="https://wildcatconservation.org/wild-cats/africa/serval/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sub-Saharan countries</a>. Except in the Sahara, the rainforest, and southern Africa, these creatures are widely distributed throughout parts of Africa. They are an important member of the vast landscape of the world's second-largest landmass. While you won't find wild servals in the region of South Africa, their habitats do stretch all the way out to east Africa.&nbsp;



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-home-on-the-grassy-range">Home on the Grassy Range</h4>



While servals are found in 34 different countries, they have their favorite habitats. These wild cats love the grass - especially the grassed areas of the river and surrounding areas. Think savannas, reed beds, high-altitude moorlands, wetlands, and bamboo thickets. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/7-of-the-coolest-savanna-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> are distinct with long savannah grasses and reeds - all playing a part in the serval survival and life cycle. 



Servals don’t just enjoy the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-riparian-ecosystems/">riparian</a> plants… These cats love playing in the water! Additionally, if there are water and prey available, servals have even adapted well to agricultural land - a growing factor as human development spreads across less developed countries on the continent that will surely have marked impacts. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



All Felidae family members are carnivorous and the serval is no different. Its carnivore&nbsp;<a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a>&nbsp;is primarily small rodents, though it will also eat birds, amphibians, reptiles, and other small mammal invertebrates. &nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-servals-behavior">Servals Behavior</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting"> Hunting</h4>



The serval’s distinctly long legs and large ears are key to its hunting strategy. These traits have been passed down from many a serval ancestor. These cats are most active during crepuscular hours (dawn and dusk). They will listen and wait for prey before subsequently going for the dramatic pounce. And dramatic it is! Serval can leap<a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> 9 feet</a> into the air to snatch a bird. Long, flexible toes allow them to swiftly hook a frog out from the reeds. 



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-servals-reproduction">Servals Reproduction</h4>



Quite the solitary animals, these African serval cats will rarely be seen in groups. They will mark their territories with scents and scratches, and they mostly give each other space. Male and female home ranges will overlap, and while they will come together to breed, they soon go their separate ways. 



The female will usually have 2-3 savannah kittens, and she acts as the sole care provider for the young. She’s a good mother too! In fact, female serval hunting success <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Leptailurus_serval/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increases</a> while she has cubs, perhaps because she must be on the hunt more often to feed the hungry mouths. Their gestation period is 68-74 days long. Their lifespan average is 11 years in the wild and up to <a href="https://www.catsforafrica.co.za/serval-leptailurus-serval/serval-life-cycle/">22 years in captivity</a>.  



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-note-on-exotic-pets-nbsp">A Note On Exotic Pets&nbsp;</h4>



In most places, it is illegal to keep exotic cats as pets. Reporting and protecting those individual cats living as exotic pets is important - in both ending animal abuse as well as ensuring human and animal safety.&nbsp;



In the beginning days of the coronavirus pandemic, many people of the western world became infatuated with the documentary series "Tiger King" which took a closer look at some particularly entertaining and horrific examples of exactly this sort of industry abuse. 



When learning about the facts of wild cats such as servals, it's important to also weigh the nuances of these sorts of conversations. What's commodification and abuse and what is conservation? When we are all glued to our TV or visiting a local "safari", where do we fall on the scale of learning and/or extracting? 



With awareness and education comes change and accountability - and maybe just this sort of cultural fixation will lead to positive things. A hopeful thing indeed!&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-savannah-cats">What are Savannah Cats?</h2>



Now that we're all on the same page with servals, let's turn our attention to the savannah cat - a less wild descendent and popular animal companion.&nbsp;



In contrast their wild cousins, savannah cats are bred to be pets. While they do have serval blood, domestication has made them very different animals. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-cats-domesticated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Domestication</a> can be a slightly confusing concept for some people working to understand how a domesticated species is different from a domesticated wild animal. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word is defined as "the process of taming an animal and keeping it as a pet or on a farm." 



Domestication of a whole species however is a multi-generational process where humans select for desirable traits over and over again. In doing so, often, some animal species eventually ceases to exist in the wild, or are bred yet again with other wild animals that are close relatives and still untamed. 



There are endless versions, attempts, and variations in our history. It is a process that we humans have undertaken time and time again, changing our fate and societies in monumental ways and carrying the descendants of certain animals along with us as we go.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-savannah-cats-a-history-of-hybrid-house-kitties">Savannah Cats -- A History of Hybrid House Kitties</h3>



Unsurprisingly, humans have long been fascinated with wild cats. They are prominent aspects of our mythology, songs, and pop culture. With that in mind, it comes as no further surprise that there have been many attempts to breed domestic cats (Felis catus) with species of wild cats. 



Besides servals, breeds that humans have attempted crosses with include: caracals, Asian leopard cats, fishing cats, and ocelots. The goal of any cross is to capture the aesthetic of a wild cat with the disposition of a house kitty. 



These attempts have had varying amounts of success. If people do succeed in their attempts, this work of breeding can be an extremely lucrative business endeavor. The price tag on many of these specialty wild-infused cat breeds sell for over 100,000 dollars. 



The savannah cat is one of the success stories. The first hybrid was bred in the <a href="https://tica.org/breeds/browse-all-breeds?view=article&amp;id=870:savannah-breed&amp;catid=79" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1980s</a>. The kitten was named Savannah, giving the breed its identifier. However, it wasn’t until 2001 that the breed was accepted by The International Cat Association (TICA).



Today, this breed of cat is beloved for their distinct features. And they sometimes sell for up and over $50,000. 



That is an undeniably large lump of money - and many people will, rightfully so, balk at a number so large. People sure love their pets, though - and cats are one of the most popular furry companions in the world. 



Even with an average barn cat as a beloved four-legged roommate, most pet owners will spend over $1,000 a year on average in care and food for that animal. 



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-savannah-cats-generations">Savannah Cats Generations</h4>



It can be quite challenging to breed wild cats with house cats. While more savannah cat breeders are developing respectable practices, the initial cross is rare. More commonly, the relationship to a serval will be more distant. 



These are tracked by filial generations. For example, an F1 savannah cat has a serval cat as a parent, and an F2 savannah cat has a serval as a grandparent. In general, generations F4,5,6 are easier to find. And easier to afford. 



The F1 and F2 generations can be some of the most expensive kittens in the world as the rapper <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=70XMW2fxHtQ&amp;list=PLhIBvHsb9MWZD2rK-uoJjGGZNLLuU5GjW&amp;index=5&amp;ab_channel=GQ" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2 Chainz</a> discovered on his show.



Experts warn that you shouldn’t be suckered in by a “deal”  when trying to acquire a Savannah cat for your own home and daily life. Often, if the cat is much less expensive, there were too many shortcuts taken in the breeding process. A good tip is to make sure the breeder is TICA registered. This can result in long-term health issues for savannah cats. Do your research before investing in your potential kitten!



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-savannah-cats-temperament">Savannah Cats Temperament</h3>



Besides their alluring appearance, one of the reasons for the savannah cat’s popularity is their dog-like character. These kitties form close bonds with their family. They will greet you at the door, play fetch, and even go on leashed walks! They even will <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-recognize-name/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">come</a> when called! 



Notorious for being mischievous and high energy, don’t be surprised if they knock around knickknacks, learn to turn on the faucet, or open doors! And remember serval’s amazing jumping ability? This isn’t lost on the savannah cat. They can jump incredible horizontal and vertical distances. They love cat trees and bookshelves! 



One wonders if in leaping from shelf to shelf, the domesticated cat senses a genetic echo of their reed-bed weaving, savannah traversing ancestors still roaming the landscapes of sub-Saharan Africa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-related-but-different">Related but Different</h2>



While savannah cats do have serval blood, they are domestic. Servals are wild. This is an important distinction to remember. And it is worth repeating: wild animals have a distinct set of needs that are met through distinct habitats, diets, and behaviors, and are not suited to life in a living room. 



Wildness exists, even within the domestic. This is true of the savannah cat as well as many other examples that surround us all the time - whether you have a cool 50 grand to spend or simply a moment to pause and take in the world around you, you'll see relationships between the two in enchanting ways. 



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Savannah Cats vs. Servals: They're Not the Same!

Savannah cats are all the rage in the world of...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...