Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

From a distance, the Arctic paints a picture of tranquility and serenity. A closer look at the massive icy region around the North Pole reveals a sobering reality. Climate change and rapid urbanization cast a shadow over this frequently overlooked part of our planet.



In this playground of polar bears and reindeer, the chills of the Arctic starkly contrast the heat of growing human activity.



The average temperature in these freezing plains shot up 3 degrees Celsius since 1979. This increase was nearly quadruple the global average.



With such climate shifts, the once inaccessible lands of the Arctic are witnessing an upsurge in industrial and urban development. It's important to understand the human impact on the region because of its delicate ecosystems and sustainable growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-industrialization-unveiled">Arctic industrialization unveiled</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/de.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> with colleagues from NASA and the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>, studied the intensity and spread of industrialization across the Arctic with data derived from satellite imagery of artificial light between 1992 and 2013.



“More than 800,000 km2 were affected by light pollution, corresponding to 5.1% of the 16.4 million km2 analyzed, with an annual increase of 4.8%,” said Gabriela Schaepman-Strub, who led the international team.



From the European Arctic to the oil and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/britain-approves-controversial-oil-and-gas-field-in-the-north-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas fields</a> of Alaska, USA, and Russia, signs of civilization stand stark against the pitch-dark landscapes. 



The findings revealed that only about 15% of the lit areas host human settlements with the rest attributable to industrial activities. This artificial twilight, responsible for significant light pollution, spreads yearly in scope and intensity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-industry-and-light-pollution">Effects of industry and light pollution </h2>



The data lays a strong foundation for future research into the effects of industrial development on Arctic ecosystems.



“In the vulnerable permafrost landscape and tundra ecosystem, even just repeated trampling by humans, and certainly tracks left by tundra vehicles, can have long-term environmental effects that extend well beyond the illuminated area detected by satellites,” said Cengiz Akandil, a doctoral student on Schaepman-Strub’s team.



The Arctic's biodiversity is under unprecedented threat due to the impacts of artificial light and industrial activities. 



For example, artificial light impairs Arctic reindeer's ability to adapt their eyes to the deep blue hues of winter twilight, a key adaptation to locate food sources and avoid predators.



Light pollution also affects leaf coloration and bud break, which are crucial for Arctic species with a limited growth season.



Meanwhile, rapid urbanization from oil, gas, and mining industries fuels the expansion of invasive species and environmental pollution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-industrialization-and-arctic-preservation">Balancing industrialization and Arctic preservation</h2>



With climate change forcing local communities to swiftly adapt and industrial development adding to the pressures on the region, the projected impacts of human activity on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dramatic-regime-shift-observed-in-arctic-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic ecosystems</a> could outpace or amplify the effects of climate change in the coming decades.



Assuming the industrial development growth rate from 1940–1990 is sustained, approximately 50–80% of the Arctic may reach critical levels of human interference by 2050.



Schaepman-Strub emphasized the importance of detailed analysis of spatial variability and hotspots of industrial development to support monitoring and planning efforts in the Arctic.



This information could help indigenous people, governments, and stakeholders align decisions with the <a href="https://sdwg.org/what-we-do/projects/sustainable-development-goals-in-the-arctic-the-nexus-between-water-energy-and-food-wef/">Sustainable Development Goals in the Arctic</a>. The ultimate goal is a harmonious existence that includes both human and environmental flourishing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-ecosystems-under-strain">Arctic ecosystems under strain</h2>



The rapid industrialization of the Arctic is not without its environmental consequences. The region's delicate ecosystems feel the strain as human activity encroaches upon its natural landscapes.



Increased infrastructure development for oil, gas, and mining operations disrupted the permafrost, a critical component of the Arctic environment. Thawing permafrost releases trapped greenhouse gases like methane, further accelerating the cycle of climate change.



Wildlife in the Arctic faces unprecedented challenges. Species such as polar bears, Arctic foxes, and migratory birds experience <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a> due to expanding industrial activities.



The combination of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-visibility-is-deteriorating-due-to-light-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light pollution</a> and noise from machinery also affects the behavior of species that depend on the Arctic's natural rhythms for survival.



With projections of continued industrial growth, researchers warn the region may experience more profound ecosystem shifts.



The Arctic's biodiversity is vulnerable to human-induced changes. It's crucial to prioritize the balance between development and environmental preservation for both local and global health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2322269121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Arctic industrialization: How will it impact delicate ecosystems?

From a distance, the Arctic paints a picture of tranquility...

While reading a children's book about insects with his daughter, Matt Shipman came across an interesting fact: bees perceive colors differently than humans do.&nbsp;



His daughter, filled with curiosity, immediately wanted to know more about this fascinating phenomenon.  



Digging deeper into the science of bee vision, Shipman - who is a research communicator at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> - found that bees see flowers in a way that is truly unique - and arguably even more beautiful than how we see them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-vision-of-bees">Color vision of bees</h2>



Humans are capable of seeing light in wavelengths ranging from about 390 to 750 nanometers. This range encompasses the spectrum of colors we perceive, from violet through to red.&nbsp;



Bees, like many other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-insect-decline-what-are-the-causes-and-consequences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>, have a visual range of approximately 300 to 650 nm. This difference means that while bees cannot see red, they can see ultraviolet light, a part of the spectrum that is invisible to human eyes.



Bees' ability to distinguish between light and dark allows them to detect edges with ease. This skill helps them recognize different shapes, although they might struggle with shapes that have smooth lines, like circles and ovals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-vision-matters-for-bees">Why vision matters for bees</h2>



For bees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blinking-plays-crucial-role-vision-human-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vision</a> plays a crucial role in their daily activities, particularly when it comes to finding nectar and pollen. 



While they can use their sense of smell to locate flowers, this only works when they are already close to their target. Vision is essential for spotting flowers from a distance, guiding them towards potential food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-vision-and-ultraviolet-colors">Bee vision and ultraviolet colors</h2>



There is an ongoing debate about whether bees' vision evolved to better detect flowers or if flowers evolved to become more visible to bees.&nbsp;



Most likely, it is the latter: flowers have evolved specifically to attract insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-an-alarming-decline-in-pollinator-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>, such as bees, by developing vivid ultraviolet color patterns. These patterns are invisible to humans but serve as bright, enticing signals for bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ultraviolet-patterns-nature-s-guide-for-bees">Ultraviolet patterns: Nature’s guide for bees</h2>



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-blooming-92-days-earlier-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowers</a> display intricate ultraviolet patterns that act as beacons for bees. These patterns often highlight “landing zones,” directing bees toward the parts of the flower that contain nectar and pollen. 



For the bees, this guidance means an easier time locating food, while for the flower, it increases the likelihood that pollen will cling to a bee and be carried to another flower, aiding in reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-we-know-what-bees-can-see">How do we know what bees can see?</h2>



Understanding what bees see has been a subject of scientific curiosity for years. One of the methods researchers have used involves training bees to respond to specific colors through behavioral experiments.&nbsp;



For example, scientists would set up feeders containing sugar water near colored targets - such as a yellow one.&nbsp;



Over time, the bees learned to associate the yellow target with the food, returning to it even when the sugar water was removed.&nbsp;



The bees would still choose the yellow target over others, even when presented with gray options, indicating that they could distinguish the color.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photoreceptors-and-the-visual-spectrum-nbsp">Photoreceptors and the visual spectrum&nbsp;</h2>



Another way scientists have uncovered what bees can see is by examining the photoreceptors in their eyes.&nbsp;



By exposing bees to various wavelengths of light, researchers have been able to identify which wavelengths trigger signals in the bees' photoreceptors.&nbsp;



A lack of response to a particular wavelength suggests that the light is outside of the bee’s visual spectrum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-perspective-on-flowers">A unique perspective on flowers</h2>



Bees, with their ability to perceive ultraviolet light, experience a world that is quite different from ours - especially when it comes to flowers.&nbsp;



The intricate patterns that guide them to nectar and pollen are invisible to us, making their world rich in hidden beauty. And if you are interested in seeing some of this hidden world, you can find impressive collections of ultraviolet flower <a href="http://www.naturfotograf.com/UV_flowers_list.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> online. 



It’s a reminder that nature holds many surprises, some of which can only be appreciated through a bee’s eye view.



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Bee vision reveals a hidden world that we cannot see

While reading a children's book about insects with his daughter,...

In the vast, arid landscape of South Australia’s outback, a fossil record lies hidden beneath the soil, holding crucial clues to Earth’s early evolutionary history.&nbsp;



These fossils, found in Nilpena Ediacara National Park near South Australia's largest mountain range, document a pivotal moment in the emergence of complex life.&nbsp;



This recent discovery has provided new insights into how single-celled organisms evolved into complex animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-of-555-million-year-old-animal">Fossils of 555-million-year-old animal</h2>



A team led by Scott Evans, assistant professor of geology at <a href="https://www.fsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida State University</a>, has unearthed a significant fossil of an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early marine animal</a> called Quaestio simpsonorum. 



This 555-million-year-old creature is the first known to exhibit left-right asymmetry, a crucial feature in the evolution of complex life.



“The animal is a little smaller than the size of your palm and has a question-mark shape in the middle of its body that distinguishes between the left and right side,” Evans explained.&nbsp;



“There aren't any other fossils from this time that have shown this type of organization so definitively. This is especially interesting as this is also one of the first animals that was capable of moving on its own.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-movement-of-earth-s-earliest-animals-nbsp">Movement of Earth's earliest animals&nbsp;</h2>



Researchers believe Quaestio moved along the seafloor much like a “marine Roomba,” feeding on nutrients from microscopic organisms and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>. 



Evidence of this movement was preserved in fossilized rock slabs that display impressions of the animal along with its trace fossils.&nbsp;



The texture of the preserved mat, where Quaestio left its trails, reveals the organic richness of the early seafloor ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exciting-discovery-in-nilpena-ediacara-national-park">Exciting discovery in Nilpena Ediacara National Park</h2>



While Nilpena Ediacara National Park is already famous for its fossil beds, the discovery of Quaestio marks a major milestone.&nbsp;



The excavation team, which included researchers from institutions like <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>, the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a>, and the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/front/international?adobe_mc_sdid=SDID%3D0538AE6BAFB85DBC-5DAAA905774B3C95%7CMCORGID%3DBA023B045D5A83160A495E49%40AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1728979378&amp;adobe_mc_ref=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Adelaide</a>, made a critical discovery when they found clear evidence of the creature's movement. 



“One of the most exciting moments when excavating the bed where we found many Quaestio was when we flipped over a rock, brushed it off, and spotted what was obviously a trace fossil behind a Quaestio specimen - a clear sign that the organism was motile; it could move,” said co-author Ian Hughes, a Harvard University graduate student.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earliest-animal-life-on-earth">Earliest animal life on Earth</h2>



For more than 20 years, the team has been guided by Mary Droser, distinguished professor of geology at UC Riverside. Droser has led excavations in the outback, and this latest discovery offers new insights into how animal life unfolded on Earth.&nbsp;



“It’s incredibly insightful in terms of telling us about the unfolding of animal life on Earth,” Droser remarked.&nbsp;



The Nilpena fossil record allows scientists to study the processes that shaped the origins of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complex-life-emerged-1-5-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex life</a>, from the earliest evolutionary developments to the events leading to species extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-programming-in-the-earliest-animals">Genetic programming in the earliest animals</h2>



The discovery of Quaestio simpsonorum is particularly important because it sheds light on early animal development.&nbsp;



Evans noted that determining the gene expressions needed to build these forms provides a new method for evaluating the mechanisms responsible for the beginnings of complex life on this planet.



The left-right asymmetry exhibited by Quaestio is mirrored in modern animals, suggesting that the same genetic programming has been at work for over half a billion years.



This finding is not only a major breakthrough in understanding early evolutionary processes but also provides a unique window into life during the Ediacaran period.&nbsp;



The team believes that studying these ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> will continue to yield new insights into how complex life evolved and adapted on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-growing-legacy-and-ongoing-excavations">A growing legacy and ongoing excavations</h2>



Nilpena Ediacara National Park, which opened to the public in 2023, is in the process of being recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.&nbsp;



This recognition is largely due to the work and dedication of Mary Lou Simpson and Antony Simpson, founders of the <a href="https://ediacarafoundation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders Ranges Ediacara Foundation</a>. The discovery of Quaestio simpsonorum, named in their honor, is one of many exciting finds that have emerged from the park’s 150,000-acre fossil beds.



Although researchers have been studying this area for decades, new discoveries continue to be made.&nbsp;



“We’re still finding new things every time we dig,” Hughes said. This park, one of the world’s earliest ecosystems, continues to astonish scientists with its rich and diverse fossil record.&nbsp;



These ancient discoveries offer invaluable insights into the earliest chapters of animal evolution and continue to fuel the quest to understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-origins-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">origins of life</a> on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ede.12491" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution &amp; Development</a>.



Image Credit: Walker Weyland



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500-million-year-old purple blob may be Earth's earliest animal

In the vast, arid landscape of South Australia’s outback, a...

A team of Australian researchers has identified a new species of extinct sawfly from an exceptionally well-preserved fossil found in central New South Wales (NSW). 



This fossil, estimated to be between 11 and 16 million years old from the Miocene Period, is the first of its kind discovered in Australia and only the second globally.&nbsp;



The find was made in 2018 by a group of paleontologists exploring McGraths Flat, a fossil-rich site that has since yielded numerous other detailed fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-sawflies">What are sawflies?</h2>



Despite their name, sawflies belong to the wasp family rather than the fly family. In Australia, spitfires are the most familiar group of sawflies.&nbsp;



The name “sawfly” comes from their saw-like ovipositor, which they use to lay eggs. While they might be mistaken for flies, they differ due to their lack of a characteristic “wasp waist.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-new-sawfly-species">Naming new sawfly species</h2>



With approval from the Mudgee Local Aboriginal Land Council, the research team named the new species Baladi warru using Wiradjuri words. “Baladi” translates to “saw” and “warru” means “wasp,” a name that honors the Traditional Owners of the land where the fossil was discovered.



The research team, which included scientists from <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a>, the <a href="https://www.canberra.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Canberra</a>, the Australian Museum, and the Queensland Museum, studied the fossil’s wing venation and other preserved features. 



The analysis allowed them to determine its place in the scientific classification of sawflies, describing it as a new species.&nbsp;



“We looked at the fossil and its morphology and then put this information together with molecular and morphological data from a wide sample of current sawfly species. This helped us decipher the fossil's placement in the sawfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammalian-tree-of-life-traces-evolution-of-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree of life</a>,” explained lead author Juanita Rodriguez, a research scientist at CSIRO.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-sawfly-origins">Tracing sawfly origins</h2>



The study of this fossil provided critical insights into the evolutionary history of sawflies. Using the fossil’s age and position within the broader sawfly lineage, the researchers concluded that sawflies originated during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a> Period, about 100 million years ago. 



This timeline indicates that their ancient ancestors lived on the supercontinent Gondwana, which eventually split into present-day continents. As Gondwana broke apart, sawflies spread across regions that would become Australia and South America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollen-reveals-ancient-plant-interactions">Pollen reveals ancient plant interactions</h2>



The fossilized sawfly also revealed details about ancient ecosystems. The researchers identified pollen grains on the head of the sawfly, indicating it had visited a flowering Quintinia plant before fossilization.&nbsp;



This evidence allowed the team to reconstruct interactions between species in the Miocene environment of McGraths Flat.



“When we examined the fossil, we identified pollen grains on the sawfly's head which revealed it had visited a flowering Quintinia plant. This helped our team trace complex species interactions in the palaeoenvironment of McGraths Flat,” Rodriguez said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sawfly-diet-and-adaptations">Sawfly diet and adaptations</h2>



This fossil discovery also sheds light on the feeding habits and adaptability of ancient sawflies.&nbsp;



“This find has helped us in understanding the incredible ability of sawflies to feed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-milkweed-beetle-safely-feed-on-a-toxic-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxic plants</a>,” said co-author Michael Frese, a paleontologist at the University of Canberra. 



“They eat the leaves of Myrtaceae - a family of woody plants that includes eucalypts - because they have mouthparts with which they can separate toxic oils or a chemical detoxification system inside their gut when feeding on myrtaceous leaves. This enables the larvae, sometimes called spitfires, to use the oils as a defensive weapon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-past-and-present-ecosystems">Linking past and present ecosystems</h2>



Though Baladi warru has been extinct for millions of years, its discovery provides valuable insights into the evolutionary history of sawflies and their role as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>. 



This ancient species helps explain how sawflies adapted to various environments and dietary sources over time, informing current understandings of their distribution across Australia and the Americas.



“In terms of the bigger picture, our work is helping researchers make sense of their current distribution across Australia and the Americas,” said Frese.&nbsp;



“Although this particular species, Baladi warru, has been extinct for millions of years, it provides information on native pollinators so we can understand their evolution and impact in the present.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/syen.12653" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Systematic Entomology.</a>



.



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Extinct sawfly reveals how insects have co-evolved with plants

A team of Australian researchers has identified a new species...

Reef fish are vital in maintaining the resilience of coral reefs. A new study from the University of Oxford sheds light on the essential role of reef fish and the factors affecting their abundance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-connectivity-and-fish-abundance">Ocean connectivity and fish abundance</h2>



The Oxford team has discovered that oceanographic connectivity is a significant determinant of fish abundance across the Western Indian Ocean (WIO).



Oceanographic connectivity is the invisible thread that weaves the movement and exchange of water between different parts of the ocean.



According to the researchers, the distribution and abundance of herbivorous reef fish groups, in particular, are strongly impacted by this ocean connectivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herbivorous-reef-fish-are-strongly-impacted">Herbivorous reef fish are strongly impacted</h2>



"It was striking that herbivorous fish - which are critical to reef resilience - were particularly strongly impacted by ocean connectivity," said Laura Warmuth, from the Department of Biology, <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



"Efficient conservation area prioritisation should include connectivity for decision making regarding marine protected area management across country borders." 



Warmuth noted that this is particularly relevant in the human-pressured WIO region, where annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-coral-bleaching-event-is-now-underway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching</a> is predicted on most coral reefs by mid-century, even under optimistic climate change scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-ocean-temperatures">Rising ocean temperatures </h2>



Ocean connectivity is not the only factor that influences reef fish distribution and abundance. The research also emphasizes the impact of fluctuating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-substantially-changing-the-seasons-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea surface temperature</a> and levels of chlorophyll.



The protection of reefs in the Western Indian Ocean is of particular importance given the heavy dependence of rapidly growing local communities on these reefs amidst the looming threat of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-fish-diversity-and-resilience">Reef fish diversity and resilience</h2>



In this intricate ecological tapestry, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-use-edna-to-measure-reef-fish-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish diversity</a> is key in sustaining the resilience of reefs. Different fish species, owing to their varied feeding patterns, provide vital services to reefs. 



For instance, some fish species feed on algae that are in competition with corals, therefore maintaining a balance in the ecosystem.



The research team formulated a metric of proportional oceanographic connectivity to simplify complex oceanographic models. With this, they could integrate this element into ecological models. 



Interestingly, the experts found that medium connectivity levels were often associated with higher fish abundances, not the high levels.



High connectivity may aid larvae dispersal but can also result in unintended consequences - stronger wave exposure or increased dispersal of pollutants or invasive species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-environmental-factors">Human activities and environmental factors</h2>



“It is really imperative that decision-makers responsible for marine planning understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-circumpolar-current-speed-increasing-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean patterns</a> and environmental factors affect reef fish across the food chain," said study co-author Professor Mike Bonsall.



"Our work emphasizes how crucial this link is between ocean currents and fish ecology for understanding the broader impact of environmental change and fishing regulations on sensitive coral reef fish systems.”



Going forward, the researchers will look more closely at the impacts of human activities, as well as how human population density and market distance impact reef fish abundance and biomass in the WIO.



The experts also aim to investigate how environmental and oceanographic factors are predicted to alter under different climate change scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-fish-and-coastal-communities">Reef fish and coastal communities</h2>



Reef fish not only play a crucial ecological role in maintaining the balance of coral reefs, but they are also a vital resource for coastal communities.



In many regions across the Western Indian Ocean, the local economy is deeply intertwined with fishing industries, which depend heavily on healthy fish populations.



However, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-destroyed-14-percent-of-the-worlds-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and human activities such as overfishing continue to threaten reef ecosystems, the decline in fish populations could have devastating economic and social consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effective-conservation-strategies">Effective conservation strategies </h2>



By understanding the complex relationship between oceanographic connectivity, fish abundance, and environmental factors, researchers can guide more effective conservation strategies that protect both reef ecosystems and the communities that depend on them.



This highlights the urgent need for international collaboration in marine management, ensuring that local fisheries and marine protected areas are designed with connectivity in mind. 



Only by safeguarding reef fish populations can we hope to preserve the ecological and economic resilience of coastal regions for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/advance-article/doi/10.1093/icesjms/fsae125/7821003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICES Journal of Marine Science.</a>



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Reef fish populations are boosted by ocean connectivity

Reef fish are vital in maintaining the resilience of coral...

The dogs we love to cuddle, play fetch with and spoil rotten may be continuously evolving. Nestled comfortably in our modern living rooms, dogs are no longer mere hunting aids or guards of our homes but cherished companions that are integral to our lives.



This change has not only transformed their nature but is also fueling a new wave of dog domestication, a novel concept shedding light on the complex dynamics of dog-human relationships.



A few decades ago, dogs were purpose-oriented animals charged with hunting, herding livestock, and offering protection. Today, the dynamics have shifted as their primary role has morphed into companionship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-living-and-dog-evolution">Modern living and dog evolution</h2>



Our fast-paced, contemporary lifestyle is largely sedentary, trading large, open spaces for urbanized environments. 



This shift in human lifestyle has extended to our pets, changing their nature and behavior. This societal evolution and our enduring desire for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dog-day-honoring-mans-best-friend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendly, tranquil pets</a> is driving what experts are calling a dramatic third wave of dog domestication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-relationships-with-dogs">Evolving relationships with dogs</h2>



This shift mirrors an uprising in oxytocin levels within dogs. Oxytocin, often referred to as the "love hormone," is a key player in social bonding. This hormone is credited for dogs' innate desire to interact with their human counterparts.



A research team from Sweden's <a href="https://liu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Linköping University</a>, led by canine experts Brian Hare and Vanessa Woods, delved deeply into understanding how our modern lifestyle has affected dogs' genetic traits.



Hare, an evolutionary-anthropology professor at Duke University, and Woods, manager of the Duke Canine Cognition Center's Puppy Kindergarten program, provide new insight into the evolving man-dog relationship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-behavior-of-dogs">Social behavior of dogs</h2>



The study involved a detailed observation of 60 golden retrievers attempting to open a treat jar. The dogs were subjected to this task twice - once after receiving oxytocin nasal spray and once after receiving a neutral saline nasal spray.



The findings suggested that dogs with a specific genetic variant of the oxytocin receptor responded stronger to the oxytocin spray. This genetic variant made them more likely to seek help from their owners.



The experiment reaffirmed that oxytocin levels influence a dog's social skills and its ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-and-human-brains-sync-up-during-eye-contact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communicate with humans</a>. 



The research emphasizes that dogs' social skills are partially genetic. Their sensitivity to oxytocin and social behavior stem from their genes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-evolving-dogs">Changes in evolving dogs</h2>



The concept of a third wave of domestication is further backed by the behavioral differences noticed in service dogs. These dogs are a far cry from the active hunters or alert guard dogs. They are trained professionals, suited to their owners' 21st-century lives due to their uniquely friendly dispositions.



Dogs previously held roles as working animals – hunting, herding, and guarding. Unlike their modern counterparts, they were conditioned to be active and alert.



However, the recent rise in urbanization and the shift to indoor living has sparked a stark contrast in canine behavior, rendering some historical traits maladaptive.



"Unlike most pet dogs, service dogs are attracted to&nbsp;strangers, even as puppies," noted the researchers. "And increasing friendliness seems to have changed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-learn-better-with-praise-and-petting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>’ biology, just as it did thousands of years ago."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-domestication-of-evolving-dogs">Domestication of evolving dogs</h2>



The journey of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interacting-with-dogs-can-ease-physical-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine domestication</a> is traced back between 40,000 and 14,000 years, starting with the first wave when humans were foragers. 



Stray wolves adapted to human settlements for a predictable food source, gradually replacing fear and aggression with fascination and attraction to humans.



The second wave of domestication began post the industrial revolution. With an increase in disposable income, the bourgeoise bred dogs for specific physical traits, reflective of their status. 



This era gave birth to most of the 200 dog breeds recognized by the American Kennel Club today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-third-wave-of-dog-domestication">Third wave of dog domestication</h2>



The key difference of the third wave of domestication is its main focus - tailoring dogs' personalities to our modern world. 



"For the happiness of dogs and their owners, humans need to breed and train more dogs like service animals, embarking on a new wave of dog domestication to help them fit into the new world we have created," noted the researchers.



To meet the needs of this evolving paradigm, breeding and training dogs akin to service animals will become increasingly important. 



It's not just about wagging tails, but forging a path that ensures we have dogs suited to the new world we have created, bringing happiness to both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-slower-helps-dogs-understand-what-humans-are-saying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs and their human caretakers</a>.



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Dogs are evolving to fit the modern lives of humans

The dogs we love to cuddle, play fetch with and...

Scientists have recently argued that a lack of access to salmon is the main driver of population decline of southern resident killer whales - also known as orcas - in the Pacific. However, a new study has found that such assumptions may in fact be wrong.



To reach these conclusions, Burak Saygili and Andrew Trites, two marine mammal scientists from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>, have consulted with sport anglers and whale-watching crews to better understand the orcas' access to chinook salmon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-decline-in-killer-whales">Mysterious decline in killer whales</h2>



Previous studies have shown that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/southern-resident-killer-whales-endangered-by-inbreeding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">southern resident killer whales</a> of the Pacific are declining, with both adult and offspring numbers dropping dramatically.



“Two populations of fish-eating killer whales (Orcinus orca) frequent the coastal waters of British Columbia where they preferentially consume Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). One of these populations, northern resident killer whales, ranges from southern British Columbia to Southeast Alaska - and has tripled to over 300 individuals since monitoring began in the early 1970s,” wrote the researchers.&nbsp;



“In contrast, the southern resident killer whale population, which inhabits the waters between southern British Columbia and California, has not experienced any sustained growth during this time. They have fluctuated between 66 and 98 individuals, and numbered 74 as of December 2023.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-killer-whales-struggling-in-the-pacific">Killer whales struggling in the Pacific</h2>



During the warmer months, southern resident killer whales swim north, and, as winter arrives, they head south again. However, they are currently struggling to survive.



Strangely, they seem to be the only marine mammal species in their ecosystem facing such problems. Other species such as harbor seals, porpoises, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-is-killing-thousands-of-seals-and-sea-lions-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea lions</a>, and different types of whales are all thriving. 



Some experts suggested that the most likely problem is a lack of access to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-unpredictable-effects-on-salmon-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salmon</a>, the orcas' main source of food. However, fishermen also looking for salmon have reported no problems capturing them and have also seen southern resident whales doing the same. 



Moreover, whale-watching crews told the scientists that they often see the endangered orcas swimming among large groups of salmon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-intense-sea-traffic-nbsp">The role of intense sea traffic&nbsp;</h2>



According to the researchers, this indicates that the orcas are having trouble catching them. And that, they suggest, could be caused by the noise made by boats, particularly since the region where they live has far more sea traffic than areas farther north where northern resident orcas are thriving.



“Studies of southern resident killer whales carrying suction cupped sound and movement tags have found the probability of killer whales capturing prey increases as salmon abundance increases, but is negatively affected by the movements and noise of nearby vessel,” the authors explained.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-fail-to-respond-to-vessel-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vessel noise</a> can mask communication between pod members and interfere with foraging and navigation - while the physical presence of vessels can reduce the foraging effort of resident killer whales.” 



According to the researchers, killer whales are more likely to encounter greater numbers of vessels in the Salish Sea than in the North Island Waters, which could mean that salmon are less accessible to southern residents than to northern residents despite there being a higher abundance of Chinook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-salmon-availability">Seasonal salmon availability</h2>



Another cause could be that the southern resident orcas have trouble eating at different times of the year. For instance, while they may find enough salmon during summers, the situation may be completely different in the spring. This could explain why one calf was found to have starved to death this spring.



“Contrary to expectations, we found that the areal densities of prey (large salmon) available to killer whales were higher in the southern habitat. Our findings suggest that southern resident killer whales are no more food limited during late summer than northern resident killer whales,” noted the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This implies that the difference in growth rates of the two populations is either due to other factors (e.g., inbreeding, disturbance, contaminants, competition) or that southern resident killer whales are experiencing a food shortage beyond the Salish Sea during winter or spring.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311388" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



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Why are killer whales struggling to survive in the Pacific?

Scientists have recently argued that a lack of access to...

In a recent study, researchers have revealed some intriguing insights into feline cognition and language comprehension. The study shows that cats may be capable of associating certain human words with images.



So, how did this revelation come about? The scientists set up an experiment with the help of 31 adult house cats. The aim of this particular activity was to assess whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-mourn-the-loss-of-other-pets-similar-to-human-grief/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a> could connect a spoken word to an image on a screen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-connecting-to-words">Cats connecting to words</h2>



Each cat was exposed to a simple word and image association test, inspired by similar tests designed to unravel word comprehension in human infants.



During the test, the cats were treated to short animations accompanied by nonsense words. 



Each cat viewed two animations, one associated with the word "keraru" and the other with "parumo." The cycle of videos followed a repetitive pattern until our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-use-nearly-300-facial-expressions-to-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cat</a> participants decided to peel their eyes away from the spectacle.



After an appropriate break, the cats were once again presented with the same animations. But this time, the associated words were reversed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-observing-words-on-a-screen">Cats observing words on a screen</h2>



While the cats were watching the videos, the researchers were busy observing the cats and their reactions. The scientists found that the cats stared for longer at the screen when they heard the reversed words compared to the original pairing.



Some feline participants even showed signs of pupil dilation, a classic sign of confusion and intensified focus. 



These reactions suggested that the cats were trying to make sense of this change, in essence confirming that they had associated the initial words with the corresponding images.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-cats-understand-human-words">Do cats understand human words?</h2>



This fascinating research was conducted under the guidance of the <a href="https://www.azabu-u.ac.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Azabu University</a>'s diligent animal scientist team.



The study builds upon earlier research that suggested cats could discern when humans called their names, and even recognize photos of familiar people.



This new insight, however, stretches our understanding of feline comprehension capabilities. Believe it or not, it seems that our cats might be catching onto much of what we say to them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



What does this mean for you and your cat? Well, it certainly adds <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-cat-people-really-more-crazy-than-dog-lovers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depth to your bond</a>. The fact that our furry pals may associate words with objects in their surroundings has profound implications.



It could enhance the way we interact with our pets, paving the way for further research in pet communication and ultimately fostering stronger human-pet relationships.



But, it's not just about having more meaningful heart-to-hearts with your feline friend. This discovery could also help to advance our understanding of animal cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possibilities-and-practical-applications">Possibilities and practical applications</h2>



The newfound insights into feline cognition open up intriguing possibilities for practical applications. 



For pet owners, this research provides a foundation for developing more engaging and effective methods of communication with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/would-you-trust-a-robot-to-look-after-your-cat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feline companions</a>. 



By leveraging the understanding that cats can associate words with objects, training programs could be designed to facilitate better cooperation during routine activities such as feeding, grooming, and even medical treatment.



Additionally, this knowledge could aid in creating more enriching environments for cats in shelters, enhancing their well-being while awaiting adoption. 



As we explore deeper into this field, the potential applications for both domestic and professional settings become increasingly vast, inviting a future where human-animal interaction is more harmonious and rewarding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research </h2>



While cats have been the focal point of this study, the implications extend beyond our feline friends. This research paves the way for similar investigations in other domestic animals, potentially reshaping how we perceive and communicate with a variety of species. 



If dogs, birds, or even ferrets demonstrate similar associative capabilities, we could witness a paradigm shift in our approach to animal training and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-have-a-better-quality-of-life-if-you-play-with-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">care</a>.



Such findings would not only revolutionize pet ownership for millions but would also enrich our understanding of animal behavior and intelligence.



While more exploration into this area of research is required, one thing is for sure: cats are not just passive observers in our homes. They may be connected to us in deeper ways than we ever imagined.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-74006-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Cats can associate human words with images

In a recent study, researchers have revealed some intriguing insights...

Deep in the tropics where sunlight filters through the leafy canopy above, the brain of an extraordinary butterfly is puzzling scientists. It's the Heliconius butterfly, a species that not only indulges in nectar but has a refined taste for pollen too.



This peculiar feeding habit has sparked a series of fascinating studies. The findings were recently published in the journal Current Biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-with-a-sharp-brain">Butterfly with a sharp brain</h2>



Who would think a butterfly, a creature so tiny and seemingly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-butterfly-and-hummingbird-day-celebrating-the-beauty-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">delicate</a>, would possess cognitive abilities that support complex spatial learning and memory retention?



We're talking about a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly</a> not much bigger than a human thumb, yet capable of remembering where its food sources are and adeptly navigating its way to them.



This ability, researchers believe, is intricately tied to the Heliconius butterfly's unusually developed brain structure known as the mushroom bodies. This brain structure is responsible for learning and memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-butterfly-brain">The butterfly brain</h2>



Study lead author Dr. Max Farnworth is a senior research associate in the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Biological Sciences</a> at the University of Bristol.



"There is huge interest in how bigger brains may support enhanced cognition, behavioral precision or flexibility. But during brain expansion, it's often difficult to disentangle effects of increases in overall size from changes in internal structure," explained Dr. Farnworth. 



To unravel this complex twist, the research team meticulously examined the changes that unfolded in this butterfly's neural circuits.



These circuits, much like those found in an electrical system, are composed of cells - the Kenyon cells - that connect in distinct patterns to create a functioning network.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosaic-brain-evolution">Mosaic brain evolution</h2>



The investigation has revealed an unusual growth pattern in these Kenyon cells. Unlike uniform growth in line with the brain's expansion, these cells have grown at different rates, creating a mosaic of sizes within the brain structure.



This phenomenon, aptly called mosaic brain evolution, paints a vivid picture of a brain's internal landscape that’s continually changing, with some areas growing while others stay the same.



"We predict that because we see these mosaic patterns of neural changes, these will relate to specific shifts in behavioral performance - in line with the range of learning experiments which show that Heliconius outperform their closest relatives in only very specific contexts, such as long-term visual memory and pattern learning," said Dr. Farnworth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-and-planning-skills">Memory and planning skills</h2>



To optimize their pollen diet, Heliconius butterflies have evolved a unique foraging pattern. Instead of fluttering aimlessly, they zip along fixed routes between floral resources, much like following a bus route. 



Yes - butterflies on a bus route. This unexpected behavior requires planning and memory, so it's no surprise that the brain circuits underpinning these skills are the hot topic of the study on Heliconius butterflies.



"Rather than having a random route of foraging, these butterflies apparently choose fixed routes between floral resources - akin to a bus route," said study co-author Dr. Stephen Montgomery. 



"The planning and memory processes needed for this behavior are fulfilled by the assemblies of neurons inside the mushroom bodies, hence why we're fascinated by the internal circuitry throughout."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-butterfly-brain">Implications of the butterfly brain</h2>



The story of the Heliconius butterfly adds intriguing depth to our understanding of evolution and cognitive development in small-brained species. 



Insights gained from these butterflies challenge traditional assumptions regarding the correlation between brain size and cognitive capabilities across species. 



Despite their small statures, the intricate brain structures of Heliconius showcase immense cognitive prowess, suggesting that evolutionary pressures have profoundly influenced their neural development to optimize for specific ecological challenges. 



This raises questions about the adaptive value of these cognitive traits and how they might vary among Heliconius species spread across diverse environments. 



Such comparative studies between different species or even colonies of Heliconius can shed light on the evolutionary mechanisms driving brain complexity and its connection to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptive behaviors</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The discoveries surrounding the Heliconius butterfly's neurological and behavioral adaptations present an exciting avenue for future research endeavors. 



A key area of interest lies in the potential genetic underpinnings that contribute to the unique development of the butterfly's brain. Further genetic and molecular analyses could provide a comprehensive understanding of how specific genetic expressions are linked to the observed cognitive feats. 



Additionally, advances in neuroimaging and electrophysiological techniques open new possibilities for tracing neural activity in real-time, offering a more dynamic understanding of cognitive processing during foraging activities. 



These future studies not only promise to unveil the mysteries behind the Heliconius butterfly's remarkable capabilities but also hold broader implications for the field of neurobiology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-investigation-of-the-butterfly-brain">Further investigation of the butterfly brain</h2>



With this study adding significantly to our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-create-silk-seatbelts-to-strap-in-for-metamorphosis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive innovation</a> in the neural circuits, the research team is set to delve further into the butterfly brain, exploring beyond the memory centers and mapping the brain at an even higher resolution.



"I was really fascinated by the fact that we see such high degrees of conservation in brain anatomy and evolution, but then very prominent but distinct changes," said Dr. Farnworth.



"This is a really fascinating and beautiful example of a layer of biodiversity we don't usually see, the diversity of brain and sensory systems, and the ways in which animals are processing and using the information provided by the environment around them," concluded Dr. Montgomery.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01337-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Extraordinary memory skills discovered in a small-brained butterfly

Deep in the tropics where sunlight filters through the leafy...

An incredible adventure under the volcanic ridges off South America has led to an amazing discovery. A variety of creatures, from tiny worms and snails to giant tubeworms and even more surprising life forms, are thriving in the dark waters of hydrothermal vents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-beneath-hydrothermal-vents">Life beneath hydrothermal vents</h2>



Hydrothermal vents, the source of these hot springs, have long been the subject of research and study. 



These underwater chimneys of heat and energy are hubs of activity, attracting a wide variety of fauna that thrives in their immediate vicinity.



It was largely thought that the only life forms that could survive beneath these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-hydrothermal-vents-provide-clues-about-the-origin-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vents</a> would be microbes and viruses. 



However, our understanding of these habitats took an about-turn when a curious underwater robot, in the summer of last year, disturbed volcanic slabs to reveal a surprisingly diverse ecosystem beneath.



“This was totally unexpected,” said study co-author Sabine Gollner with the <a href="https://www.nioz.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unseen-ecosystem">Unseen ecosystem</h2>



Researchers propose that young creatures from the surface could be utilizing these vents for travel, eventually settling in the depths, creating a dynamic and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-new-hydrothermal-vents-discovered-in-the-pacific-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interconnected ecosystem</a>. 



Future exploration will hopefully shed more light on whether similar colonies of animal life exist beneath other hydrothermal vents across the globe.



“This is an initial discovery that’s really promising,” said Jason Sylvan, a microbiologist at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a> who was not involved with the research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-clusters-around-hydrothermal-vents">Life clusters around hydrothermal vents</h2>



The expedition lasted 30 days and took place on the research vessel "Falkor (too)" from the Schmidt Ocean Institute. 



The team set out on an incredible adventure to explore an undersea volcano that’s part of the East Pacific Rise, just off the coast of Central America.



This volcanic ridge, a product of the meeting of tectonic plates on the Pacific seabed, is peppered with hydrothermal vents. 



A variety of unique sea life clusters around these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/knipovich-ridge-new-hydrothermal-field-arctic-intense-geological-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vents</a>, known to spew out elements essential for their survival at such extreme depths.



Many of these areas beneath the vents, however, have remained largely unexplored until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-under-rocks">Life under rocks</h2>



Using a remotely operated vehicle, SuBastian, the researchers were able to flip over portions of the seafloor, revealing caves connected to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-giant-riftia-tubeworms-survive-on-deep-sea-hydrothermal-vents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrothermal vents</a>. 



These caves were teeming with life, including giant tube worms and other fascinating creatures. 



The discovery suggests a strong connection and interaction between the ecosystems of the seafloor and its underworld, allowing for the possibility of life thriving in unexpected places beneath the ocean floor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underworld-of-the-seafloor">"Underworld" of the seafloor</h2>



Hydrothermal vents have been an area of interest for scientists for the past 50 years, with unique ecosystems developing around these heat sources.



It has been observed that shifting tectonic plates give rise to new hydrothermal vents over time, and certain foundational seafloor animals like tube worms have been known to colonize these new vents within a few years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-earth-s-lifeforms">New perspective on Earth's lifeforms</h2>



This discovery provides a new perspective on deep-sea hydrothermal vents and their endemic animal life. 



It suggests a symbiotic relationship between the vent animals above and below the surface, reliant on the vent fluid from beneath and oxygen in the seawater from above.



The discovery of life in this previously unknown sub-habitat suggests that the ocean depths and its floor may host many more organisms than documented earlier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-hydrothermal-life-studies">Next steps in hydrothermal life studies</h2>



Going forward, the team is keen on investigating the possibility of life beneath all deep-sea hydrothermal vents and exploring the extent of these underground caves.



However, extreme care must be taken when studying these delicate ecosystems. The researchers are conscious of minimizing disturbance, with the recent study only involving the lifting of six small squares of the seafloor, each measuring about 20 by 20 inches. 



There is concern that any major disruption, such as large-scale drilling or deep-sea mining, could potentially alter the course of the hydrothermal vents and disrupt the connected ecosystems, posing a threat to the life forms dwelling there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-life-under-hydrothermal-vents-is-important">Why life under hydrothermal vents is important</h2>



Hydrothermal vent ecosystems are fascinating and hold important lessons for both marine biology and the search for life beyond Earth. 



These vibrant communities thrive in extreme conditions that seem unwelcoming, pushing us to rethink what we know about where life can survive. 



One of the coolest aspects is how these habitats rely on chemosynthesis instead of photosynthesis, using chemical energy from minerals released by the vents. 



This unique survival strategy not only captivates marine ecologists but also sparks our imagination about the possibility of life on other planets, where sunlight might be hard to come by, but chemical energy could be plentiful.



This research not only sheds light on the mysterious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ringwoodite-mineral-confirms-vast-ocean-exists-400-miles-under-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underworld of the ocean</a> but also highlights the importance of attentive and responsible exploration. It is a testimony to the fact that there is still much to be learned about our planet, often in the places we least expect.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52631-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Strange creatures found living under the seafloor near hydrothermal vents

An incredible adventure under the volcanic ridges off South America...

A recent study on aquaculture reveals that the journey from ocean to oven might be more complex and increasingly unsustainable.



Do you ever wonder how salmon or trout makes it to your dinner plate? While you might be thinking of a quaint fishing boat bobbing peacefully in the ocean, the reality could be quite different.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-side-of-aquaculture">Hidden side of aquaculture</h2>



The study reveals that our global aquaculture industry, commonly known as fish farming, potentially relies on much more wild-caught fish than we had previously anticipated. 



This revelation shakes the long-standing belief of a sustainable aquaculture industry and proposes a range of plausible estimates on its actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquaculture-now-produces-more-food-than-wild-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact on wild fish</a> populations.



The new insights are the result of rigorous research conducted by an international team of scientists from the University of Miami <a href="https://www.earth.miami.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science</a>, Oceana, and New York University.



The team has reconsidered the "fish-in:fish-out" (FI:FO) ratio – a significant metric used to judge the efficiency and sustainability of aquaculture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ratio-of-wild-caught-fish">Ratio of wild-caught fish</h2>



The study suggests that the ratio of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/90-percent-of-the-worlds-aquaculture-faces-substantial-risk-from-human-induced-environmental-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild-caught fish</a> used as input to farmed fish yielded as output is somewhere between 27% and 307% higher than previous estimates.



This could mean that for every farmed fish reaching our tables, up to 1.78 wild fish might have been used in the process, a far cry from the earlier estimate of only 0.28. Particularly for carnivorous farmed species like salmon, trout, and eel, the wild fish used might be double the farmed fish produced.



"Our study reveals that the aquaculture industry relies more heavily on wild fish extraction than previous research has suggested,” said lead author Spencer Roberts, a doctoral student at the Rosenstiel School in the Department of Environmental Science and Policy.



“This demonstrates the scale at which aquaculture could be impacting marine ecosystems."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlooked-reliance-on-wild-fish">Overlooked reliance on wild fish </h2>



The research team dug deep and brought to light previously overlooked sources of wild fish in aquaculture feed, such as trimmings and by-products from wild-caught fish. 



The experts also factored in collateral fishing mortality, like the practice of "slipping" where unwanted catch is released, but most don't survive.



Jennifer Jacquet is a co-author of the study and a professor in the Department of Environmental Science and Policy at the Rosenstiel School.



"This research shows that the assumptions we have made about carnivorous aquaculture have been too optimistic, and is another reason to think strategically about the kinds of aquatic species it makes the most sense to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-gets-a-boost-from-genomics-roadmap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass produce</a>,” said Professor Jacquet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-offs-in-the-aquaculture-industry">Trade-offs in the aquaculture industry </h2>



The study also casts light on the environmental trade-offs made in attempts to reduce wild fish use in aquaculture feed. The decline in wild fish use would require a five-fold increase in the use of terrestrial crops instead. 



The study ominously suggests that the aquaculture industry's rapidly increasing reliance on by-products and trimmings hasn't phased out the capture and use of whole wild fish for feed.



Dr. Patricia Majluf is a senior scientist with <a href="https://oceana.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oceana</a> in Peru, home to the world's largest fishmeal fishery.



"The offshore aquaculture industry is growing so rapidly that the wild-caught fish are not being replaced in their feed. Instead, other feed sources are merely supplementing wild fish use," explained Dr. Majluf.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dependency-of-aquaculture-on-wild-fish">Dependency of aquaculture on wild fish</h2>



The research exposes the need to reevaluate current aquaculture practices under the lens of sustainability.



It's becoming increasingly clear that merely supplementing diets with terrestrial crops or leveraging by-products will not suffice in mitigating the environmental impacts highlighted by this research. 



An interdisciplinary approach involving marine biologists, ecologists, and economists could guide the development of innovative solutions to reduce dependency on wild fish. 



We must explore alternatives not only for feed but for the aquaculture production process as a whole to strike a balance between meeting global food demands and preserving marine ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-seafood-strategies">Sustainable seafood strategies </h2>



As aquaculture remains a critical component of global food security, we must turn our attention towards pioneering technology and sustainable methodologies.



Industry leaders are called to invest in research and development aiming at alternative protein sources, such as insect-based feeds or lab-grown alternatives, which show promise in reducing reliance on wild fish. 



Meanwhile, consumer awareness regarding sustainable seafood choices can drive demand for responsibly farmed species.



The future of aquaculture depends on our collective commitment to innovate and comprehensive policies to promote sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-transparency-and-accountability">Need for transparency and accountability</h2>



This eye-opening study raises important questions for policy-makers, investors, and consumers alike. 



The need for comprehensive and transparent reporting of feed ingredients in the aquaculture industry has never been more important.



"It's crucial that we have a more complete understanding of the industry's impact on both marine and terrestrial ecosystems and reduce these uncertainties,” said study co-author Professor Matthew Hayek of New York University.



As our global demand for seafood continues to balloon, these findings emphasize the urgent need for more transparency in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-illuminates-fish-interactions-in-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> farming.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn9698" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Aquaculture impacts wild fish much more than we thought

A recent study on aquaculture reveals that the journey from...

A recent revelation spells trouble for bumblebees, or more specifically, for the queens of the hive. Researchers have come across a worrying trend: bumblebee queens seem to prefer soil infested with pesticides for their hibernation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unpredictable-bumblebee-behavior">Unpredictable bumblebee behavior </h2>



The research was led by Dr. Nigel Raine and Dr. Sabrina Rondeau from the <a href="https://www.uoguelph.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Guelph</a>.



"Some bee behaviors are not well understood, and we wanted to see if these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-bumblebees-hold-their-breath-and-survive-underwater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebee queens</a> exhibited avoidance behavior that might reduce their risk of harm from&nbsp;pesticide exposure&nbsp;in the field. But these results were alarming," said Dr. Raine.



The researchers embarked on a field experiment to decipher this puzzling behavior. Newly emerged queens of a common bumblebee, Bombus impatiens, were given the freedom to flit around in outdoor enclosures, mate, and select their hibernation ground.



The choice? It was between pesticide-free soil and soil swimming in a cocktail of five common pesticides. 



The scientists scoured the soils for hibernating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-is-buzzing-off-bumblebee-senses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">queens</a>. They found that the bees mostly avoided the pesticide-free soil. In fact, the queens were about twice as likely to be drawn to the soil the was polluted with pesticides. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumblebee-preference-for-contaminated-soil">Bumblebee preference for contaminated soil</h2>



The preference of bumblebees for pesticide-laden soil throws light on a harsh reality that could lead to dire consequences. 



While most bees in the study survived, potential impacts on the colony have been highlighted in the study.



The causes for this aberration are still not clear. However, one thing stands out like a sore thumb - this pattern could significantly affect the health of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-are-overheating-bumblebee-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these essential pollinators</a>.



"We were not expecting this result," said Dr. Rondeau. "It suggests that queens could actually prefer these contaminated soils, though we don't yet fully understand why."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-driving-this-soil-preference">What is driving this soil preference?</h2>



The silver lining? Well, there is some speculation around why the queens might find pesticide-soaked soil more appealing.



For instance, could the fungicides in the pesticide mix be killing off harmful soil fungi and nematodes, making the soil safer for the queens? 



Or are these queens, like connoisseurs of fine wine, developing a taste for pesticide-infested soil due to prior exposure?



Nothing can be said with absolute certainty, and further research is urgently needed. These new findings could cause a significant shift in how pesticides are used and managed in our agricultural fields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effective-solutions-for-bumblebee-conservation">Effective solutions for bumblebee conservation </h2>



This unexpected behavior of bumblebee queens highlights the need for innovative approaches in bumblebee conservation efforts. 



Conservationists and researchers must now explore mitigation strategies that can offset the detrimental impacts of pesticide preference. 



One potential avenue might include creating designated pesticide-free habitats that appeal to the nesting instincts of the queens, thereby providing safer environments for their hibernation. 



Additionally, public education campaigns could help raise awareness about the importance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-rusty-patched-bumblebee-faces-extinction-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> and the potential risks they face due to current agricultural practices. 



Collaboration between scientists, farmers, and policymakers will be critical in crafting effective solutions, ensuring that bumblebees continue to thrive and contribute to the biodiversity and productivity of natural ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safer-soil-for-bumblebees">Safer soil for bumblebees</h2>



Let's face it. Pesticides have been a major culprit contributing to the decline of insects worldwide. They not only cause fatalities but can impair the movement of bees and their ability to feed on nectar and pollen. This spells bad news for our food system.



The big question now is whether the bumblebee queens would be drawn towards contaminated soil in larger spaces as they were in the controlled experiments. Further studies are crucial to determine whether these findings hold true for other bee species.



One thing is clear though - the current assessments of pesticide risks do not consider soil as a significant route of exposure for bees.



"As we move forward, it's crucial to investigate how agricultural practices - like the types of pesticides used, the methods of application and the management of vegetation - impact the accumulation of pesticide residues in soils where queens are likely to hibernate," said Dr. Rondeau.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969724066907?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



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Bumblebee queens have an odd preference for contaminated soil

A recent revelation spells trouble for bumblebees, or more specifically,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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